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\n
1. Introduction
\n
One of the most widespread simulation software is MathWorks MATLAB/Simulink package [1]. The MathWorks MATLAB allows the user to analyze complex static systems that are to be modeled through “numeric computation and visualization.” Also, Simulink allows systems to be simulated dynamically and allows a controller to be modeled with the aid of block diagrams. Moreover, the user is allowed to concentrate on the model, rather than its implementation [2].
\n
The simulation of power engineering applications conventionally can be a challenge for both undergraduate and postgraduate levels [1]. To easy implementation for several kinds of power structure and control structures of power engineering applications, some simulators such as MATLAB/(Simulink and coding) to be necessary—especially for students—to develop and test various circuits and controllers for power engineering, which include all branches in power engineering area [3]. This book includes some chapters to show how to simulate and work with MATLAB software for several MATLAB professional applications of power system engineering. Moreover, this book presents some techniques to simulate power matters in an easy way using the related toolbox existing in the MATLAB/Simulink and teach the simulation in the mentioned area.
\n
\n
\n
2. Summary of second chapter
\n
To facilitate the mentioned goals in Introduction Section, Chapter 2 written by Alexandru Băloi and Adrian Pană proposes a method for network harmonic impedance determination, practically. The network harmonic impedance has been used as a tool to predict the harmonic condition amplifications in the case of reactive power compensation by capacitor banks [4]. Based on the measured network harmonic impedance, a quick method has been developed to anticipate the harmonic voltage and current amplifications. Amplification factors have been calculated depending on the equivalent harmonic impedance of the network seen in the compensation bus [5]. A distribution network containing harmonics has been modeled, and then harmonic impedance has been determined in different operating conditions using MATLAB Simulink. Using the measured values and the capacitive reactance of the capacitor bank, the amplification of the harmonic voltages and currents has been estimated by calculus [6, 7]. To validate the method, the obtained results have been compared with the values obtained by simulation after the connection of the capacitor bank to the network. The chapter has proved that the network harmonic impedance is a useful tool to estimate the harmonic amplification caused by power factor correction using shunt capacitor banks.
\n
\n
\n
3. Summary of third chapter
\n
The mentioned goals are followed by Chapter 3, where Anbarasi Jebaselvi and Meenakshi present modeling, simulation and analysis of permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG)-based wind energy conversion systems for both open- and closed-loop control strategy [8, 9]. Since the choice of wind turbine generator and optimum power from it can be achieved by matching the load and power lines close to each other [10], maximum power from wind using PMSG has been made possible by using intelligent controllers, namely fuzzy logic controllers. As PMSG suffers from strong decay of magnetic field, which tends to reduce the generated voltage at their stator terminals drastically with load, hence not much suitable for isolated operation and thus the whole analysis has been done with grid connected network. The other major limitation includes loss of flexibility in field flux control, and thus intelligent technique like fuzzy logic mechanism has been attempted along with Space Vector Modulation (SVM) to have a smooth control of field flux and load power management in PMSG. MATLAB Simulink has been used to simulate and analyze the PMSG-based wind energy conversion systems for both open- and closed-loop control strategies [11]. It is confirmed that sufficient revenue could be generated from the proposed model by implementing the same in real-time.
\n
\n
\n
4. Summary of forth chapter
\n
To follow the mentioned goals in Introduction Section, Chapter 4, Chiemela, Onunka and Evans Eshiemogie, Ojo develop and implement a wind-induced high voltage transmission line vibration using finite element method (FEM) in MATLAB to investigate wind-induced vibration. The chapter has focused toward the development of a finite element method and its implementation on the MATLAB software. The developed finite element method (FEM) has been done based on the concept of the simply supported beam model and it has been used in modeling the transverse vibration of power line conductors [12]. First, the FEM model has been used to develop the equation of motion of the power line conductor. In addition, dampers, conditions for damping, and free- and forced vibrations of the overhead conductor have been considered in the FEM model [13]. Wind-induced experiments have been conducted in the laboratory using an actual overhead power conductor. The developed models have been simulated in the MATLAB computing environment. The results from the MATLAB simulation, finite element, and experimental recordings have been compared in order to determine the accuracy of the models and evaluate the efficacy of models simulated in MATLAB and developed using the FEM. Finally, the developed FEM has been used as the means to verify the effect of varying the conductor axial tension on the natural frequencies of the conductors.
\n
\n\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62637.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62637.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62637",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62637",totalDownloads:1400,totalViews:597,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:41,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"June 26th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 19th 2018",dateFinished:"July 16th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62637",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62637",book:{id:"6226",slug:"matlab-professional-applications-in-power-system"},signatures:"Ali Saghafinia",authors:[{id:"174893",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Saghafinia",fullName:"Ali Saghafinia",slug:"ali-saghafinia",email:"saghafi_ali@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/174893/images/system/174893.jpg",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Summary of second chapter",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Summary of third chapter",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Summary of forth chapter",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nSaghafinia A, Ping HW, Uddin MN, Amindoust A. Teaching of simulation an adjustable speed drive of induction motor using MATLAB/Simulink in advanced electrical machine laboratory. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2013;103:912-921\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nSaghafinia A, Amindoust A. Development of fuzzy applications for high performance induction motor drive. In: Induction Motors-Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech; 2015\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nMathWorks. SIMULINK for Technical Computing. 2015. Avaliable from: http://www.mathworks.com\n\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nHui J, Yang H, Lin S, Ye M. Assessing utility harmonic impedance based on the covariance characteristic of random vectors. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. 2010;25:1778-1786\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nWu C-J, Chiang J-C, Yen S-S, Liao C-J, Yang J-S, Guo T-Y. Investigation and mitigation of harmonic amplification problems caused by single-tuned filters. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. 1998;13:800-806\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nXu W, Ahmed EE, Zhang X, Liu X. Measurement of network harmonic impedances: Practical implementation issues and their solutions. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. 2002;17:210-216\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nXu W, Ahmed E, Zhang X, Liu X. Measurement of network harmonic impedences: Practical implementation issues and their solutions. IEEE Power Engineering Review. 2001;21:63\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nShariatpanah H, Fadaeinedjad R, Rashidinejad M. A new model for PMSG-based wind turbine with yaw control. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 2013;28:929-937\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nMelício R, Mendes VM, Catalão JP. Wind turbines with permanent magnet synchronous generator and full-power converters: modelling, control and simulation. In: Wind Turbines. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech; 2011\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nChinchilla M, Arnaltes S, Burgos JC. Control of permanent-magnet generators applied to variable-speed wind-energy systems connected to the grid. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 2006;21:130-135\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nHarrabi N, Souissi M, Aitouche A, Chabaane M. Intelligent control of wind conversion system based on PMSG using TS fuzzy scheme. International Journal of Renewable Energy Research. 2015;5:952-960\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nLalonde S, Guilbault R, Langlois S. Numerical analysis of ACSR conductor–clamp systems undergoing wind-induced cyclic loads. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. 2018;33:1518-1526\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nXie T, Peng Z, Zhou Z. Study on optimization of anti-corona properties of 330-kV dampers. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. 2015;30:1827-1832\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ali Saghafinia",address:"saghafi_ali@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Electrical Engineering, Majlesi Branch, Islamic Azad University, Majlesi, Iran
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1. Introduction
The dream of getting to the stars is at least as old as it has been understood that the stars are Sun-like objects at vast distances. A dream because of the vast distances; 4 light years being the distance to the nearest star. No technology that is widely accepted is presently known that will get us to the stars in some preferably small fraction of a human lifetime. The mainstays of current space access are chemical rockets for heavy lift and electric propulsion for in-space propulsion. They both require the transport of propellant that is accelerated as it is ejected from the spacecraft to produce thrust. Much less than getting to the nearest stars, even getting to the outer Solar System quickly requires prohibitive amounts of propellant. This problem has led to a number of speculative solution suggestions within well understood physics – none of them convincingly practicable.
