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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
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\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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This book is a part of a four volume collection (covering material aspects, physical effects, characterization and modeling, and applications) and focuses on ways to obtain high-quality materials exhibiting large ferroelectric activity. The book covers the aspect of material synthesis and growth, doping and composites, lead-free devices, and thin film synthesis. The aim of this book is to provide an up-to-date review of recent scientific findings and recent advances in the field of ferroelectric materials, allowing a deep understanding of the material aspects of ferroelectricity.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-332-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4451-9",doi:"10.5772/702",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"ferroelectrics-material-aspects",numberOfPages:532,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"4489eb7544dc5c1014f4e1280e677371",bookSignature:"Mickaël Lallart",publishedDate:"August 24th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/174.jpg",numberOfDownloads:78646,numberOfWosCitations:140,numberOfCrossrefCitations:41,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:106,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:9,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:287,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 11th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 8th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 15th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 14th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 13th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"10041",title:"Dr.",name:"Mickaël",middleName:null,surname:"Lallart",slug:"mickael-lallart",fullName:"Mickaël Lallart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/10041/images/1517_n.png",biography:"Mickaël Lallart graduated from Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Lyon (INSA Lyon), Lyon, France, in electrical engineering in 2006, and received his Ph.D. in electronics, electrotechnics, and automatics from the same university in 2008, where he worked for the Laboratoire de Génie Electrique et Ferroélectricité (LGEF). After working as a post-doctoral fellow in the Center for Intelligent Material Systems and Structures (CIMSS) in Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA in 2009, Dr. Lallart has been hired as an Associate Professor in the Laboratoire de Génie Electrique et Ferroélectricité. 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Sports involved physical strength coupled with digital analysis. A mathematical model can be developed and evaluated using mathematical modeling. This book aims to address important issues such as aerodynamic forces and moments that play a significant role in evaluating performance. The atmospheric conditions can also be used to analyze the aerodynamics of sports. Local temperature, humidity, air velocity, and pressure are input to the numerical analysis. Aerodynamics is related to flight dynamics in sports and can be coupled with computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The spinning of the ball creates a significant effect on its movement. Flow separation also has a significant effect on fluid dynamics. The wind tunnel can also be used to analyze real-time data.
\r\n\t
Graphene consists of a single layer of carbon atoms packed into a honeycomb lattice. Its particular atomic organization of the carbon atoms affords graphene a set of very unique characteristics that justify the attention researcher of all fields have given it. The more standing out properties are a high mechanical strength, thermal and electrical conductibility, high surface-to-mas ratio, and relative transparency [1]. Many studies use graphene oxide (GO) or reduced graphene oxide (rGO) instead of pristine graphene, because the oxidized forms are easier to process and can be dispersed in water while at the same time maintaining most of graphene’s properties.
Graphene oxide has shown great potential enhancing differentiation and proliferation of human stem cells in vitro, which tend to adhere to graphene plates. In particular, it favors differentiation of human neuronal stem cells (hNSC) toward neurons rather than glia cells [2]. Combined with its inherent flexibility and strength, the possibility of creating a 3D structure that mimics the original organ, graphene appears to be a great scaffold for stem cell-based therapy [3].
Furthermore, a lot of research has come forward regarding the use of graphene in biosensors. Compared to previously used materials, graphene shows increased resistance and sensitivity. Also, being biocompatible it can be worn, allowing for the possibility of a permanently used sensor. Additionally, graphene can be bound to a wide range of molecules and proteins that allow for better selectivity [4].
Another field to which graphene’s ability to be bound to specific molecules has been applied is drug carrying and delivery. In particular, it has been successfully used for specific anticancer drug delivery [5]. It presents novel perspective in combining site detection and drug delivery. Peptides bound to the GO plates allow for detection by specific cell types, minimizing uptake by other healthy cells [6].
Graphene’s use in the medical field raises a lot of questions regarding its safety and toxicity. In this regard, there are many conflicting studies and opinions. It appears that the matter of toxicity varies greatly depending on the physicochemical characteristics of the administrated graphene, also on the form of administration, and the model, varying between different species and cell types. The characteristics of graphene like concentration, dimensions (lateral and number of layers), surface structure functional groups, and protein corona influence its toxicity in biological systems. Despite its relevance to the effect, some toxicological studies do not give a proper characterization of the form of graphene used. Though most agree on the interaction of graphene with the cellular membrane, the question of its uptake is more controversial [7]. For example, the studies of Yue et al. on the viability of six different cell lines when treated with GO of varying dimensions show that only two phagocytic cell lines were able to internalize both nano- and micro-sized GO sheets. Furthermore, there was no difference in the viability of any of the six cell line studies when the concentration was lower than 20 μg/mL. On the other hand, inhalation of GO particles may lead to an accumulation in the pulmonary surfactant and initiate an inflammatory process [8].
Interestingly, although GO does not show to be absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract, a low dose of GO can cause more damage to the gastrointestinal surface being drank as a suspension than a high dose of GO [9]. Most toxic effects seem to surge from the use of high doses of GO and the sequential aggregation and formation of conglomerates than can block small blood vessels and result in dyspnea [10]. However, recent publications detect no pathological effects in mice exposed to low dosages of GO and functionalized graphene when administrated by intravenous injection [11].
While studying toxicity it is very important to analyze the effect on the reproductive system and development because this can lead to more lasting effects. Graphene plaques seem unable to penetrate the blood-testis barrier in mice, and therefore sperm function and male reproductive activity show no alteration even for high doses of graphene [12]. In the female, there are no alterations if GO is administered before mating or during early gestation, and the female can give birth to healthy litters. However, if administered during late gestation, it leads to abortion and even death of the pregnant mice for high dose [13]. Injection of chicken eggs leads to reduced vascularization of the heart [14]. Despite showing no obvious malformation or mortality in zebrafish embryo, GO aggregates were retained in many organelles leading to hypoxia and ROS generation in these areas [15].
Even though graphene toxicity has drawn a lot of attention from scientists, there is a remarkable lack of understanding of the mechanisms underlying this effect. The use of different models and forms of graphene seem to lead to very dissimilar conclusions. There is a clear need for more systematic and in-depth studies, before graphene can be brought to its full potential use [7].
In this context, it is evident that, in one hand, graphene and graphene-related materials are even more used in medicine and bioengineering; on the other one, the information about their safety, their toxicity, and about the way of their possible interaction with living being (and human body and fluids) are still incomplete.
For this reason, here, we carried out a scientometric study on this very interesting topic, with the aim to study the scientific literature and to identify the most relevant topic and the countries that are more involved in this research activity.
We accessed the data from Web of Science repository (https://apps.webofknowledge.com/) in December 2017–January 2018. The data have been filtered using the Advanced Search tool with the following syntax:
where
In our queries, we used as topic 1 “graphene” or “graphene oxide” or “graphene-related material,” combined with the following keywords as topic “medicine,” “biomaterials,” “scaffold,” “regenerative medicine,” or “bioengineering.” Then all the data sets obtained were merged with the “Combine Sets” tool. As a result, we obtained a dataset in .txt format containing a list of 1208 articles with their attributes. All the following analyses have been carried out on this data set:
The data were processed for temporal and geospatial analysis by Sci2 Tool (Sci2 Team). We generated temporal visualization of burst detection analysis of ISI keywords used in the papers. The geolocation of author collaboration was realized using Citespace (http://cluster.cis.drexel.edu/~cchen/citespace/) and Google Earth (https://www.google.it/intl/it/earth/).
