Rise and decline of states.
\r\n\tDiagnosis and management of complications while on ECMO therapy and weaning to recovery or advanced therapies will be also discussed.
\r\n\r\n\tChapters focusing on specific patient populations, such as cardiogenic shock, thoracic organ transplantation, trauma, and neonates, Covid-19 syndrome, will provide insight into the particular challenges in dealing with the unusual problems of these very diverse groups.
\r\n\r\n\tThe goal of this book is to provide, thanks to the thorough contributions by known experts in the field, a framework for successful program development. Hopefully, this text will also inspire others to further advance this delicate field.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-549-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-548-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-550-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"254c18981115aeda50bdf71829902141",bookSignature:"Dr. Antonio Loforte",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11718.jpg",keywords:"Heart Failure, Cardiogenic Shock, Respiratory Failure, Circulatory Failure, End-Organ Dysfunction, VA-ECMO, VV ECMO, Central ECMO, ECMO Running, Weaning off ECMO, Adverse Events While on ECMO, Survival on ECMO",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 24th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Loforte is a dedicated and pioneering researcher in the surgical treatment of advanced heart failure in terms of LVAD, BVAD, ECLS, and TAH adoption in different clinical scenarios. He is a member of several professional organizations including the prestigious STS, ISHLT, ASAIO, EACTS, RHICS, SICCH, SITO, ELSO, and ESOT among others. His bibliography lists over 150 peer-reviewed original articles, 250 abstracts (communications) for international meetings, 20 book chapters, and 8 manuals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"42172",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Loforte",slug:"antonio-loforte",fullName:"Antonio Loforte",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42172/images/system/42172.jpg",biography:"Dr. Loforte is currently staff surgeon and chair of the Mechanical Circulatory Support (MCS) program at the Department of Cardiothoracic, Transplantation and Vascular Surgery, S. Orsola Hospital, ALMA Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, IRCCS Bologna, Italy. He completed his cardiothoracic surgery recidency at the University of Bologna, S. Orsola Hospital (Italy), at St. Antonius Ziekenhuis, Nieuwegein (the Netherlands) and the Deutsches Herzzentrum Berlin (Germany). He additionally joined the Michael E. DeBakey Department of Surgery, Division of Transplant and Assist Devices, in Houston, Texas, USA.\nDr. Loforte is a member of several professional organizations including the prestigious STS, ISHLT, ASAIO, EACTS, RHICS, SICCH, SITO, ELSO, ESOT among others. His bibliography lists over 150 peer-reviewed original articles, 250 abstracts (communications) for international meetings, 20 book chapters, and 8 manuals. He serves as a reviewer for 25 international journals and is part of the editorial board in 10 of them. He received a ‘European Ph.D. label’ in Organ Transplantation and ten international awards in Europe and USA.",institutionString:"Division of Cardiac Surgery, S. 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\nAt the 60–70th of the twentieth century, many authors (see, for example, [1]) offered to use predicate calculus for AI problem solving. The resolution method seemed to be a very easy and clear tool to solve problems dealing with compound objects, which can be described by properties of its elements and relations between these elements.
\nUntil the notion of NP-complete problem (in particular, described in [2, 3]) was not widely adopted, such an approach seemed to be very convenient, but many such-a-way formalized problems occurred to be NP-complete or even algorithmic unsolvable.
\nWhile developing the effective algorithms deciding discrete problems, determination of estimations for number of steps of their run becomes one of the important problems. The absence of the proved estimations for number of an algorithm run steps is considered as an insufficient research of this algorithm. It is especially relevant for problems with big input. It concerns, in particular, to the algorithms deciding various AI problems. At practical use of an algorithm, it is important that it has polynomial upper bound of number of its run steps. The NP-completeness or NP-hardness of a problem means now that the polynomial algorithm of its decision is not known.
\nIn 2007, the author proved NP-completeness of a series of AI problems formalized with the help of predicate calculus formulas [4], proved upper bounds for number of steps of algorithms solving these problems [5], and offered a level description of goal formulas for decreasing the number of proof steps [6]. Such a level description is based on the extraction of a common up to the names of its arguments sub-formula of the set of elementary conjunctions of atomic predicate formulas. These sub-formulas define generalized characteristics of an object.
\nExtraction of such sub-formulas allows to construct logic-predicate networks [7], which may change its configuration (the number of layers and the number of cells in the layer) during the process of training.
\nExtraction of these sub-formulas may serve as an instrument for constructing a multi-agent description of an object, when every agent can describe only a part of the object (these parts are intersected), but every agent gives its own names to the elements of the whole object [8].