Some years ago, I pointed out that were Einstein correct in claiming that inertia is an inductive gravitational phenomenon, as he asserted in his general relativity theory, then one could predict that masses of bodies with changing internal energies subjected to proper accelerations should transiently change their rest masses by much larger amounts than the simple E/c2 contribution due to the changing internal energy, owing to its “amplification” by the interaction with local gravitational field due to distant matter that Einstein identified, following Mach, as the cause of inertia. These rest mass fluctuations are “Mach effects”. Laid out in a series of research papers over the years, and in 2012 this culminated in Making Starships and Stargates: the Science of Interstellar Propulsion and Absurdly Benign Wormholes [1]. Here I update the first five chapters of that work.
2. Inertia, gravity, propulsion and Mach effects
Before Einstein, it was assumed that significant gravitational effects are only produced by astrophysical scale objects. Planets. Stars. And larger mass concentrations. Gravity was not viewed as part of the solution of the propulsion problem. It was/is the propulsion problem. Aside from using the gravitational interaction with astrophysical objects as slingshot “gravity assist” encounters, this belief is still held essentially universally. Einstein’s elaboration of the principle of relativity changed this. He called his theory of gravity “general relativity” (GR), not his theory of gravity. Why? Because GR is a theory of gravity and inertia, which are coupled by the principle of relativity expressed at the most elementary level by his Equivalence Principle (EP). The EP consists of the observation that you must look out the window of a rocket ship to determine whether you are accelerating (smoothly) at one gee in deep outer space, or at rest on a launch pad on Earth. Before the EP, the principle of relativity was restricted to inertial systems. First invented by Galileo, and then codified by Newton in his laws of motion, it says that if you are moving according to the first law, you must go to a window to determine whether you are moving with respect to other objects in different inertial frames of reference. Inertia in Newtonian mechanics is a (magical) property of material objects conferred on them by their existence in absolute space. And when such objects are given (proper) accelerations by the application of external forces, absolute space springs to life to produce the force that opposes the acceleration, acting through the object on the accelerating agent. This conception of inertia is still widely believed, notwithstanding Einstein’s efforts to change it.
Einstein, with his theory of Special Relativity (SR), started the changes in the concept of inertia that are still with us today. The first was a paper in 1905 where he asked if the energy content of a body contributed to its inertial mass? [2]. The answer, of course, is the most famous equation in human history: E = mc2. The vacuum speed of light, c, is the important factor in this equation. In SR, c, is a constant with the same numerical value for all observers everywhere/when, a speed that cannot be exceeded by any observer. The fact that c is a constant means that space and time are not physically distinct and independent as they are in Newtonian mechanics. The interdependence of space and time is captured in the Lorentz transformations that take one from one inertial frame of reference to another moving with respect to the first with some non-zero velocity. His next step, taken two years later, was the Equivalence Principle (EP). About the time that Einstein was discovering the EP, his former instructor, Hermann Minkowski, was reconstructing the absolute space and time of Newton into the modern conception of relativistic spacetime. Still absolute though, as inertia therein is still a magical property of space that confers inertial mass on its material contents and springs to life to provide the force that opposes proper accelerations of the massive contents. This conception of spacetime has long carried Minkowski’s name. In a sense, it is the culmination of Newtonian physics – the last Newtonian word on space and time where gravity is treated as just another of the forces of nature akin to electricity and magnetism.
The conception of spacetime that Einstein was adumbrating in his speculation on the equivalence of inertia and gravity was motivated by Mach’s observation that local inertial frames do not rotate with respect to the “fixed stars” [cosmologically distant matter]. Mach had suggested that distant matter acts through a long-range interaction with local matter. This was fundamentally different conceptually from Minkowski’s spacetime. Einstein put down his speculations on inertia and gravity in an invited paper for an annual review of medicine in 1912: Is There a Gravitational Effect Which is Analogous to Electrodynamic Induction? [3]. In particular, he was interested in the interaction of a test mass located at the center of a spherical shell of matter when they were relatively accelerated – a situation considered by a number of relativists since the early 20th century, though recently in the context of “frame dragging”. Inductive of effects of the sort Einstein was interested in are not present in scalar theories of gravity like Newton’s; they only appear in vector and tensor theories like electrodynamics and GR. So, Einstein was reduced to fudging with his relationship between energy and mass to get the result he wanted. Namely, that the gravitational potential energy of the test particle contributes to its mass. And if the mass shell were sufficiently massive, producing a Newtonian potential inside the shell equal to the square of the vacuum speed of light, the entire mass of the test particle could be accounted for. Noting Mach in this connection, he opined, “The degree to which this conception is justified will become known when we will be fortunate enough to have come into possession of a serviceable dynamics of gravitation.”
Einstein went on to consider the gravitational force produced by relative acceleration of his test particle and mass shell, finding that the gravitational potential energy of their interaction produces a force that tends to drag the test particle with the motion of the shell proportional to the gravitational potential energy divided by c2. He did not note that were the potential roughly equal to c2, the test particle would move rigidly with the accelerating shell. And were the particle held stationary by an external force, the accelerating shell would produce the inertial reaction force felt by the agent holding the test particle in place.