Overall, we found 1248 issues characterized by the bibliometric parameters shown in Table 1.
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
67 | |
Average citation per item | 17.65 |
Sum of time cited | 2647 |
Citing articles | 14,055 |
Bibliometric parameters referred to the studied dataset.
The number of issues published per year is described in Figure 1. As it is evident in the period 2009–2011, the number of papers published per year was very low (<10/year); then it increased with a linear trend, to reach about 350 issues published in 2017.
Graph showing the time trend of issues published per year.
The time trend of citations (sum of cited per year) has a different pattern, described by more than linear pattern, as reported in Figure 2.
Graph showing the time trend of sum of cited per year.
Interestingly, the distribution of cites per year, as shown in Figure 3, in keeping with the Bedford’s, follows a power law, with a negative exponent.
Graph showing the distribution of cites/year.
In addition it has been possible to compute the main parameters of cites/year distribution (see Table 2).
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
Max | 117 |
95° percentile | 17.96825 |
75° percentile | 6 |
Median | 2.25 |
25° percentile | 0.666667 |
5° percentile | 0 |
Min | 0 |
Citation parameters.
To explore the temporal pattern of the most important themes studied, we analyzed the burst in citations referred to specific keywords (see Table 3 for the list of citation bursts identified).
Term | Span | Weight | Begin | End |
---|---|---|---|---|
Accelerated-differentiation | 2 | 30.562 | 2013 | 2014 |
Erk1–2 | 2 | 46.299 | 2012 | 2013 |
Evidenced-by | 2 | 33.865 | 2015 | 2016 |
Fe3o4-go | 3 | 36.129 | 2011 | 2013 |
Fe3o4-go-nanocomposites | 3 | 27.411 | 2011 | 2013 |
Fe3o4-nanoparticles | 2 | 36.777 | 2010 | 2011 |
Film-is | 2 | 28.366 | 2012 | 2013 |
Films-of | 5 | 31.674 | 2010 | 2014 |
Films-were | 3 | 35.185 | 2011 | 2013 |
Films-with | 3 | 31.612 | 2011 | 2013 |
Functional-theory | 5 | 26.907 | 2006 | 2010 |
G-and | 2 | 39.214 | 2011 | 2012 |
G-and-go | 2 | 41.282 | 2011 | 2012 |
Genotoxicity-of | 2 | 27.537 | 2012 | 2013 |
Graphene-content | 2 | 43.921 | 2014 | 2015 |
Graphene-films | 4 | 5.692 | 2009 | 2012 |
Graphene-nanocomposites | 4 | 33.876 | 2011 | 2014 |
Graphene-nanoflakes | 4 | 32.128 | 2011 | 2014 |
Graphene-nanostructures | 2 | 36.785 | 2013 | 2014 |
Added-to | 5 | 35.578 | 2009 | 2013 |
Graphene-sheets | 8 | 130.541 | 2006 | 2013 |
Graphene-using | 2 | 27.779 | 2013 | 2014 |
Graphite-oxide | 3 | 43.642 | 2011 | 2013 |
Growth-of | 3 | 48.996 | 2013 | 2015 |
Hectorite-clay | 2 | 29.144 | 2013 | 2014 |
Adhesive-performance | 2 | 38.487 | 2011 | 2012 |
Human-neural | 4 | 41.777 | 2011 | 2014 |
Human-neural-stem | 4 | 40.028 | 2011 | 2014 |
Human-neural-stem-cells | 4 | 33.938 | 2011 | 2014 |
Adsorption-on | 8 | 2.73 | 2006 | 2013 |
Indicates-that | 2 | 26.756 | 2014 | 2015 |
Induction-of | 2 | 32.246 | 2012 | 2013 |
Interaction-between | 4 | 27.177 | 2010 | 2013 |
Investigated-using | 3 | 44.764 | 2012 | 2014 |
Ag-nanoparticles | 3 | 9.15 | 2010 | 2012 |
Mammalian-cells | 2 | 32.251 | 2010 | 2011 |
Medical-research | 2 | 92.302 | 2013 | 2014 |
Metabolic-activity | 2 | 32.637 | 2013 | 2014 |
Mineralization-of | 2 | 30.056 | 2014 | 2015 |
Modified-electrode | 3 | 39.563 | 2010 | 2012 |
Molecular-dynamics | 8 | 38.142 | 2006 | 2013 |
Monitoring-of | 2 | 36.127 | 2012 | 2013 |
Multi-walled | 2 | 34.922 | 2012 | 2013 |
Neural-stem | 3 | 56.255 | 2011 | 2013 |
Neural-stem-cell | 3 | 27.096 | 2011 | 2013 |
Neural-stem-cells | 4 | 33.218 | 2011 | 2014 |
Nitrogen-doped | 2 | 34.021 | 2014 | 2015 |
Oxidation-of | 3 | 2.979 | 2010 | 2012 |
Antibacterial-activity | 3 | 39.684 | 2010 | 2012 |
Peak-current | 3 | 38.873 | 2010 | 2012 |
Porous-scaffolds | 2 | 38.569 | 2015 | 2016 |
Prepared-via | 3 | 29.212 | 2013 | 2015 |
Properties-of-graphene | 4 | 34.088 | 2010 | 2013 |
Protein-corona | 2 | 36.322 | 2014 | 2015 |
Rgo-ppy | 4 | 28.174 | 2016 | |
Schwann-cells | 2 | 38.247 | 2015 | 2016 |
Sheets-in | 2 | 55.564 | 2013 | 2014 |
Sheets-in-the | 2 | 31.928 | 2013 | 2014 |
Sheets-on | 2 | 36.322 | 2014 | 2015 |
Similar-to-1 | 2 | 3.542 | 2013 | 2014 |
Size-dependent | 2 | 29.383 | 2012 | 2013 |
Stabilizing-agent | 2 | 32.246 | 2012 | 2013 |
Stem-cell-differentiation | 4 | 26.513 | 2010 | 2013 |
Studied-by | 4 | 28.884 | 2012 | 2015 |
Surface-chemistry | 2 | 27.123 | 2013 | 2014 |
Time-dependent | 2 | 26.413 | 2013 | 2014 |
Traditional-Chinese | 2 | 40.822 | 2010 | 2011 |
Translational-medical | 2 | 97.161 | 2013 | 2014 |
Translational-medical-research | 2 | 92.302 | 2013 | 2014 |
Transmission-electron-microscope | 2 | 27.348 | 2012 | 2013 |
Van-der | 8 | 39.866 | 2006 | 2013 |
Van-der-waals | 8 | 39.866 | 2006 | 2013 |
Walled-carbon-nanotubes | 8 | 32.082 | 2006 | 2013 |
Water-molecules | 2 | 52.214 | 2012 | 2013 |
Water-soluble | 3 | 48.753 | 2012 | 2014 |
wt-wt | 2 | 29.572 | 2012 | 2013 |
×-10 | 2 | 31.433 | 2010 | 2011 |
Beta-tcp | 2 | 37.851 | 2015 | 2016 |
Bioactivity-of | 3 | 32.757 | 2012 | 2014 |
2015-elsevier-b | 2 | 76.506 | 2015 | 2016 |
bmp-2 | 2 | 122.945 | 2013 | 2014 |
Bone-cells | 4 | 29.536 | 2011 | 2014 |
Bone-cement | 2 | 29.572 | 2012 | 2013 |
Cancer-cells-and | 2 | 43.062 | 2013 | 2014 |
Cancer-stem | 2 | 59.119 | 2014 | 2015 |
Cancer-stem-cells | 2 | 55.153 | 2014 | 2015 |
Carbon-nanotubes | 5 | 83.764 | 2006 | 2010 |
Cell-differentiation | 3 | 28.996 | 2012 | 2014 |
Cell-membranes | 2 | 26.423 | 2014 | 2015 |