\nHere, some AI problems formalized in such a way are under consideration. For these problems, the solving algorithms and upper bounds of their run are obtained. These upper bounds permit to point out the parameters of the problem, which mostly influence on the complexity of the algorithm, and to offer approaches permitting to decrease the complexity.
\nA model example illustrating the described approach and algorithms is given.
\nLet an investigated object be presented as a set of its elements
Let the set
Here and below, the notation \n
The introduced descriptions allow to solve many artificial intelligence problems [9]. Main of these problems may be formulated as follows.
\nThe solution of these problems may be reduced to the proof of logic sequents
\nrespectively, and determination of the values for \n
Note that the proof of any of the sequent (1), (2), or (3) answers only the question “whether it is true?” Strictly speaking, in the sequents (1)–(3), instead of the symbols \n
If one uses an exhaustive or a logical algorithm (derivation in a sequent calculus or proof by resolution method), the algorithm gives the values for \n
The proof of sequents (1) and (3) is based on the proof of the sequent
\nwhere \n
An
or, more roughly,
\nWhile using a
The number of steps (i.e., the number of comparisons) required for the solution of the system and, hence, for the logical algorithm solving (4) is
\nwhere
The above-received estimations are exponential over the length of \n
The received estimations cannot be essentially decreased up to polynomial ones if
Problem (2) is strictly connected with the so-called “open” problem ISOMORPHISM OF GRAPHS [3], for which it is not proved neither its polynomiality nor its NP-completeness.
\nThese standard images allow to form a description (up to mirror image) of almost all boxes. Such a description is a disjunction of four elementary conjunctions containing, respectively, 10, 8, 10, 8 variables and 30 + 2, 23 + 1, 28 + 4, 33 + 4 atomic formulas with predicates
Given a “box” inside a complex contour image containing
Can seem that many atomic formulas such as
Below, the designation \n
The notion of level description of classes was introduced in [6]. Such a description essentially allows to decrease the number of steps for an algorithm solving every of the above-formulated problems. This notion is based on the extraction of “frequently” appeared “sub-formulas” \n
Repeat the above-described procedure with all formulas \n
The solution of the problem of the form (4) with the use of the level description of classes is decomposed on the sequential (
For every
Introduce new
Substitute \n
Add all constant atomic
At last check
The decreasing of the number of steps for an algorithm solving every of the above formulated problems (1)–(3) with the use of a level description follows from the fact that in items 1, 2, and 5, we solve the same problem as it was formulated in Section 1 and has the number (4). The estimations of number of steps exponentially depend on the parameters of the formula, i.e., on the right part of implication. That is why the term “small complexity” for \n
Why did we use quotation marks for the term “sub-formulas?” Such formulas (elementary conjunctions) \n
The substitutions λR,P and λR,Q are called unifiers of R with P and Q, respectively.
\nFor example, let A(x,y,z) = p1(x) & p1(y) & p1(z) & p2(x, y) & p3(x, z), B(x,y,z) = p1(x) & p1(y) & p1(z) & p2(x, z) & p3(x, z)
\nIs the formula
The formula
An algorithm of extraction of a maximal (having a maximal number of literals) common up to the names of arguments sub-formula
This algorithm allows to construct a level description for a set of goal elementary conjunctions. Essential difference between maximal common up to the names of arguments sub-formulas and sub-formulas in the level description consists in the fact that in the level description it is needed to extract sub-formulas with “small complexity” but not a maximal one. An algorithm of level description construction is in [6]. It consists in sequential pairwise extraction of common up to the names of variables sub-formulas of \n
Let
Return to the example in the previous section. There, we have seen a description of a class of “boxes” represented in Figure 1. According to these descriptions, we have received that given a “box” inside a complex contour image containing
Standard different contour images of a “box”.
Pairwise extraction of common up to the names of variables of elementary conjunctions, corresponding to these images, allows to extract common up to the names of variables sub-formulas corresponding to the images represented in Figure 2
\nImages corresponding to extraction of common sub-formulas.
These sub-formulas contain, respectively, 8, 8, 7, 7, 7, 8 variables and 18, 15, 11, 11, 15, 16 atomic formulas.
\nThe following extraction by means of pairwise partial deduction between common sub-formulas corresponding to images
Image corresponding to the second extraction of common sub-formulas.