The serviceable dynamics of gravitation that Einstein sought turned out to be GR, the correct field equations being found by him in November of 1915. Prediction of the anomalous advance of Mercury’s perihelion, together with Eddington’s confirmation of Einstein’s prediction of deflection of light passing close to the Sun in the 1919 solar eclipse catapulted Einstein and his theory to international popular acclaim. Shortly after the initial publication of GR, Einstein mooted his ideas about “Mach’s principle”, the assertion that inertia was due to the gravitational action of mostly matter at cosmological distances. This led to an exchange with Willem deSitter – who showed that Einstein’s field equations were consistent with several solutions thereof that were obviously inconsistent with Mach’s principle – that convinced Einstein to abandon the principle. It is now widely thought that this meant that Einstein had abandoned the idea that inertia was gravitational in origin. This is not correct. While he had abandoned the most extreme version of the principle, which requires an “action-at-a-distance” field theory, Tullio Levi-Civita had reminded him that inertia is an integral part of GR, and like gravity, satisfies the EP. Einstein retreated from full-blown Mach’s principle to what he called “the relativity of inertia”. Still a Machian conception of inertia.
Einstein advanced his ideas first in an address at Leiden in 1920 where he analogized his evolving view of spacetime to the “aether” of the turn of the century theory of electrodynamics. And then he extended his view in remarks in a series of lectures at Princeton in 1921 [4]. There he calculated the action of some nearby, “spectator” matter on a test particle of unit mass (at the origin of coordinates) in the weak field limit of GR. He found for the equations of motion of the test particle (his Eqs. 118):
ddll+σ¯v=∇σ¯+∂A∂l+∇×A×v,E1
σ¯=κ/8π∫σ/rdVo,E2
A=κ/2π∫σdx/dlr−1dVo.E3
The second and third of these equations are the expressions for the scalar (σ¯) and vector (A) potentials of the gravitational action of the spectator masses with density σ on the test particle. l is coordinate time and v is coordinate velocity of the test particle. The first equation is just Newton’s second law. After writing down these equations, Einstein noted approvingly that,
The equations of motion, (118), show now, in fact, that
The inert mass [of the test particle of unit mass] is proportional to 1 + σ, and therefore increases when ponderable masses approach the test body.
There is an inductive action of accelerated masses, of the same sign, upon the test body. This is the term dA/dl.
Although these effects are inaccessible to experiment, because κ [Newton’s constant of universal gravitation] is so small, nevertheless they certainly exist according to the general theory of relativity. We must see in them strong support for Mach’s ideas as to the relativity of all inertial interactions. If we think these ideas consistently through to the end we must expect the whole gμν-field, to be determined by the matter of the universe, and not mainly by the boundary conditions at infinity.
The way J.A. Wheeler would later, repeatedly put this was, “mass there rules inertia here”. (He used this remark as the frontispiece for his book with his former student Ignacio Ciufolini, Gravitation and Inertia in 1995 [5]).
The above quote was not Einstein’s last explicit word on gravity, inertia, and spacetime. In 1924, he again addressed these topics in a paper, “Concerning the Aether” [6]. In it he quickly asserted that by “aether” he did not mean the material aether of turn of the century electromagnetism. Rather, he meant a real, substantial, but not material entity that is spacetime, and that spacetime is the gravitational field of material sources. No material sources, no spacetime. This was his way of getting rid of the Minkowski and other metrics that de Sitter had shown to be anti-Machian. As he put it toward the end of his article:
The general theory of relativity rectified a mischief of classical dynamics. According to the latter, inertia and gravity appear as quite different, mutually independent phenomena, even though they both depend on the same quantity, mass. The theory of relativity resolved this problem by establishing the behavior of the electrically neutral point-mass by the law of the geodetic line, according to which inertial and gravitational effects are no longer considered as separate. In doing so, it attached characteristics to the aether [spacetime] which vary from point to point, determining the metric and the dynamical behavior [sic.] of material points, and determined, in their turn, by physical factors, namely the distribution of mass/energy.
That the aether of general relativity differs from those of classical mechanics and special relativity in that it is not “absolute” but determined, in its locally variable characteristics, by ponderable matter. This determination is a complete one if the universe is finite and closed.
Arguably, Einstein is the most profound physical thinker yet produced by our species. His physical intuition garnered him the only rank zero classification in Lev Landau’s ranking of physicists where Galileo, Newton, Faraday and Maxwell were only first rank. One may reasonably ask, if Einstein was convinced that GR, correctly interpreted, encompassed the gravitational induction of inertia, why today is it widely believed in the community of relativists and beyond that inertia is not gravitationally induced? That inertia is no better understood than it was in the absolute systems of Newton and Minkowski? Carl Brans. And his “spectator matter” argument.
Brans did his doctoral work at Princeton in the late 1950s. His doctoral supervisor was the noted experimentalist, Robert Dicke. After passing his qualifying exam, Dicke tasked Brans with investigating the question of as the origin of inertia in GR as Dennis Sciama had made “Mach’s principle” a central question in GR several years earlier. When Brans read Einstein’s remarks on Machian inertia in Einstein’s 1921 comments mentioned above, he noted a problem. As Brans later wrote in 1977 [7]:
Over the years, many and varied expressions of Mach’s principle have been proposed, making it one of the most elusive concepts in physics. However, it seems clear that Einstein intended to show that locally measured inertial-mass values are gravitationally coupled to the mass distribution in the universe in his theory. For convenience I repeat the first order geodesic equations given by Einstein to support his argument:
[Brans inserted here Einstein’s equations displayed above.]
… Einstein’s claim is that “The inertial mass is proportional to l+σ¯, and therefore increases when ponderable masses approach the test body.
Brans pointed out that having the masses of local objects, the test particle in this case, depend on their gravitational potential energies acquired by interaction with spectator matter must be wrong. Were it true, then the electric charge to mass ratios of elementary particles for example would depend on the presence of nearby matter. Were this true, gravity could be discriminated from accelerations without having to check for the presence of spectator matter by going to the window in a small lab and looking out – a violation of the Equivalence Principle. From this, Brans inferred that
… global, i.e., nontidal, gravitational fields are completely invisible in such local standard measurements of inertial mass, contrary to Einstein’s claim… Einstein ought to have normalized his local space-time measurements to inertial frames, in which the metric has been transformed approximately to the standard Minkowski values, and for which distant-matter contributions are not present [Emphasis added.]
This is the “coordinate condition” required by Brans’ work: that the coordinates be compatible with the assumed approximate Minkowski metric applicable in small regions of spacetime. Since the absence of gravity is presupposed for Minkowski spacetime, this amounts to the assumption that the Newtonian potential due to exterior matter in such small regions of spacetime is effectively everywhere/when equal to zero. That is, the locally measured value of the total Newtonian gravitational potential is universally zero. This certainly makes the localization of gravitational potential energy impossible in GR, a now widely accepted fact. And where there is effectively no gravity, there can be no gravitational induction of inertia. Accordingly, it would seem that the spectator matter argument makes Machian gravitationally induced inertia incompatible with general relativity.