Cell-to | 3 | 42.168 | 2011 | 2013 |
Cells-on-the | 2 | 29.197 | 2013 | 2014 |
Cellular-uptake | 2 | 27.088 | 2014 | 2015 |
Chemical-inducers | 2 | 27.537 | 2012 | 2013 |
Chitosan-and | 2 | 30.566 | 2010 | 2011 |
Chitosan-composite | 2 | 27.779 | 2013 | 2014 |
Chitosan-film | 3 | 27.411 | 2011 | 2013 |
Collagen-scaffolds | 2 | 43.921 | 2014 | 2015 |
3d-rgo | 4 | 39.778 | 2016 | |
3d-rgo-ppy | 4 | 26.517 | 2016 | |
Composite-film | 4 | 28.754 | 2011 | 2014 |
Composite-films | 4 | 63.612 | 2011 | 2014 |
Concentration-of | 2 | 59.312 | 2011 | 2012 |
Conductivity-of | 2 | 29.085 | 2014 | 2015 |
Cultured-on-the | 2 | 30.056 | 2014 | 2015 |
Cytotoxicity-of | 3 | 48.985 | 2012 | 2014 |
Cytotoxicity-of-the | 3 | 26.639 | 2012 | 2014 |
5-×-10 | 2 | 26.522 | 2010 | 2011 |
Delivery-of | 2 | 61.189 | 2013 | 2014 |
Density-functional | 5 | 26.907 | 2006 | 2010 |
Density-functional-theory | 5 | 26.907 | 2006 | 2010 |
Der-waals | 8 | 39.866 | 2006 | 2013 |
Differentiation-of-human | 3 | 27.305 | 2011 | 2013 |
Doped-graphene | 2 | 28.541 | 2013 | 2014 |
Embryonic-stem | 3 | 37.831 | 2012 | 2014 |
Embryonic-stem-cells | 3 | 31.442 | 2012 | 2014 |
Energy | 4 | 27.199 | 2006 | 2009 |
Citation bursts.
Interestingly, we investigated the number of issues published by each country, thus estimating the contribution of different countries in research on graphene application in medicine (Table 4). These data demonstrate that graphene and graphene-based material are used in a wide variety of application in biomedicine such as cell and stem cell culture, translational medicine, bioengineering, toxicology, and development, thus confirming that these materials are becoming to represent a reality in life sciences.
Number of issues | % on total issues published | Countries/territories |
---|---|---|
558 | 34.0 | China |
230 | 14.0 | The United States |
154 | 9.4 | South Korea |
75 | 4.6 | India |
69 | 4.2 | Iran |
41 | 2.5 | Spain |
39 | 2.4 | Singapore |
39 | 2.4 | The United Kingdom |
37 | 2.3 | Australia |
37 | 2.3 | England |
35 | 2.1 | Taiwan |
34 | 2.1 | Italy |
30 | 1.8 | Japan |
28 | 1.7 | Germany |
22 | 1.3 | Canada |
20 | 1.2 | Saudi Arabia |
18 | 1.1 | Brazil |
14 | 0.9 | Poland |
12 | 0.7 | Romania |
11 | 0.7 | Denmark |
11 | 0.7 | Sweden |
10 | 0.6 | France |
10 | 0.6 | Russia |
10 | 0.6 | Turkey |
9 | 0.5 | Malaysia |
9 | 0.5 | Portugal |
8 | 0.5 | Egypt |
7 | 0.4 | Argentina |
7 | 0.4 | Czech Republic |
7 | 0.4 | Finland |
6 | 0.4 | Belgium |
6 | 0.4 | Switzerland |
5 | 0.3 | Israel |
5 | 0.3 | Thailand |
4 | 0.2 | Greece |
4 | 0.2 | Mexico |
4 | 0.2 | The Netherlands |
4 | 0.2 | Serbia |
3 | 0.2 | Ireland |
3 | 0.2 | Morocco |
2 | 0.1 | Pakistan |
2 | 0.1 | Scotland |
2 | 0.1 | Vietnam |
Number of issues per country.
As it is evident, the most of issues have been published in China, with a total number of issues that accounts for about a third of worldwide production, followed by the United States and South Korea, India, and Iran. This datum is very interesting, because it demonstrates that Asiatic countries are the most important contributor, at least quantitative point of view, to this such important field of research.
To better explore the context to which the research is referred, we assessed the subject categories, as reported in Table 5.
Issues | Subject category |
---|---|
705 | Materials science |
583 | Chemistry |
423 | Science and technology, other topics |
222 | Physics |
161 | Engineering |
66 | Electrochemistry |
62 | Polymer science |
56 | Biophysics |
43 | Biochemistry and molecular biology |
35 | Biotechnology and applied microbiology |
33 | Pharmacology and pharmacy |
26 | Environmental sciences and ecology |
20 | Energy and fuels |
17 | Instruments and instrumentation |
17 | Toxicology |
14 | Optics |
12 | Cell biology |
9 | Metallurgy and metallurgical engineering |
8 | Research and experimental medicine |
4 | Computer science |
3 | Crystallography |
3 | Dentistry, oral surgery, and medicine |
3 | Mechanics |
3 | Microscopy |
3 | Oncology |
2 | Food science and technology |
2 | Life sciences and biomedicine, other topics |
2 | Public, environmental, and occupational health |
2 | Spectroscopy |
2 | Water resources |
1 | Acoustics |
1 | Education and educational research |
1 | Endocrinology and metabolism |
1 | General and internal medicine |
1 | Genetics and heredity |
1 | Hematology |
1 | Immunology |
1 | Information science and library science |
1 | Mathematical and computational biology |
1 | Medical informatics |
1 | Microbiology |
1 | Neurosciences and neurology |
1 | Nutrition and dietetics |
1 | Ophthalmology |
1 | Pathology |
1 | Physiology |
1 | Plant sciences |
1 | Radiology, nuclear medicine, and medical imaging |
1 | Telecommunications |
1 | Transplantation |
List of subject categories.
As it is evident from the analysis of Table 5, the most of issues are indexed in nonbiological fields (materials science, chemistry, science and technology, physics, and engineering) rather than in biological fields. This seems to indicate that, to date, the research is led and defined by hard science scientist and, possibly, the contribution of researched belonging to biological and medical areas could be markedly increased in next years.
The same trend could be identified looking on the WC, i.e., the classification system adopted by Web of Science (see Figures 4 and 5).
Classification of subject categories (the diameter is proportion to the number of issues).
Classification of WoS categories (the diameter is proportion to the number of issues).