Elementary conjunction P
Elementary conjunctions
For example, a sub-formula corresponding to the image ab is P12(x1,x1,x2,x3,x4,x5,x8,x9,x10) = p1(x1) & V(x2,x5,x8) & V(x2,x1,x8) & V(x5,x4,x10) & V(x5,x3,x10) & V(x8,x2,x10) & V(x10,x8,x5) & V(x10,x5,x9) & V(x10,x8,x9). The unifier of P12(x1,x1,x2,x3,x4,x5,x8,x9,x10) with the description of a is an identical substitution, and with the description of b, it is a substitution of x4,x5,x6,x7,x8 instead of x2,x4,x5,x9,x10. Descriptions of images c and d are not unified with it.
\nThe three-level description of the image b takes the form Ab2(x12,x4,x5,x6,x7) = p12(x12) & V(x5,x4,x7) & V(x5,x7,x6) or Ab2(x32,x4,x5,x6,x7) = p32(x32) & V(x3,x2,x8) & V(x5,x4,x7) & V(x5,x7,x6).
\nGiven a “box” inside a complex contour image containing
Elementary conjunctions
Elementary conjunctions obtained from the class description by means of second-level predicates instead of the corresponding sub-formulas contain respectively 2, 0, 2, 2 “new” variables and 7, 4, 11, 16 “new” atomic formulas. The proof of the sequence from S
As O(
Traditional neuron network deals with binary or many-valued characteristics of an object and is an adder of weighted inputs followed by a function mapping the result into the segment [0, 1]. The neuron network configuration is fixed and only the weights may be changed.
\nA logic-predicate network is described later. The inputs for this network are atomic formulas setting properties of the elements composing an investigated object and relations between them [7]. The proposed model of logic-predicate network has two blocks: a training block and a recognition block. The input of every block is an elementary conjunction of atomic predicate formulas or their negations. Configuration of the recognition block is formed after an implementation of the training block and may be changed with its help.
\nThe training block is a “slowly running” block. At the same time, the recognition block is a “quickly running” one. The base of the proposed predicate network is a logic-objective approach to AI problems and level description of classes.
\nThe scheme of the logic-predicate network is presented in Figure 4
\nScheme of the logic-predicate network.
At a training stage of logic-predicate network construction, we have a training set of objects. Let a training set of objects ω1,…, ωK be given to form an initial variant of the network training block. Replace every constant \n
Construct a level description for these goal formulas with the use of algorithm of level description. The first approximation to the recognition block is formed. Formulas \n
The recognition block tries to identify a new object according to the level description of classes, obtained in the training block.
\nIf after the “recognition block” run an object is not recognized or has wrong classification, then it is possible to train anew the network. The description of the “wrong” object must be added to the input set of the training block. The training block extracts common sub-formulas of this description and previously received formulas forming the recognition block. Some sub-formulas in the level description would be changed. Then, the recognition block is reconstructed.
\nGiven a training set for the class of contour images of “boxes” presented in Figure 1 (Section 2). Pairwise extraction of common up to the names of variables of elementary conjunctions, corresponding to these images, allows to extract common sub-formulas corresponding to the images presented in Figures 2 and 3 (Section 3). Fragments of the images corresponding to a three-level network are presented in Figure 5.
\nFragments of the images corresponding to a three-level network.
Given, a new image represented in Figure 6 for recognition, the network would not recognize it because the first-level predicate is not valid.
\nControl image.
Add the description of this control image to the input data of the training block. The extraction of common sub-formulas for this description and the formula defining the first-level predicate gives a formula corresponding to the image represented in Figure 7.
\nImage corresponding to the new first-level predicate.
New second-level predicates correspond to three images represented in Figure 8.
\nImages corresponding to three new second-level predicates.
The set of the third-level predicates coincides with the set of previous second-level predicates. So, the recognition block is constructed anew and represents four-level description of the class. Fragments of the images corresponding to a four-level network are presented in Figure 9.
\nFragments of the images corresponding to a four-level network.
A problem of multi-agent description of a complex object is under consideration in this section. It is supposed that every agent knows only a part of an investigated object description. Moreover, she does not know the true names of elements and gives them names arbitrary. It is similar to the parable about tree blind men who feel an elephant. To overcome such a paradox, it is supposed that every two agents have information concerning some common part of an object. The main difficulty in this problem is to find and identify these parts [8].