One might think that assuming the locally measured invariance of the Newtonian gravitational potential, since it allegedly requires that it effectively be zero, deprives the potential of its physical meaning, for if it is everywhere/when measured to be the same, how can it have the variations in spacetime – gradients and time derivatives – that characterize local gravitational phenomena? Physically speaking, the answer to this question is informed by the consideration of the vacuum behavior of light. In SR, the vacuum speed of light is constant. It is measured everywhere/when to have exactly the same value by all observers. As such, it never has non-vanishing derivatives of any sort. In GR, this changes. The vacuum speed of light remains a locally measured invariant. But the vacuum speed of light measured by observers who are not local does not have the locally measured invariant value. The vacuum speed of light in the vicinity of a black hole with its strong gravity field, as measured by a distant observer where the local gravity is weak, is slower than the distant observers measurement of the value at his/her location. This is not the consequence of some material-like medium being present in the vicinity of the black hole. It is the consequence of time running more slowly in strong local gravity fields when measured by distant observers far from strong local sources of gravity. This fact about the vacuum speed of light in GR used to be called the coordinate speed of light. Since it is not an invariant, global or local, its derivatives do not vanish.
Brans’ argument led to the adoption of the coordinate condition mentioned above where gravity is effectively absent in sufficiently small regions of spacetime. But the argument actually does not require the adoption of this coordinate condition. If, however, the Newtonian gravitational potential is to have any value other than effectively zero, then it must be a locally measured invariant so that charge to mass ratios of elementary particles do not depend on local gravitational conditions to avoid violations of the EP as Brans showed. But to accommodate real local gravitational phenomena, we must assume that, like the vacuum speed of light, the Newtonian potential has varying coordinate values that are not invariant.
Since the gravitational induction of inertia depends on the presence and motions of “matter” (everything that gravitates) chiefly at cosmological distances, the obvious question is: is the needed stuff out there doing what it must do to produce inertial effects? Einstein was clever enough to know that the knowledge of cosmology in the 1920s and beyond was insufficient to make such a determination backed up with observational evidence. Friedmann and Lemaitre made initial explorations of cosmology in the ‘20s, discovering that sensible solutions of Einstein’s equations dictated expanding universes for simple models with homogeneity and isotropy of sources of the field. Their work was elaborated by Robertson and Walker shortly thereafter, leading to so-called FLRW cosmology. Modern cosmology is far better informed by observations and concomitantly more detailed and complicated – though no one has a clue as to what “dark energy” is, it certainly exists. For our purposes, however, the features of cosmology needed to address the gravitational induction of inertia are already present in FLRW cosmology, for recent observations do not call into question the assumptions of homogeneity and isotropy. And a simple argument made by Dennis Sciama in 1953 [8] makes possible knowledge of the motions of cosmological sources important to inertia induction.
Sciama developed his early ideas on the origin of inertia in terms of a vector theory of gravity modeled on Maxwell’s equations for electrodynamics. Like Einstein in 1921, he obtained a term in his gravelectric force equation that involves the time derivative of the vector potential of the gravitational field. The vector potential, A, depends on the integration over the matter currents in the observable universe, that is, ρv, where ρ is the matter density in an integration volume element and v its velocity relative to the point where A is evaluated. Sciama noted that all of the various motions that stuff out there in the universe engage in, on average over sufficiently large distances go to zero. So, to calculate A, all we need do is imagine that, say, a test particle is moving with velocity v with respect to some cosmic rest frame. The principle of relativity allows us to view the test particle as at rest with the universe moving rigidly past it with velocity -v. All of the “peculiar” motions of the stuff out there is irrelevant as they average to zero. This means that the velocity can be removed from the integration over the matter currents, leaving an integration over the matter density. That integration returns the total Newtonian gravitational potential, customarily written as ϕ. As Einstein observed in 1912, up to a factor of order unity, if this potential is equal to the square of the vacuum speed of light, then the entire inertia of the test particle can be attributed to its gravitational interaction with the rest of the universe. And inertial reaction forces are gravitational forces – arising from the dA/dt term in Einstein’s equation of motion above since dA/dt = (ϕ/c2) dv/dt = a provided that ϕ/c2 = 1 always and everywhere.
Is ϕ actually equal to c2? At least up to a factor of order unity, the answer to this question is yes. For example, Sultana and Kasanas did a calculation assuming all of the features of modern general relativistic cosmology several years ago and got the “right” answer [9]. But there is an even more compelling reason to accept that Mach and Einstein were right about gravitationally induced inertia. As a matter of observation, spacetime is spatially flat. In terms of the FLRW cosmological models with their homogeneity and isotropy, cosmic scale spatial flatness is just a curiosity attached to arguably the simplest FLRW model characterized by the exact balance of gravitational potential energy and “kinetic” energy, that is, non-gravitational energy characterized by E = mc2 where m is the inertial mass of the matter in the cosmology. The general FLRW metric can be written introducing a “curvature index” k with values plus or minus 1 and zero. Plus 1 gives the metric for positive curvature spacetime where kinetic energy exceeds potential energy and is “closed”. Minus 1 gives the metric where the roles of the energies are reversed and is “open”. Closed universes expand and contract whereas open ones expand forever. For k = 0 the energies are exactly the same and spacetime is spatially flat. It expands forever, but with decelerating speed, just stopping at cosmic temporal infinity. In this spacetime we have for material particles:
mgϕ=mic2E4
where the subscripts g and i identify gravitational and inertial masses of the material particle. This is true everywhere/when in the cosmos. Another peculiar property of the k = 0 solution is that the condition of spatial flatness does not change as cosmic expansion takes place. So, if we apply the EP to cancel the masses in Eq. (4), we find that ϕ = c2 obtains universally. The remarkable properties of the spatially flat, k = 0 FLRW cosmology were first formally identified as a problem by Dicke in lectures in 1969, and then in an article written with James Peebles in 1979. He called this the “flatness paradox” because spacetime in even casual observations is obviously spatially flat, but the k = 0 cosmology is “unstable”. Small fluctuations in the matter density should drive spacetime quickly into either k = plus or minus 1 behavior – which is not the steady decelerating expansion asymptotically to infinite extent of the k = 0 solution. Why, Dicke asked, is our aged cosmos spatially flat? Alan Guth was in the audience of the 1969 lectures and eventually proposed “inflation” to solve the flatness and other problems.