From these data, we could infer that we are seeing a first phase of the use of graphene and graphene-based materials, in which the studies on basic issues (synthesis, chemical characterization, description of chemical and physical properties) rather than the application in biology and medicine are predominating. Likely, it is possible to hypothesize that in next years, the contribution of life scientists and researchers and clinicians involved in medical field could acquire higher importance.
The use of graphene and graphene-based materials in biomedicine and bioengineering is an emergent technology that promises a wide variety of application in human health, diagnostics, and therapeutics. Here, for the first time, we carried out a scientometric analysis on this topic, finding as a result that the number of published issues and of their citations is quickly and markedly increasing, as proof of the intense activity in this field. The countries that display a more active production (in quantitative term) are from Asia (China, South Korea, India, and Iran) and from North America (the USA). The issues published are mainly referred to hard sciences (materials science, chemistry, science and technology, physics, and engineering) rather than biology or medicine. Despite that these materials are used in a wide variety of biomedical and bioengineering applications (from cell culture to stem cell differentiation, from the realization of scaffolds to toxicological studies), the research activity on these issues seems still in an early stage, characterized by the physical and chemical characterization of materials, rather than the massive application in biomedicine and bioengineering.
Juliana Sofia Simoes Machado is granted by Rep-Eat-H2020-MSCA-COFUND-2015 No. 713714.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Sponges are very primitive pluricellular aquatic organisms that belong to
Close to 9000 sponge species are estimated to exist in the world, but only do a few ones belong to the order
The demand of natural sponges has been growing because of the market preference for natural products and the increase of their use in man’s life, such as domestic, cosmetic, biomedicine, pharmaceutical, pottery, art industry, filter, cleaning and industrial purposes, among other uses. The commonly called ‘bath sponges’ of the family
Natural populations in sponge zones in the world, such as the Antillean region (Cuba, Bahamas and Florida), guarantee more than 50% of the world production. In Mexico, the Caribbean reefs (Isla Mujeres, QR) and the Gulf of Mexico have great species richness that includes the three classes that integrate
The species from the Mediterranean are considered as those with the best quality and commercial value, of which those that stand out are the species
In the Antillean region, the best commercial sponges have come from Cuba and the Bahamas Islands. Although several species have been reported in Cuba, four species have been the target for capture because of their abundance [1, 11, 12, 13]. Of the four species, three of them correspond to those commonly called ‘machos’ [males] from the genus
The presence of commercial sponges, as well as their fishing or recollection, has been reported in Cuba since the nineteenth century. During colony times, fishing boats from the Bahamas would reach the coasts of the Caribbean and Nuevitas (northeast of Cuba) to fish sponges with licence from Spanish authorities where more than 150 thousand dozen were fished by Cubans in 1867 [14]. Years later, sponge fishing was developed in southwestern Cuba with fishermen from Batabanó port, and because of their abundance, the two fishing zones in Cuba were established: (1) the northeast zone exploited by boats and fishermen from Caibarién where the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago is located and (2) the Gulf of Batabanó, in southwest Cuba, exploited by boats from Batabanó fishing port. By 1886 offices in London and Paris were established to commercialise this product [15]. In 1930, the production went beyond 1 million dozen until 1939 and up to 1943 when a disease known as ‘tizón’ (blight), caused by the fungus
This chapter discusses the principal studies and criteria related to commercial sponge fishery and aquaculture advances in Cuba, the main impacting factors that limit their abundance, and the challenges to increase aquaculture production of this important resource sustainably in the long term and with an ecosystem approach.
Sponge fishery in Cuba has shown two extraction procedures, in accordance with the characteristics of the extraction zone, fishermen’s age and regional traditions [17, 18, 19]: (1) by means of hooking implements for sponge recollection from auxiliary (small) boats that are towed by a sponsor, so fisherman immersion is not needed, or (2) by diving in apnoea for detaching or cutting the sponges from the closest part to the fixation substrate. Practically, no evolution in the fishing form has taken place throughout the years. The shallowness of the area where sponges inhabit has determined the fishing system that has followed the traditional method, using a glass bottom bucket and a stick with a double hook or trident to detach the sponge from the substrate (Figure 1).
Traditional technique for sponge capture or recollection in Cuba, sponge boat, auxiliary boat and glass bottom bucket. Photography: La Empresa Pesquera Industrial de Caibarien (EPICAI).
Cuba reached an important commercial sponge production with an average of 166 t in the period from 1910 to 1919; 505 t for 1920–1929 and 391 t for 1930–1939 [20]. From 1939 to 1943, the fungus (blight) disease decimated the populations jointly with the hurricane at the end of 1944, generating lower production levels until 1947 [16, 21]. During the period after 1960, fishery activity was reorganised in Cuba; the fleet was modernised, which decreased the number of sponge boats and fishermen; fishing areas were divided into zones by territories, establishing two fishing regions (Figure 2) in terms of abundance [22, 23]. Currently, commercial sponge fishery in Cuba is regulated by catch quota, and minimum legal sizes have been established for perimetric length: 35.6 cm for
Distribution of the fishing areas according to zones of major commercial sponge abundance: northeast zone (Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago) and southwest zone (Gulf of Batabanó) Cuba.
Although current statistics have shown a tendency to increase sponge extractive activities since 1960, Cuba has not been able to reach the production levels previous to 1940. This tendency could have been due to a greater fishing effort. Almost all the fleets of Batabanó and Caibarién ports dedicated themselves to the capture of this resource and utilised boats type ‘Balandro’ and ‘Goleta’ with a crew from 14 to 16 fishermen. Before 1944 the fleets operated around 350 boats in the Gulf of Batabanó, which belonged to the Cuban ports of Batabanó, Coloma and Gerona [13, 14]. Production increased from 1960 with the proper fluctuations of a fishery that depended on different natural and human factors. Nonetheless, the average annual capture (40.15 ± 12.8 t) from 1960 to 2017 (58 years) did not go beyond 50 t (Figure 3).
Interannual variability of commercial sponge annual average extraction for the 1960–2017 period, in Cuba.
Sponge fishery production decreased in southwest Cuba (Gulf of Batabanó) by fishing region from the beginning of the 2000 decade. Production reported by the enterprise PESCAHABANA (Batabanó) fell from 28.2 ± 3.1 t (2000–2004) to 19.6 ± 1.6 t (2013–2017). A similar pattern was registered for the northeast region (Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago). Production from the industrial fishery (EPICAI) decreased from 25.4 ± 1.6 t (2000–2004) to 14.1 ± 3.0 t (2013–2017). In the case of Caibarién, a greater stability was observed in sponge production during the period 1990–2009 (23 ± 3.8 t). Nevertheless, average capture from the period 2010–2017 was 19.1 ± 9.0 t with a maximum capture (>33 t) in 2010 and 2011, much higher than the historic average (23.5 t) from the period 1972–2017 (47 years). All these data suggested that overfishing occurred during 2010 and 2011 whose consequence was observed several years later with a lower extraction of 15 t, which affected national sponge production. The situation of this region got worse in 2017 (10.4 t) due to the impact of Hurricane ‘Irma’.
Population density studies developed in the 2000 decade [13] showed a greater sample density in the region of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago (Caibarién) with respect to sample data for the region of the Gulf of Batabanó (Figure 4).