\nLet an investigated object is represented as a set of its elements \n
Information (description) of an object is an elementary conjunction of atomic formulas with predicates
There are
As every agent uses her own notifications for the names of the object elements, it is needed to find all common up to the names of arguments sub-formulas
Below, the arguments of information will be omitted. Let every agent
Change all constants in
For every pair of elementary conjunctions
For every pair
For every
With the use of the unifiers obtained in items 2–4 change the names of variables in
Write down the conjunction
To estimate the number of the algorithm run steps, we estimate every item of the algorithm.
Item 1 requires not more than \n
Item 2 requires \n
“steps” for an algorithm based on the derivation in the predicate calculus.
It is needed to summarize the above estimates for
Consistency checking of the formulas
For every
The number of “steps” required for the changing of the names of variables in
The number of “steps” required for the deleting of the repeated conjunctive terms is not more than \n
The whole number of the algorithm run steps is O(
The analysis of the received estimation shows that the main contribution is made by the summarized number of partial deduction checking (item 2).
\nLet the initial predicates be
Fragments of the image received by three agents.
According to the item 1 of the algorithm, all constants in the fragment descriptions are replaced by variables in such a way that different constants are changed by different variables and the names of variables in
I′1(x1,…,x6) = V(x1,x2,x4) & V(x1,x5,x4) & V(x1,x3,x2) & V(x1,x3,x5) & V(x1,x3,x4) & V(x2,x1,x3) & V(x2,x3,x5) & V(x3,x2,x1) &V(x3,x6,x2) & V(x3,x6,x1) & L(x2,x1,x5),
\nI′2(y1,…,y6) = V(y3,y1,y4) & V(y1,y2,y3) & V(y1,y5,y3) & V(y1,y6,y2) & V(y1,y6,y5) & V(y1,y6,y3) & L(y2,y1,y5),
\nI′3(z1,…,z8) = V(z1,z5,z3) & V(z1,z3,z2) & V(z1,z5,z2) & V(z3,z1,z7) & V(z3,z1,z6) & V(z3,z7,z4) & V(z3,z6,z4) & V(z3,z4,z1) & V(z4,z2,z3) & V(z4,z3,z8) & V(z4,z2,z8) & L(z7,z6,z3).
\nAccording to the item 2 of the algorithm, find maximal common up to the names of arguments sub-formula of formulas I′1(x1,…,x6) and I′2(y1,…,y6). It is C12(u0,…,u4) of the form C12(u0,…,u4) = V(u0,u1,u2) & V(u0,u3,u2) & V(u0,u4,u1) & V(u0,u4,u3) & V(u0,u4,u2) & L(u1,u0,u3).
\nIt has unifiers
I′1(u0,u1,u2,u3,u4,x6) = V(u1,u0,u4) & V(u1,u4,u3) & V(u4,u1,u0) & V(u4,x6,u1) & V(u4,x6,u0) & C12(u0, …, u4),
\nI′2(u0,u1,u2,y4,u3,u4) = V(u2,u0,y4) & C12(u0,…,u4).
\nMaximal common up to the names of arguments sub-formula of I′2(y1,…,y6) and I′3(z1,…,z8) is C23(v0,v2,v4,v5,v6,v7) of the form
\nC23(v0,v2,v4,v5,v6,v7) = V(v6,v2,v7) & V(v2,v4,v6) & V(v2,v5,v6) &V(v2,v0,v4) & V(v2,v0,v5).
\nIt has unifiers
I′2(v2,v4,v6,v7,v5,v0) = V(v2,v0,v6) & L(v4,v2,v5) & C23(v0,v2,v4,v5,v6,v7),
\nI′3(v0,z2,v2,v6,z5,v5,v4,v7) = V(v2,v6,v0) & V(v0,z5,v2) & V(v0,v2,z2) & V(v0,v5,z2) & V(v6,z2,v2) & V(v6,v2,v7) & L(v4,v5,v2) & C23(v0,v2,v4,v5,v6,v7).
\nAs I′2(v2,v4,v6,v7,v5,v0) contains V(v2,v0,v6) and I′3(v0,z2,v2,v6,z5,v5,v4,v7) contains V(v2,v6,v0) and according to the definition of the predicate V, the formula V(x,y,z) & V(x,z,y) is a contradiction, so substitutions with this unifiers cannot give a consistent description of the object. After deleting from I′2(y1,…,y6) and I′3(z1,…,z8), the variables y1 and z3, respectively, a new maximal common up to the names of arguments their sub-formula C’23(v0,v2,v4,v5,v6,v7) of the form C’23(v0,v1,v2) = L(v1,v0,v2) will be received with the unifiers
I′2(v0,v1,v2,y4,y5,y6) = V(v2,v0,y4) & V(v0,v1,v2) & V(v0,y5,v2) & V(v0,y6,v1) &V(v0,y6,y5) & V(v0,y6,v2) & C’23(v0,v1,v2),
\nI′3(z1,z2,v2,z4,z5,v0,v1,z8) = V(z1,z5,v2) & V(z1,v2,z2) & V(z1,z5,z2) & V(v2,z1,v1) & V (v2,z1,v0) & V(v2,v1,z4) & V(v2,v0,z4) & V(v2,z4,z1) & V(z4,z2,v2) & V(z4,v2,z8) & V(z4,z2,z8) & C’23(v0,v1,v2).