By 1979 intense discussion of Mach’s principle and the gravitational induction of inertia had almost entirely abated. Hoyle and Narlikar had published an action at a distance version of GR. It did not attract much interest. John Wheeler continued to say “mass there rules inertia here”. His later book Gravitation and Inertia with I. Ciufolini [5] makes plain that he was an advocate of a limited version of Einstein’s “relativity of inertia”, that is, the gravitational induction of the inertial properties of spacetime, but not the gravitational induction of the inertial properties of matter per se. But Brans’ spectator matter argument had banished Einstein’s version of the gravitational induction of inertia. Was Einstein simply wrong about the gravitational induction of inertia? No. The k = 0 FLRW cosmology does more that allow one to assert that ϕ = c2 when the inertial and gravitational masses are canceled in our test particle equation above as they are the same according to the EP. And the fact that this cosmology evolves preserving this condition – notwithstanding Dicke’s paradox – means that FLRW k = 0 cosmology automatically makes ϕ a locally measured invariant like c ensuring that the coefficient of the acceleration in the dA/dt term in the equation of motion is always 1. This is not true in k ≠ 0 cosmologies where the potential and kinetic energies are not equal. So, the answer to Dicke’s flatness paradox is not inflation. Inflation may explain how flatness comes about. But it is that k = 0 cosmology obtains because it is required by Newton’s third law, the equality and opposition of applied and inertial reaction forces that singles out k = 0 as the correct cosmology. In other cosmologies ϕ is not equal to c2 and action does not equal reaction. This makes Brans’ spectator matter argument – which locks in the necessity of ϕ being a locally measured invariant equal to c2 – one of the most consequential developments in general relativity of the past century.
Why bother about what the correct origin of inertia is? After all, if ϕ is a locally measured invariant it is everywhere the same and it seems that it can have no effects beyond pushing back when we try to accelerate massive objects. We live in an enormous gravitational field that we can only detect when we try to change our states of inertial motion. That is, when proper accelerations of material objects are involved. So, to couple to the gigantic gravitational field in which we live, we must accelerate stuff. The question then is, does accelerating stuff do anything other than excite an inertial reaction force? To answer that question we need the gravitational field equation for the inertial force. Since we are looking for relatively large, lowest order effects, we do not need the full formalism of GR. The Newtonian approximation is good enough. But it must be modified to Lorentz invariant form to be realistic. As it happens, George Luchak wrote out the relativistic Newtonian approximation field equations in 1951 when doing an investigation of Patrick Blackett’s conjecture on the origin of stellar magnetic fields being the mass currents arising from stellar rotation [10]. The field equation he found was:
∇•F+1c∂q∂t=−4πρE5
With
∇q+1c∂F∂t=0E6
and
∇×F=0.E7
q is the rate at which the field does work on its local source density. Since the field is irrotational [∇ x F = 0], F can be written as the gradient of a scalar potential ϕ. q is ∂Eo/∂t where Eo is the proper source energy density, so the second term in Eq. (5) is just the second time derivative of the proper energy density. The time-dependent term in this equation is where rest mass fluctuations are to be sought. The proper energy density Eo is just the proper matter density ρo times c2. But the gravitational induction of inertia lets us write c2 as ϕ, so Eo = ρoϕ. Using this relationship and several pages of algebra (see chapter 3 of [1]) yields:
The left-hand side of this equation is the d’Alembertian of the potential ϕ, a wave equation for ϕ with sources on the right-hand side. Since the time-dependent terms on the right-hand side of Eq. (8) originate on the field side of the equation, they do not carry the coefficient 4πG. To be treated as massive sources (and multiplied by 4πG like ρo in the first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (8)) they must be multiplied by the factor (1/4πG). The time-dependent source terms thus become:
δmo=14πGϕρoc4∂2Eo∂t2−ϕρoc42∂Eo∂t2−1c4∂ϕ∂t2E9
The first of the terms on the right-hand side of this equation is the largest in most circumstances – and the term on which MEGA impulse engines depend. The second term can be triggered by the first term in special circumstances, but is almost always negligible (see chapter 9 of [1]). The third term is inconsequential.
3. MEGA impulse engines
To excite these rest-mass fluctuations all we need do is make the internal energy density of a massive object change while it is undergoing a proper acceleration. An energy density fluctuation of the sort required is easily produced by charging/discharging a capacitor. The required proper acceleration of the capacitor can be produced with an electro-mechanical actuator – in particular, a device comprised of lead-zirconium-titanate, PZT, elements that expand/contract when a voltage is applied to them. The actuator must be affixed to a “reaction” mass in order for its motions to communicate accelerations to the capacitor undergoing internal energy changes to produce the MEGA mass fluctuations wanted. Since PZT actuator components are also capacitors, the actuators can play the role of both actuator and capacitor simultaneously. One then only needs a stack of PZT disks affixed to a reaction mass to generate mass fluctuations. To make this device into a MEGA impulse engine all we need do is provide for a second mechanical acceleration at the frequency of the mass fluctuations that acts so that this acceleration of the PZT stack is in one direction when the stack is less massive and the opposite direction when it is more massive. This, in effect, makes the PZT stack the propellant of the engine, and the mass fluctuation that arises from the coupling to the cosmic gravitational potential allows one to indefinitely recycle the propellant, Not exactly propellantless propulsion. But you do not have to keep throwing new PZT stacks overboard to produce propulsion. A device of this sort is displayed in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
A stack of 8 PZT crystals 19 mm in diameter by 2 mm thick is clamped between a brass reaction mass and an aluminum cap with 6 4–40 cap screws. A thermistor is embedded in the cap to monitor the temperature of the device and two thin crystals are embedded in the stack near the cap.
The first laboratory test devices of these engines were made in 1999. To make mounting of the devices on a torsion balance possible, a bracket was attached to the back of the reaction mass, as shown in Figure 2. A simple L shaped piece of aluminum, initially this bracket was bolted directly onto the reaction mass. The devices hardly worked at all. When a thin rubber pad was placed between the bracket and reaction mass (the black tabs seen in Figure 2) the devices sprang to life. It did not take long to figure out that the pad was not damping the vibration of the device. Rather, it was decoupling the device from the mounting bracket at the high (tens of KHz) frequencies of operation, allowing it to vibrate more vigorously as the vibrational energy was not being as strongly sinked into the mounting bracket and beyond. An important change was made in the devices made from 2011 on from the first devices made in 1999. Instead of using Edo Corp material EC-65, Steiner-Martins material SM-111 was substituted. The motivation for this change was the dissipation factor for the SM-111 material is about an order of magnitude smaller than that for EC-65, leading to a much-reduced heating rate in the SM-111 material. An unintended consequence of this material change was that instead of driving the devices with a voltage waveform with both first and second harmonics to get the desired mechanical response, the new devices can be driven with a single frequency sine wave (with a special step-up/isolation transformer) and the SM-111 material generates the higher harmonics needed to produce thrust when operated near an electro-mechanical resonance of the device.