Sponge density according to southwest (Batabanó) and northeast (Caibarién) regions in Cuba. Different letters indicate significant differences
In both Cuban regions, northeast (Caibarién) and southwest (Batabanó), commercial extraction of the sponges locally known as ‘Machos’, which belong to the genus
Commercial sponge density by species on the natural banks of northeast Cuba (Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago). Different letters indicate significant differences
Commercial sponge density by species found on natural banks of southwestern Cuba (Gulf of Batabanó). Different letters indicate significant differences
In subsequent studies developed in a protected northeast zone of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago during 2013 [25], which is under the Special Regime of Use and Protection and in which commercial sponge extraction has not been performed, an average density of 0.457 ind/m2 was recorded (4570/ind/ha), estimating a potential precautionary capture of 1300 specimens (30% of the total) per hectare per year [25].
Density data obtained were by far superior to those reported by Blanco and Formoso [13] for the extraction zones of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago. Furthermore, they were superior to those reported by these same authors for the Gulf of Batabanó in the 2000 decade, which evidenced, among other causes, that fishery was also an impact factor.
What is more transcendental data from recent studies is that the ‘Hembra’ sponge
As previously mentioned, one of the main causes of abrupt decrease in sponge populations in Cuba was related to the disease known locally as ‘Tizón’ (smut or blight) caused by the fungus
Solar radiation, illumination and temperature are factors that regulate sponge distribution, colonisation and success in their natural reproductive processes. Although they can withstand extreme temperature (10–36°C) values in short periods, the optimum values for their sexual proliferation is from 23 to 29°C [27, 28]. In Cuba the southern sponge zones of the Gulf of Batabanó showed water temperature average of 28.03°C, while in the northern zone of Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, average temperature was 27.33°C in Sabana and 28.32°C in Camagüey [29].
Even though these values are permissible for commercial sponges in Cuba, high temperatures (>30°C) can also favour the proliferation of bacteria and fungi. In coastal water bodies and bays in the inner part of the Camagüey Archipelago, extreme maximum temperatures up to 35°C could occur due to shallowness and limited water renovation [29]. Because of the shallowness from 3 to 7 m in the Gulf of Batabanó and from 2 to 8 m in the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, in which the greatest abundance of Cuban commercial sponges inhabit, they are very vulnerable to natural physical impacts.
Blanco [23] pointed out hurricanes as a cause of impact on sponge populations, above all on those that inhabited the Gulf of Batabanó due to a greater frequency and intensity of cyclonic disturbances after 1996. Hurricanes generate strong currents and surge of great height and intensity that provoke sediment in suspension besides the fracture and dragging of fragments or complete organisms. It occurs to sponges themselves due to their sessile condition that makes it impossible for them to escape from the energetic movement that occurs in waters, which makes the effect greater on the genera
The increase of anthropogenic activities, such as tourism development in keys and islands, above all in the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, adds contamination and increase in water turbidity; dragging and landfill for construction and repairing roads that link the coast of Cuba to these keys have led to periodical turbidity events that have affected seawater quality [33]. The excess of small particle solids suspended in the water column has caused clogging of the inhaling pores in commercial and noncommercial species, more so in those that have fine pores, causing them inadequate development, including death [1, 26]. The increase of siltation due to coastal erosion has been another impact additional to hurricanes, which has been derived from logging bordering mangroves, maritime construction and increase of average seawater level, as it has occurred in several coastal segments in the southwest region of the Gulf of Batabanó.
On the contrary, organic contamination at intermediate degrees seemed to have caused certain stimulation to sponge development and diversification, but it also reduced species diversity in reefs dramatically and, in extreme cases, has a greater decrease of their biomass [34]. Contamination has also brought as a consequence the disappearance of marine grass rich in commercial sponges and its substitution for muddy bottoms with turbid water loaded with sediments that do not favour
Finally, fishing activity itself could constitute an additional impact when resource exploitation goes beyond its recovery capacity since uncontrolled extraction levels lead to overfishing patterns. Blanco [23] points out a tendency of sponges to decrease, above all, the species
The development of sustainable and economically viable fishery production alternatives, such as sponge culture, constitutes an additional contribution to environment sustainability. It is a working alternative for fishermen to create new community employment sources and generate income of foreign currency besides the need of moving from a predatory recollection activity to a productive aquaculture work, as a step in economic and cultural fishery development in the country [8].
Sponge culture offers a safe and predictable production of a superior quality product to that offered by natural capture besides its elevated price according to the market, quality and species. Besides the easiness of their collection in their natural environment because they are sessile organisms that are generally found in shallow waters, they do not need additional food to that filtered from their environment. This is the reason why its culture requires low investment cost and availability to schedule a tiered harvest. Moreover, its culture reduces fishing pressure on sponges in their natural medium, constituting a sustainable repopulation alternative to increase natural banks surrounding the aquaculture farms because of their larval contribution to the environment [35].
Initial sponge culture in Cuba goes back to several decades. A variance of sponge culture suspended in vertical lines was tested in Cuba in 1965 and described by García del Barco [36, 37] in a sponge culture handbook. The method of vertical suspended lines allowed using a greater area vertically taking advantage of the zone in a greater depth and avoiding being affected by surge as it occurs in lower zones where they traditionally inhabit.
Complete experimental cycles included sponge collection from their natural environment, seeding, harvesting and reseeding from seeds obtained from the same culture, cleaning process and commercialisation. Aquaculture procedures were performed with the assessment of scientific institutions, such as Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras de Cuba [38, 39].
Although sponge culture was not consolidated to a commercial level, important conclusions were obtained from these studies:
Cultured sponges showed less osculation density and diameter, increasing solid surface and weight per volume unit.
They showed less mechanical damage during recollection.
Cultured sponges were harvested in total absence of foreign materials.
They showed spherical shapes which reduced process expenses and wastes.
Cultured sponges reached a similar or greater size to those in their natural environment, in equal period, but with better and more rounded shape.
‘Seeds’ for a nondependant aquaculture could be obtained from their natural environment if not harvesting a part of the cultured sponges and allowing them to naturally grow for about 3 years to get a ‘mother sponge’.
The technical and scientific knowledge and field experiences derived from these experiments allowed editing a handbook of work procedures and operations for small sponge farms attended by the same extractive fishery crew [40]. Research and development has continued, and two culture methods have been tested during the last decade, which are briefly described below.
An experimental farm was projected by the Centro de Estudios y Servicios Ambientales (CESAM, its abbreviation in Spanish for Centre for Environmental Studies and Services) of Villa Clara, Cuba. It was sponsored by funding partners of the United Nations Development Programme for Global Environmental Finance (Small Donations GEF-PNUD). The sponge farm was located in a marine zone in the surroundings of the town Carahatas (Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago) northcentral coast of Cuba. One-hectare culture fences were built and installed in the sea. Metallic poles were buried in the seabed as basic support and plastic mesh cove to restrict access to predators. The ‘free’ sponge method was used in those subdivided 1-ha lots, planting a density of 1 sponge/4 m2 (Figure 7).
Experimental sponge farm in Carahatas, Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, Cuba. Free sponge culture in lots. Graphic art and photography: [
Starting from the contribution of the project GEF/PNUD/’Protección de la biodiversidad en tres sectores productivos del Archipiélago Sabana-Camagüey’ [Biodiversity protection in three productive sectors of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago], fishermen from the Caibarien Basic Enterprise Unit (EPICAI) built a farm in a northeast shallow marine zone with the advice from Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras.