\nMaximal common up to the names of arguments sub-formula of I1(x1,…,x6) and I3(z1,…,z8) is C13(w0, …,w6) in the form
\nC13(w0, …,w6) = V(w2,w4,w6) & V(w2,w5,w6) & V(w2,w0,w4) & V(w2,w0,w5) & V(w0,w1,w2).
\nIt has unifiers
I′1(w2,w4,w0,w6,w5,w1) = V(w2,w0,w6) & V(w0,w1,w4) & V(w0,w4,w2) & L(w2,w4,w5) & C13(w0,…,w6),
\nI′3(w0,z2,w2,w6,w1,w5,w4,z8) = V(w0,w2,w3) & V(w0,w1,w3) & V(w2,w6,w0) & V(w6,w3,w2) & V(w6,w2,w7) & V(w6,w3,w7) & C13(w0,…,w6).
\nAs I′1(w2,w4,w0,w6,w5,w1) contains V(w2,w0,w6), I3(w0,z2,w2,w6,w1,w5,w4,z8) contains V(w2,w6,w0) and according to the definition of the predicate V, the formula V(x,y,z) & V(x,z,y) is a contradiction, so substitutions with this unifiers cannot give a consistent description of the object.
\nAfter deleting from I′1(x1,…,x6) and I′3(z1,…,z8) literals with the variables x1 and z3, respectively, a new maximal common up to the names of arguments their sub-formula
\nC′13(w0,w1,w2) of the form C’13(w0,w1,w2) = L(w1,w0,w2)
\nwill be received with the unifiers
I′1(w0,w1,x3,x4,w2,x6) = V(w0,w1,x4) & V(w0,w2,x4) & V(w0,x3,w1) & V(w0,x3,w2) & V(w0,x3,x4) & V(w1,w0,x3) & V(w1,x3,w2) & V(x3,w1,w0) & V(x3,x6,w1) & V(x3,x6,w0) & C’13(w0,w1,w2),
\nI′3(z1,z1,w2,w1,w0,z6,z7,z8) = V(z1,w0,w2) & V(z1,w2,z2) & V(z1,w0,z2) & V(w2,z1,z7) & V(w2,z1,z6) & V(w2,z7,w1) & V(w2,z6,w1) & V(w2,w1,z1) & V(w1,z2,w2) & V(w1,w2,z8) & V(w1,z2,z8) & C′13(w0,w1,w2).
\nAccording to the item 4 of the algorithm, we identify new variables substituted instead of the same initial variable. That is we identify the following variables:
\nu0 and w0 (are substituted instead of the variable x1),
u1 and w1 (are substituted instead of the variable x2),
u2 and w2 (are substituted instead of the variable x4),
u0 and v0 (are substituted instead of the variable y1),
u1 and v1 (are substituted instead of the variable y2),
u2 and v2 (are substituted instead of the variable y3),
v0 and w0 (are substituted instead of the variable z6),
v1 and w1 (are substituted instead of the variable z3),
v2 and w2 (are substituted instead of the variable z7).
The identified variables denote as α 0, α 1, and α 2. So, we have the equalities u0 = v0 = w0 = α 0, u1 = v1 = w1 = α 1, u2 = v2 = w2 = α 2.