Figure 2.
A device of the type shown in Figure 1 with an aluminum “L” braket attached for suspension on a torsion balance. Note the black rubber tabs peeking out at the interface of the bracket and the reaction mass.
A quantitative discussion of thrusts generated in these devices when excited with a suitable sine wave voltage is given in [1], pages 174 to 178. In general terms, δmo is:
δmo≈14πGϕρoc4∂2Eo∂t2=ϕ4πGρoc4∂P∂tE10
where P us the instantaneous power, that is, in an ideal capacitor, the product of the instantaneous voltage and current across the capacitor. This is the product of two sinusoids of the same frequency and returns a sinusoid of the double frequency, that is, at the second harmonic frequency. If the capacitor is ideal, there is no energy dissipated as the voltage signal is applied and δmo has no DC offset – and δmo time-averages to zero. To extract a steady thrust from this mass fluctuation we must provide for a force and mechanical excursion of the capacitor at the second harmonic frequency of the excitation voltage frequency. The second harmonic excursion produces an acceleration with the same frequency, and this acceleration multiplied times δmo gives the force produced in the capacitor. This is a product of two sinusoids of the same frequency resulting in an AC component with a frequency of 4 times the base frequency plus a DC component that depends on the relative phase of δmo and the second harmonic acceleration. The DC part of this product is the Mach effect force that can be used for propulsion.
Devices of the sort shown in Figure 2 were used in work on the Mach effect project until Hal Fearn wrote successful applications first for a Phase 1 (2017) and then Phase 2 (2018) NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) grants from NIAC to support this work. (See [11] for the final report of the Phase 2 grant.) During the Phase 1 and early part of the Phase 2 grants, work focused on a voltage scaling test and issues of vibration and calibration. Typical thrust signals were in the tenths of a micronewton to a micronewton or so, detected with a sensitive torsion balance built with the help of Thomas Mahood a decade earlier shown in Figure 3. The device being tested is located in a Faraday cage mounted on a special vibration isolation yoke attached to the near end of the balance beam. One of the aims of the funded work on these grants was to increase the magnitude of the thrusts produced by the tested devices. Other issues just mentioned diverted attention from the increased thrust goal until late 2019 and early 2020. When attention was focused on thrust improvement, the decision was taken to make incremental improvements to the existing devices, rather than go to a radically different design. The obvious design feature to address was the rubber pads that had made the devices work at all. A plan of varying several other design features that might be optimized was also initiated. Shortly after this plan was initiated, COVID-19 struck. Weekly Zoom meetings of the team continued, but at CSUF lab access was restricted to HF, and JFW was restricted to building apparatus to be tested by HF in the lab.
Figure 3.
The torsion balance used in this work for small thrusts on its 500 pound granite vibration isolation table. The vacuum chamber is clear plastic, making careful examination of the operating conditions with a Polytech laser vibrometer easy.
If one understands the role of the rubber pads to be the high frequency decoupling of the device from its support structure, rather than damping the high frequency vibrations, several modifications are straight forward. First, instead of just using a pad between the reaction mass and L bracket, since the pad acts as a spring, pads should be put on both sides of the L bracket. Second, materials other than rubber are surely better candidates. For example, nylon, phenolic, PEEK and Vespel. And these materials can be fabricated with carbon fibers to increase their strength and improve their thermal conductivity. Third, the thickness of the material can be adjusted. An example of one of the devices used in this test campaign is shown in Figure 4. The washers on the mounting screws are PEEK in this case. There were, of course, variations in the performance of the various materials and configurations. But all the dielectric washer systems suffered from heating problems that were not resolved even with carbon fiber filling. The thermal problem led to the exploration of metal washers, Belleville washers in particular. Commercial Belleville washers with dimensions similar to the washers in Figure 4 and the correct stiffness were not available. Washers available in this size had to be glued together to get the correct properties. They solved the thermal problems with the dielectric washers.
Figure 4.
A standard device with double thickness PEEK washes on the mounting screws.
In late spring, Paul March and Michelle Broyles began investigating alternate ways of using Belleville washers. They envisioned clamping the reaction mass with a flange at the interface with the PZT stack with big, clunky Belleville washers. This was not the way to go. The flange would not be exactly at a node of all of the vibrations in the device, and clamping it with heavy Belleville washers would doubtless at least screw up the pattern of higher harmonic vibrations on which thrust production depends. But a small flange at least near a node of the principal vibration as a mounting point was an appealing idea as the L bracket mounting design was clearly less than optimal. But instead of clamping with clunky Belleville washers, three equally spaced holes were drilled in the flange and lined with Teflon. A support structure with three steel dowels to pass through the holes in the flange was built. When tested, it worked.
This mounting system had a precursor. Several months earlier the L bracket had been replaced by a “sledge” as the part of the L that attached to the Faraday cage. A sledge that was free to move on a small mounting plate bolted to the cage provided with steel dowels on which the sledge rode. That too had worked. But its importance had not been fully appreciated at the time. The flange and dowel mounting scheme made the device itself into a sledge. A number of technical details had to be addressed. The chief detail, however, was that Teflon sleeved holes in the flange were far from frictionless; and frictionless-ness was clearly the ideal if unfettered motion of the device was the goal. With an essentially frictionless mounting system we could approach the ideal of an in space propulsion test. Josė Rodal remarked that what we needed were miniature linear ball bushings instead of Teflon sleeves. But they were likely prohibitively expensive. All of the team members on the call had experience with linear ball bushings and immediately apprehended the significance of Josė’s observation. Paul and Chip Akins were on it instantly. Before Josė concluded his remarks about linear ball bushings, they had independently tracked down a source of suitable bushings. They were not prohibitively expensive. The next most important detail was how to extract a very low frequency to stationary force from a device vibrating on dowels with frictionless bearings? Chip and Michelle had the answer: very soft springs that would not transmit the high frequency vibrations to the support frame and would not mess up higher harmonics in the device by applying undue pressure on the “ears” of the flange carrying the bushings. Michelle and Paul eventually tracked down suitable springs.
Tests were done to find the best detailed design for the reaction mass and parts of the supporting frame. The reaction mass design eventually adopted has a flange 3.5 mm thick so that the 5 mm long bushings protrude to center the springs on the dowels that position the device on the dowels. The reaction mass diameter and length were chosen to be 22 mm, making the center of mass of the device lie in the plane of the flange. The PZT stack and aluminum preload cap are those of the L bracket design. A bare assembled device is shown in Figure 5. The complete assembly has a mass of 150 gm. It is shown mounted in its supporting aluminum frame in Figure 6. The thermistor, strain gauge and power leads are all stress relieved by attachment to the frame. Two of the six springs that position the device on the 2 mm diameter dowels are visible at the top of the picture.