Recollected sponges were cut in 4–5 cm3pieces named as ‘propagules’ that were used for ‘seeding’ and deposited in the substrate (approximately 2500 seeds/ha), at the mercy of currents and other natural water dynamics, until they reached a commercial size. A total of 12 ha seeded were obtained, which should provide 1 t of sponge in a year at a quote of more than $15,000 USD in the world market [41].
This method uses rope ‘tendales’ in a horizontal pattern, which is commonly identified in aquaculture as ‘suspended long-line’ method. Briefly, metallic poles are buried in the seabed as support for nylon-braided rope (long lines 1/4″), elevated 20–30 cm off-bottom. Two long lines support horizontal several tendales of nylon monofilament (150 lb) for sponge suspended aquaculture. Mother sponges are cut in propagues (5 to 8 cm3) to obtain sponges seeds. Propagues are tied to tendales in a collar-shape pattern using monofilament nylon lines (50 lb). In this way, sponge ‘seeds’ hang vertically to horizontal tendales with a separation of 30 cm between each one, during all the grow-out period (Figure 8A). Alternatively, sponge seeds can be put directly in the nylon tendales (Figure 8B).
Suspended line culture. System designed for the experimental farm in Caibarién, Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, Cuba. Graphic art: M.A. Avilés-Quevedo. Photography: Empresa Pesquera Industrial de Caibarien (EPICAI).
After a grow-out from 15 to 18 months, 80% of planted sponges were obtained with acceptable commercial size (18–23 cm in diameter). Part of the recollection of this farm was used as ‘mother sponge’ to obtain new lots of ‘seeds’ for a second project with 130 suspended lines (trails), each one with 33 sponges for a total of 4290 cultured sponges [42].
All these projects, efforts and intentions to boost sponge cultivation in Cuba have remained at the stage of demonstrative experiments without scaling up to allow expansion to a systematic and eco-sustainable production level with an economic profitable income. The causes of this limited development have been related rather than beyond the indisputable potential of marine waters to human factors related to the will of introducing, developing and consolidating sponge culture, which could promote a regional socioeconomic progress.
Gradual reduction of natural sponge banks at national and global levels has been evident, and that risk situation could get worse due to the problems deriving from climate change. Sponge culture, besides being a sustainable production, constitutes an alternative in foreign currency with commercialisation prices according to Cuban commercial species from $4 to $74 USD/kg, depending on their quality classification.
The main challenges to develop and generalise sponge culture in Cuba are:
Link and implicate fishery enterprises and coastal communities to develop sponge culture projects.
Assess and select ideal sites for priority species, according to value and abundance of the natural resources, to implement a viable economical and eco-sustainable aquaculture.
Apply a differential price and payment policy to fishermen, according to natural and cultured sponges. It is essential although clearly established policies exist for the development of marine aquaculture in Cuba.
In other terms, cultured sponges should have more attractive prices to motivate their introduction and boost technologic development and generalisation or the activity.
The economical-environmental feasibility that fishermen themselves combine natural sponge extraction with aquaculture production may not be viable in practice due to their extractive tradition, timing annual fishery operations and compliance demand for official production plans or goals, among other subjective factors.
Facing the decrease in sponge capture and abundance, it shall be essential to reduce fishing effort on natural populations, diverting fleet and fishermen that are currently dedicated to sponge extraction towards aquaculture production.
Those challenges will imply economic and logistic support from state institutions until the first results have been reached, and after that first goal, a second step of continuity will be necessary to improve and continuously enhance this productive activity.
This study was financed by Public Sectorial Research Fund for Education of México, Basic Science project Conacyt No. 258282 and R&D project Proinnova Conacyt No. 241777, under the academic responsibility of JMMS. Authors are grateful to Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras (CIP, Cuba), Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, S.C. (CIBNOR, México), Antonio Grovas Hernández of Grupo Empresarial de la Industria Alimentaria (GEIA, Cuba) who provided updated sponge extraction data, and Diana Fisher for English edition.
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\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. 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Oyarzabal and Cynthia Battie",authors:[{id:"105485",title:"Prof.",name:"Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Oyarzabal",slug:"omar-oyarzabal",fullName:"Omar Oyarzabal"},{id:"106668",title:"Prof.",name:"Cynthia",middleName:null,surname:"Battie",slug:"cynthia-battie",fullName:"Cynthia Battie"}]},{id:"36202",doi:"10.5772/36688",title:"Recent Progress in Noncompetitive Hapten Immunoassays: A Review",slug:"noncompetitive-immunoassay-to-hapten-molecules",totalDownloads:1769,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"2295",slug:"trends-in-immunolabelled-and-related-techniques",title:"Trends in Immunolabelled and Related Techniques",fullTitle:"Trends in Immunolabelled and Related Techniques"},signatures:"Mingtao Fan and Jiang He",authors:[{id:"15909",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiang",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"jiang-he",fullName:"Jiang He"},{id:"109372",title:"Prof.",name:"Mingtao",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mingtao-fan",fullName:"Mingtao Fan"}]},{id:"66392",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85055",title:"Low-Specificity and High-Sensitivity Immunostaining for Demonstrating Pathogens in Formalin-Fixed, Paraffin-Embedded Sections",slug:"low-specificity-and-high-sensitivity-immunostaining-for-demonstrating-pathogens-in-formalin-fixed-pa",totalDownloads:1266,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The present review describes a part of the author’s own experience in applying immunoperoxidase staining to routine histopathological diagnosis. The target disorder was focused on infection. In the practice of pathology diagnosis services, it is important for us diagnostic pathologists to judge whether the lesion is caused by an infection or not. When an infectious disease is highly likely, the visualization of pathogens within the inflammatory lesion is required to suggest a causative agent. Two main approaches the author would like to introduce include (1) the use of commercially available antisera showing wide cross-reactivity to a variety of bacteria and (2) the use of diluted patients’ sera. These immunohistochemical studies employing “low-specificity” and “high-sensitivity” probes are useful for confirming the localization of pathogen within the infectious lesion.",book:{id:"7013",slug:"immunohistochemistry-the-ageless-biotechnology",title:"Immunohistochemistry",fullTitle:"Immunohistochemistry - The Ageless Biotechnology"},signatures:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",authors:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi"}]},{id:"36206",doi:"10.5772/37193",title:"Ferret TNF-α and IFN-γ Immunoassays",slug:"ferret-tnf-alpha-and-ifn-gamma-immunoassays",totalDownloads:1969,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"2295",slug:"trends-in-immunolabelled-and-related-techniques",title:"Trends in Immunolabelled and Related Techniques",fullTitle:"Trends in Immunolabelled and Related Techniques"},signatures:"Alyson Ann Kelvin, David Banner, Ali Danesh, Charit Seneviratne, Atsuo Ochi and David Joseph Kelvin",authors:[{id:"111714",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Kelvin",slug:"david-kelvin",fullName:"David Kelvin"},{id:"111731",title:"Dr.",name:"Alyson",middleName:null,surname:"Kelvin",slug:"alyson-kelvin",fullName:"Alyson Kelvin"},{id:"111732",title:"MSc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Banner",slug:"david-banner",fullName:"David Banner"}]},{id:"36200",doi:"10.5772/35160",title:"Evaluation of an Immuno-Chromatographic Detection System for Shiga Toxins and the E. coli O157 Antigen",slug:"evaluation-of-an-immuno-chromatographic-detection-system-for-shiga-toxins-and-e-coli-o157-antigen",totalDownloads:2186,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"2295",slug:"trends-in-immunolabelled-and-related-techniques",title:"Trends in Immunolabelled and Related Techniques",fullTitle:"Trends in Immunolabelled and Related Techniques"},signatures:"Ylanna Burgos and Lothar Beutin",authors:[{id:"103223",title:"Dr.",name:"Lothar",middleName:null,surname:"Beutin",slug:"lothar-beutin",fullName:"Lothar Beutin"},{id:"103567",title:"Dr.",name:"Ylanna",middleName:"Kelner",surname:"Burgos",slug:"ylanna-burgos",fullName:"Ylanna Burgos"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63122",title:"Immune Cell Profiling in Cancer Using Multiplex Immunofluorescence and Digital Analysis Approaches",slug:"immune-cell-profiling-in-cancer-using-multiplex-immunofluorescence-and-digital-analysis-approaches",totalDownloads:1643,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"During the last years, multiplex immunofluorescence (mIF) has emerged as a very powerful tool in multiple epitope detection to study tumor tissues. This revolutionary technology is providing an important visual technique for tumor examination in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded specimens for a better understanding of tumor microenvironment, new treatment discoveries, cancer prevention, as well as translational studies. The aim of this chapter is to highlight the use of tyramide signal amplification methodology in mIF and image analysis to identify several proteins at the same time in one single tissue and their spatial distribution in different tumor specimens including whole sections, core needle biopsies, and tissue microarrays. This type of methodology associated with image analysis can perform high-quality throughput assay in translational research studies to be applied in cancer prevention and treatments.",book:{id:"7013",slug:"immunohistochemistry-the-ageless-biotechnology",title:"Immunohistochemistry",fullTitle:"Immunohistochemistry - The Ageless Biotechnology"},signatures:"Edwin Roger Parra",authors:null},{id:"64808",title:"Detection Systems in Immunohistochemistry",slug:"detection-systems-in-immunohistochemistry",totalDownloads:2033,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a process of selectively imaging antigens in cells or tissue sections by exploiting antibody specificity. This technique is widely used in diagnostic pathology and research experiments for tracking specific molecular markers characteristic of a particular cell type or cellular events such as cancerous cell development, cell proliferation, or apoptosis. Visualizing the target antigen following an antibody-antigen interaction is accomplished by different detection systems. In the simplest instance, primary antibody directly conjugated to an enzyme is responsible for both specifically binding to the antigen and catalyzing a color-producing reaction. Alternatively, complex detection systems could be designed to profoundly improve minimal detection level of the antigen. During the past years, there has been a considerable improvement in designing and introduction of new and highly sensitive detection systems. The choice of an IHC detection system is a compromise of a variety of variables including desired sensitivity, cost, and the time needed for an IHC staining to be performed. This chapter covers the immunohistochemistry detection systems with emphasis on their principle, history, advantages, and limitations and delineates factors needed to be considered for choosing an appropriate detection system for IHC applications.",book:{id:"7013",slug:"immunohistochemistry-the-ageless-biotechnology",title:"Immunohistochemistry",fullTitle:"Immunohistochemistry - The Ageless Biotechnology"},signatures:"Sorour Shojaeian, Nasim Maslehat Lay and Amir-Hassan Zarnani",authors:null},{id:"65712",title:"In Situ Identification of Ectoenzymes Involved in the Hydrolysis of Extracellular Nucleotides",slug:"in-situ-identification-of-ectoenzymes-involved-in-the-hydrolysis-of-extracellular-nucleotides",totalDownloads:922,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and other nucleotides and nucleosides, such as adenosine, are signaling molecules involved in many physiological and pathophysiological processes. The group of cell and tissue responses mediated by these molecules is known as purinergic signaling. Ecto-nucleotidases are ectoenzymes expressed at the cell membrane that act sequentially to efficiently hydrolyze extracellular ATP into adenosine, and they are key elements of this signaling. There is growing interest in studying these enzymes in relation to various pathologies, especially those with an inflammatory component such as cancer. This review summarizes the main protocols for the study of the expression and in situ activity of ectoenzymes in tissue slices and cultured cells.",book:{id:"7013",slug:"immunohistochemistry-the-ageless-biotechnology",title:"Immunohistochemistry",fullTitle:"Immunohistochemistry - The Ageless Biotechnology"},signatures:"Mireia Martín-Satué, Aitor Rodríguez-Martínez and Carla Trapero",authors:null},{id:"66392",title:"Low-Specificity and High-Sensitivity Immunostaining for Demonstrating Pathogens in Formalin-Fixed, Paraffin-Embedded Sections",slug:"low-specificity-and-high-sensitivity-immunostaining-for-demonstrating-pathogens-in-formalin-fixed-pa",totalDownloads:1266,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The present review describes a part of the author’s own experience in applying immunoperoxidase staining to routine histopathological diagnosis. The target disorder was focused on infection. In the practice of pathology diagnosis services, it is important for us diagnostic pathologists to judge whether the lesion is caused by an infection or not. When an infectious disease is highly likely, the visualization of pathogens within the inflammatory lesion is required to suggest a causative agent. Two main approaches the author would like to introduce include (1) the use of commercially available antisera showing wide cross-reactivity to a variety of bacteria and (2) the use of diluted patients’ sera. These immunohistochemical studies employing “low-specificity” and “high-sensitivity” probes are useful for confirming the localization of pathogen within the infectious lesion.",book:{id:"7013",slug:"immunohistochemistry-the-ageless-biotechnology",title:"Immunohistochemistry",fullTitle:"Immunohistochemistry - The Ageless Biotechnology"},signatures:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",authors:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi"}]},{id:"78305",title:"Anti-Microbial Peptides: The Importance of Structure-Function Analysis in the Design of New AMPs",slug:"anti-microbial-peptides-the-importance-of-structure-function-analysis-in-the-design-of-new-amps",totalDownloads:53,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In recent years the rapid emergence of drug resistant microorganisms has become a major health problem worldwide. The number of multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria is in a rapid increase. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop new antimicrobial agent that is active against MDR. Among the possible candidates, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent a promising alternative. Many AMPs candidates were in clinical development and the Nisin was approved in many food products. Exact mechanism of AMPs action has not been fully elucidated. More comprehensive of the mechanism of action provide a path towards overcoming the toxicity limitation. This chapter is a review that provides an overview of bacterial AMPs named bacteriocin, focusing on their diverse mechanism of action. We develop here the structure–function relationship of many AMPs. A good understanding of AMPS structure–function relationship can helps the scientific in the conception of new active AMPs by the evaluation of the role of each residue and the determination of the essential amino acids for activity. This feature helps the development of the second-generation AMPs with high potential antimicrobial activity and more.",book:{id:"10874",slug:null,title:"Insights on Antimicrobial Peptides",fullTitle:"Insights on Antimicrobial Peptides"},signatures:"Awatef Ouertani, Amor Mosbah and Ameur Cherif",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"149",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80915",title:"Molecular Pathogenesis of Inflammatory Cytokines in Insulin Resistance Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"molecular-pathogenesis-of-inflammatory-cytokines-in-insulin-resistance-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100971",abstract:"Diabetes Mellitus Type 2 (T2DM) is a non-communicable and multifactorial disease. It is a leading