Figure 5.
A bare device of the sledge design. The cap is 4.5 mm thick and 28.6 mm in diameter. High strength steel 4–40 cap screws provide the stack preload. Electrical conections are positioned to minimize drag on the motion of the parts.
Figure 6.
The device in its supporting frame.
In principle, if the linear ball bushings are functioning correctly, no pseudo force arising from a slip–stick mechanism in the device per se can be transmitted to the support structure owing to the conservation of momentum and the frictionless-ness of the bearings. So, one does not really need the torsion balance with its vibration isolation yoke that ensures slip–stick effects are not transmitted to the bearings of the balance where they might register a false positive “force”. Since our vacuum chamber is made of clear plastic, investigating vibration in the parts of the balance with a Polytech laser vibrometer is straight-forward. So, to be doubly certain that real forces are generated in these devices, at first Hal Fearn adapted mounting hardware to place the new style devices on the torsion balance, notwithstanding that the balance acts as a low pass filter for forces with any time dependence. This is shown in Figure 7. In addition to recording the voltage and current applied to the device, the mechanical activity with the embedded strain gauge, and the temperature with the thermistor in the cap, movies of the device were recorded with a Logitech Brio webcam as the forces produced visible motion of the device on the dowels.
Figure 7.
A sledge mounted device on hardware on the torsion balance in the clear plastic vacuum chamber.
After a few weeks, the Philtech position sensor used with the torsion balance to record its position (and thus force producing any deflection from rest) was removed from the vacuum chamber and repurposed to measuring the position of the sledge mount device on the rods supporting it as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8.
The device mounted on a cantilever (with bubble level to adjust the levelof the cantilever). The Philtech optical probe is clamped to a micrometer stage for positioning and calibration. It records the distace from the probe to the free end of the reaction mass a millimeter or so away.
The four data signals – voltage, current, strain gauge, and temperature – were captured (along with the movie of the device) by three Picoscope oscilloscopes and displayed on a monitor. One Picoscope was dedicated to the production of a strip chart recoding of the voltage (blue trace) and position (red trace with scale factor 250 microns per volt) and temperature (green trace calculated to a degrees Celsiu8s scale) displayed in the upper left part of the monitor screen. The Picoscope data file of this display was saved for each run on completion of the run. The second Picoscope was dedicated to the real time capture of the voltage (blue, 100 volts per volt), current (black, one amp per volt), and strain gauge (red, not absolutely calibrated) waveforms during a run. The total power (i X V, green, 20 watts full scale) was computed and displayed in real time. This display is in the lower right of the monitor screen. The third Picoscope, a very fast 2 channel device, was dedicated to the real time display of the FFT power spectra of the voltage (blue) and strain gauge (red) signals located in the lower left part of the monitor screen. The webcam movie was displayed in the upper right of the screen. A picture of the monitor display for a completed run is shown in Figure 9. Since our power amplifier was not equipped to track and lock on to signal behavior at or very near resonance, and the thrust resonances for these devices are temperature dependent and – by design – very high Q, frequency sweeps were used to detect the thrust events expected. A typical run would consist of a 20 KHz sweep in 20 seconds (so the frequencies of events could be read off from the time of their occurrence) followed by a 5 second sweep back to the start frequency followed by another 20 second sweep. Figure 10 shows the monitor screen at the peak amplitudes of the waveforms at resonance transit for the run displayed in Figure 9. Note the presence of higher harmonics in the waveforms and power spectra, especially the second harmonic component in the current waveform. If the second harmonic is absent or out of phase, there is no thrust. Just before and after the resonance event, the signals look like those in Figure 11. The second and higher harmonics are gone. But the strain gauge waveform shows that strong first harmonic vibration is still present. That vibration ensures that the device moves frictionlessly on the support dowels. The thrust impulse is sufficiently large to initiate the displacement recorded in the strip chart display (red trace) in Figure 9. The positioning springs on the dowels convey the thrust to the support frame while arresting the motion of the device and returning it to its rest position. Evidently, these devices work as expected.
Figure 9.
The monitor display for a completed run. From the position data the velocity and acceleration of the device on the dowels can be computed.
Figure 10.
The monitor screen at transit of the first thrust resonance in the run displayed in Figure 9. Note the higher harmonics in the waveforms and power spectra, especially the second harmonic in the current waveform.
Figure 11.
The monitor screen immediately after the thrust resonance.
4. Conclusion
Many people over the now many years this project has been underway have contributed to its progress in a variety of ways. In my grad student days, those most helpful were Malvin Ruderman, Wolfgang Yourgrau, Allen Breck, Alwyn van der Merwe, James Barcus and Laurence Horwitz. At CSU Fullerton I have enjoyed the tolerance and support of the History and Physics Departments’ faculties, especially Ronald Crowley, Dorothy Woolum, Allan Sweedler, Keith Wanser, Mark Shapiro, and Stephen Goode in the Mathematics Department. A number of the formal publications related to this topic (see the technical references in ref. [1] here) were published in Foundations of Physics, in part because lists of a half-dozen suggested referees were solicited. I invariably recommended people familiar with both gravity and Wheeler-Feynman action at a distance theory, world class physicists all. And accompanied the lists with the suggestion that the manuscripts be sent to all of my suggested referees. Their comments proved helpful. John Cramer’s mention of this work in his Analog Alternate View column in the mid-‘90s brought this project to the attention of a wider audience. Thomas Mahood through his Master’s program and beyond helped in many ways to advance the project. About this time Jim Peoples, Graham O’Neill, Paul March and Sonny White, all then at Lockheed-Martin took interest in the project. As did Frank Meade and Kirk Goodall, and Gary Hudson of the Space Studies Institute (which still supports this work). Others include Nembo Buldrini, Greg Meholic, Marc Millis, Martin Tajmar, Tony Robertson, Paul Murad, John Cole, George Hathaway, and Dennis Bushnell. Peter Milonni and Olivier Costa dé Beauregard made helpful suggestions. Jack Sarfatti, Paul Zielinsky and Nick Herbert contributed by sharpening the arguments related to Einstein’s views on the gravitational induction of inertia, as has Lance Williams. Anthony Longman was in no small way responsible for bringing the project to the positive attention of the management of NIAC, Jay Falker, Jason Derleth and Ron Turner. David Mathes, and then Gary Hudson wrote the first and then second unsuccessful NIAC grant proposals. A few years later Heidi (now Hal) Fearn wrote the successful Phase 1 and 2 proposals. Since joining the project in 2012, Hal has been chiefly responsible for advancing the project in many ways. New and improved instrumentation. Data acquisition and analysis. Writing of reports and papers. Giving presentations of on-going work. Organizing workshops and seeing to the publication of their proceedings. Other than Hal, the members of the NIAC grant teams included Marshall Eubanks and José Rodal for Phase 1. In Phase 2 they were joined by Chip Akins, John Brandenburg, Michelle Broyles, Max Comess, David Jenkins, Dan Kennefick, Paul March, and Jon Woodland. The NIAC grants made several advances – notably, thrust increase of two to three orders of magnitude – that otherwise would not have happened possible. To make sure the thrust increase is real, the SSI has engaged George Hathaway to do a replication now in progress. And NIAC has engaged Mike McDonald at NRL to do a replication next year. So, soon we will know if this propulsion scheme really works. Several physicians, Ann Mohrbacher, Ching Fei Chang, Jerold Shinbane, and others at the University of Southern California, have kept me alive these past 15 years.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by a Phase 2 NASA National Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) grant, “Mach effects for in space propulsion: Interstellar mission,” grant NNX17AJ78G.
\n',keywords:"origin of inertia, general relativity, gravitational induction of inertia, Mach effect mass fluctuations, Mach effect gravity assist (MEGA) impulse engines",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74791.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74791.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74791",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74791",totalDownloads:398,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"December 15th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 22nd 2020",datePrePublished:"January 13th 2021",datePublished:"December 15th 2021",dateFinished:"January 13th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"“Breakthrough” advanced propulsion can only take place with a correct understanding of the role of inertia in general relativity. Einstein was convinced that inertia and gravitation were the obverse and reverse of the coin. The most general statement of the principle of relativity, captured in his Equivalence Principle and the gravitational induction of inertia. His ideas and how they have fared are reprised. A rest mass fluctuation that is expected when inertia is gravitationally induced is then mentioned that can be used for propulsion. Recent work supported by National Innovative Advanced Concepts Phase 1 and 2 NASA grants to determine whether thrusters based on gravitationally induced inertia can actually be made to work is presented. A recent design innovation has dramatically increased the thrust produced by these Mach Effect Gravity Assist (MEGA) impulse engines.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74791",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74791",signatures:"James F. Woodward",book:{id:"10007",type:"book",title:"Propulsion",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Applications",fullTitle:"Propulsion - New Perspectives and Applications",slug:"propulsion-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 15th 2021",bookSignature:"Kazuo Matsuuchi and Hiroaki Hasegawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10007.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-835-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-834-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-836-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"42387",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazuo",middleName:null,surname:"Matsuuchi",slug:"kazuo-matsuuchi",fullName:"Kazuo Matsuuchi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"335130",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"James F.",middleName:null,surname:"Woodward",fullName:"James F. Woodward",slug:"james-f.-woodward",email:"jwoodward@fullerton.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Inertia, gravity, propulsion and Mach effects",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. MEGA impulse engines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Woodward JF. Making Starships and Stargates: the Science of Interstellar Transport and Absurdly Benign Wormholes. New York: Springer; 2013'},{id:"B2",body:'Einstein A. Does the inertia of a body depend on its energy content? Annalen der Physik. 1905;323(13):639-641'},{id:"B3",body:'Einstein A. Is There a Gravitational Effect Which Is Analogous to Electrodynamic Induction? Vierteljahrsschrift für gerichliche Medizin und öffentliches Sanitätswesen. 1912;44:37-40'},{id:"B4",body:'Einstein, A., (1921) in: The Meaning of Relativity, Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton (1955), 5th ed'},{id:"B5",body:'Ciufolini I, Wheeler JA. Gravitation and Inertia, Princeton Univ. Princeton: Press; 1995'},{id:"B6",body:'Einstein, A., “Concerning the Aether,” Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft105:2, 85-93 (1924)'},{id:"B7",body:'Brans CH. Absence of Inertial Induction in General Relativity. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1977;39:856-856'},{id:"B8",body:'Sciama, D., “On the Origin of Inertia,” M.N.R.A.S., 34, 34-42 (1953)'},{id:"B9",body:'Sultana J, Kasanas D. The Problem of Inertia in Friedmann Universes. Int. J. Modern Phys. D. 2011;20(7):1205-1214'},{id:"B10",body:'Luchak G. A fundamental theory of the magnetism of rotating bodies. Can. J. Phys. 1951;29:470-479'},{id:"B11",body:'NIAC Phase 2 final report. Available at: https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/niac_2018_phii_woodward_macheffects_2_tagged.pdf'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"James F. Woodward",address:"jwoodward@fullerton.edu",affiliation:'
Space Studies Institute and Department of Physics, California State University Fullerton, USA
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Two fiber strands were first tapered at the middle and they were attached to the geometrical blocks and lapped together. Design parameters that are used to develop this coupler/splitter are core diameter, Dc, etching length, Le, bending radius, Rc, coupling length, Lc and pressure, Fc. All the parameters were taken into account during characterization and analysis of the designed coupler in order to find the most optimum prototype coupler/splitter. Characterizations are done by experimental set-up to test the efficiency, splitting ratio, coupling ratio, excess loss and insertion loss for all the couplers/splitters. Through the characterization process and analysis, the optimized coupler with high splitting ratio and low excess loss were identified. Throughout the experimental process, some of the fibers were improved and renewed in order to realize the design and development of the coupler using this technique. The device can also be utilized as an optical tap and the applications of the device are not only limited in in-house network but also in automotive applications. By using a platform, several splitting ratio can be obtained by integrating different core-cladding thickness and bending radius in order to get the desired splitting ratio and excess loss.",signatures:"Latifah S. Supian, Mohd Syuhaimi Ab-Rahman, Norhana Arsad,\nChew Sue Ping, Nani Fadzlina Naim, Nurdiani Zamhari and Syed\nMohd Fairuz Syed Mohd Dardin",authors:[{id:"77356",title:"Dr.",name:"L.S.",surname:"Supian",fullName:"L.S. 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We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
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Our platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
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Our reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
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Our expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
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A Creative Commons license, so authors always keep their copyright;
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A dedicated Author Service Manager to guide the publication process from submission to publication;
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Professional copyediting and language editing;
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An open access e-book, plus beautifully produced hardcover and affordable paperback print-on-demand editions;
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Professional cover design;
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Access to our online Manuscript Tracking System;
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness"},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/62637",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"62637"},fullPath:"/chapters/62637",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()