cause of premature deaths worldwide. Inflammatory cytokines are reported that they have potential to enhance insulin resistance and hence T2DM. The current research was taken to investigate the possible role of inflammatory mediators: Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF-α) and White blood cells (WBC’s) in mobilizing biological molecules mainly immunological nature. A total of 320 subjects were selected in this study among them 160 were T2DM cases and 160 were healthy controls. Serum concentration of Tumor Necrosis Factor-a (TNF-α) was quantified by ELISA method, WBC count was measured on Sysmax (Germany) hematology analyzer, biochemical and Immunoassay parameters were done on fully automatic analyzers. The expression of candidate pro-inflammatory cytokine (TNF-α), and (WBC’s) were elevated in T2DM. TNF-α shows association (p<0.001) with glycemic profile and insulin sensitivity in T2DM cases in comparison with healthy controls. Induction of inflammation and up regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines has been purported to play a significant role in pathogenesis of T2DM and study confirms that the positive correlation of TNF-α with T2DM and hence to insulin sensitivity. These can act as early prediction biomarkers in diagnosis and prognosis of human disease i.e Diabetes Mellitus. Further studies are needed to help clinicians manage and treat T2DM effectively.",book:{id:"10874",title:"Insights on Antimicrobial Peptides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10874.jpg"},signatures:"Haamid Bashir, Mohammad Hayat Bhat and Sabhiya Majid"},{id:"81299",title:"Peptides with Therapeutic Potential against Acinetobacter baumanii Infections",slug:"peptides-with-therapeutic-potential-against-acinetobacter-baumanii-infections",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100389",abstract:"Antibiotic poly-resistance (multi drug-, extreme-, and pan-drug resistance) is a major global threat to public health. Unfortunately, in 2017, the World Health Organization (WHO) introduced the carbapenemresistant isolates in the priority pathogens list for which new effective antibiotics or new ways of treating the infections caused by them are urgently needed. Acinetobacter baumannii is one of the most critical ESKAPE pathogens for which the treatment of resistant isolates have caused severe problems; its clinically significant features include resistance to UV light, drying, disinfectants, and antibiotics. Among the various suggested options, one of the antimicrobial agents with high potential to produce new anti-Acinetobacter drugs is the antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). AMPs are naturally produced by living organisms and protect the host against pathogens as a part of innate immunity. The main mechanisms action of AMPs are the ability to cause cell membrane and cell wall damage, the inhibition of protein synthesis, nucleic acids, and the induction of apoptosis and necrosis. AMPs would be likely among the main anti-A. baumannii drugs in the post-antibiotic era. Also, the application of computer science to increase anti-A. baumannii activity and reduce toxicity is also being developed.",book:{id:"10874",title:"Insights on Antimicrobial Peptides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10874.jpg"},signatures:"Karyne Rangel and Salvatore Giovanni De-Simone"},{id:"78305",title:"Anti-Microbial Peptides: The Importance of Structure-Function Analysis in the Design of New AMPs",slug:"anti-microbial-peptides-the-importance-of-structure-function-analysis-in-the-design-of-new-amps",totalDownloads:53,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99801",abstract:"In recent years the rapid emergence of drug resistant microorganisms has become a major health problem worldwide. The number of multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria is in a rapid increase. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop new antimicrobial agent that is active against MDR. Among the possible candidates, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent a promising alternative. Many AMPs candidates were in clinical development and the Nisin was approved in many food products. Exact mechanism of AMPs action has not been fully elucidated. More comprehensive of the mechanism of action provide a path towards overcoming the toxicity limitation. This chapter is a review that provides an overview of bacterial AMPs named bacteriocin, focusing on their diverse mechanism of action. We develop here the structure–function relationship of many AMPs. A good understanding of AMPS structure–function relationship can helps the scientific in the conception of new active AMPs by the evaluation of the role of each residue and the determination of the essential amino acids for activity. This feature helps the development of the second-generation AMPs with high potential antimicrobial activity and more.",book:{id:"10874",title:"Insights on Antimicrobial Peptides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10874.jpg"},signatures:"Awatef Ouertani, Amor Mosbah and Ameur Cherif"},{id:"79192",title:"Mass Spectrometry (Imaging) for Detection and Identification of Cyclic AMPs: Focus on Human Neutrophil Peptides (HNPs)",slug:"mass-spectrometry-imaging-for-detection-and-identification-of-cyclic-amps-focus-on-human-neutrophil-",totalDownloads:71,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99251",abstract:"Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are known best for their role in innate immunity against bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. However, not only are they showing increasing promise as potential antimicrobial drug candidates, recently, it has been reported that certain AMPs also show a cytotoxic effect against cancer cells. Their possible antitumor effect could make AMPs interesting candidate cancer biomarkers and a possible lead for new anticancer therapy. Due to their cyclic structure, detection and identification of AMPs is challenging, however, mass spectrometry (imaging; MSI) has been shown as a powerful tool for visualization and identification of (unknown) cyclic AMPs. In this chapter, we will discuss how mass spectrometry (imaging), combined with the use of electron-transfer dissociation (ETD) as fragmentation technique, can be used as a reliable method to identify AMPs in their native cyclic state. Using this approach, we have previously detected and identified human neutrophil peptides (HNPs) as important AMPs in cancer, of which a detailed bacterial, viral and cancer-related overview will be presented.",book:{id:"10874",title:"Insights on Antimicrobial Peptides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10874.jpg"},signatures:"Eline Berghmans and Geert Baggerman"},{id:"78302",title:"Antimicrobial Peptides Derived from Ascidians and Associated Cyanobacteria",slug:"antimicrobial-peptides-derived-from-ascidians-and-associated-cyanobacteria",totalDownloads:73,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99183",abstract:"Ascidians belonging to Phylum Chordata are the most largest and diverse of the Sub-phylum Tunicata (Urochordata). Marine ascidians are one of the richest sources of bioactive peptides. These bioactive peptides from marine ascidians are confined to various types of structures such as cyclic peptides, acyclic peptides (depsipeptides), linear helical peptides with abundance of one amino acid (proline, trytophane, histidine), peptides forming hairpin like beta sheets or α-helical/β-sheet mixed structures stabilized by intra molecular disulfide bonding. Cyanobactins are fabricated through the proteolytic cleavage and cyclization of precursor peptides coupled with further posttranslational modifications such as hydroxylation, glycosylation, heterocyclization, oxidation, or prenylation of amino acids. Ascidians are known to be a rich source of bioactive alkaloids. β-carbolines form a large group of tryptophan derived antibiotics. Pyridoacridines from ascidians are tetra- or penta- cyclic aromatic alkaloids with broad range of bioactivities. Didemnidines derived from ascidian symbiotic microbes are inhibitors of phospholipase A2 and induce cell apoptosis. Meridianins are indulged in inhibiting various protein kinases such as, cyclindependent kinases, glycogen synthase kinase-3, cyclic nucleotide dependent kinases, casein kinase, and also implicate their activity of interfering with topoisomerase, altering the mitochondrial membrane potential and binding to the DNA minor groove to inhibit transcriptional activation. Most of these bioactive compounds from ascidians are already in different phases of the clinical and pre-clinical trials. 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