\nAs a result, we have the following descriptions of the fragments:
\nI″1(α 0, α 1,u4,u2, α 2,x6) = V(α 0, α 1,u2) & V(α 0, α 2,u2) & V(α 0,u4, α 1) & V(α 0,u4, α 2) & V(α 0,u4,u2) & V(α 1, α 0,u4) & V(α 1,u4, α 2) & V(x3, α 1, α 0) & V(u4,x6, α 1) & V(u4,x6, α 0) & L(α 1, α 0, α 2),
\nI″2(α0, α 1,u2,y4, α 2,u4) = V(u2, α 0,y4) & V(α 0, α 1,u2) & V(α 0, α 2,u2) & V(α 0,u4, α 1) & V(α 0,u4, α 2) & V(α 0,u4,u2) & L(α 1, α 0, α 2),
\nI″3(z1,z2, α 2,z4,z5, α 0, α 1,z8) = V(z1,z5, α 2) & V(z1, α 2,z2) & V(z1,z5,z2) & V(α 2,z1, α 1) & V(α 2,z1, α 0) & V(α 2, α 1,z4) & V(α 2, α 0,z4) & V(α 2,z4,z1) & V(z4,z2, α 2) & V(z4, α 2,z8) & V(z4,z2,z8) & L(α 1, α 0, α 2).
\nTheir conjunction
\nV(α0, α 1,u2) & V(α 0, α 2,u2) & V(α 0,u4, α 1) & V(α 0,u4, α 2) & V(α 0,u4,u2) &
\nV(α 1, α 0,u4) & V(α 1,u4, α 2) & V(x3, α 1, α 0) & V(u4,x6, α 1) & V(u4,x6, α 0) &
\nV(u2, α 0,y4) & V(z1,z5, α 2) & V(z1, α 2,z2) & V(z1,z5,z2) & V(α 2,z1, α 1) &
\nV(α 2,z1, α 0) & V(α 2, α 1,z4) & V(α 2, α 0,z4) &V(α 2,z4,z1) & V(z4,z2, α 2) &
\nV(z4, α 2,z8) & V(z4,z2,z8) & L(α 1, α 0, α 2)
\nallows to “stick together” the images of fragments according to the same variable. The image corresponding to the result of “sticking” is presented in Figure 11.
\nImage corresponding to the result of “sticking”.
If a description of the investigated object is presented in the database, it may be found according the principle “the nearest neighbor” with the use of metric for predicate formulas presented in [13].
\nLogic-predicate approach to an AI problem has a rather powerful capability, essentially when an investigated object is a compound one and is characterized by properties of its elements and relations between them.
\nSetting of pattern recognition problems considered in Section 2 (except the problem (2)) differs from the classical one. The setting of the problems (1) and (3), in which it is needed to find parts of an investigated object, turns out to be a rather difficult one in the frameworks of a standard approach in the frameworks of which an object is regarded as a whole indivisible one.
\nIn particular, an exponential estimation for number of propositional variables in a formula simulating a predicate formula in a finite domain for planning problems
The problem (2) is polynomial equivalent to an “open” problem ISOMORPHISM OF GRAPHS [3] and the problems (1) and (3) are NP-complete.
\nA notion of level description of classes has been introduced in Section 3 in order to decrease the number of steps of algorithms solving these problems. Such a description reduces the solution of the main problem to a series of solutions of the same form problems with the inputs with the essentially less notation lengths. At the same time, the constructing of a level description still deals with big input data. So, a problem with big input data is solving only once, and then the problem with the essentially less input data is solving repeatedly.
\nThe idea of decomposition of a problem to a series of the “less dimension” problems is not a new one and is frequently used. The difficulty consists in a precise definition of the term “common sub-formula of small complexity.”
\nThe development of a precise definition and of an algorithm for the extraction of a common up to the names of arguments sub-formula of two elementary conjunctions (and their unifiers) allows not only to work out an algorithm of level description construction but also to find an approach to the solution of some else AI problems.
\nNote that the extracted sub-formulas define generalized characteristics of an object. This has an analogy in medical diagnostics: initial characteristics are symptoms and the generalized ones are syndromes.
\nLevel description of classes allowed to introduce the notion of logic-predicate network described in Section 4. Such a network may be regarded as a self-training network which changes its configuration after an additional training. It corresponds to the fact that in the process of a man training, new notions and relations between them are formed in a human brain.
\nThe presence of an algorithm for the extraction of a common up to the names of arguments sub-formula of two elementary conjunctions (and their unifiers) allows to find an approach to a problem of multi-agent description of an object described in Section 5. Just an extraction of such sub-formulas and determining of their unifiers with the input formulas makes possible to “stick together” such parts of descriptions in which different agents gives different names to one element of the whole object.
\nNote that the formulation of the problem (1) from Section 2 coincides with the one for a well-known problem CONJUNCTIVE BOOLEAN QUERY from [3]. The difference is in the implementation of these problems. While repeated implementation of the problem (1) the premise S(ω) of the sequent \n
While repeated implementation of the problem CONJUNCTIVE BOOLEAN QUERY, the premise S(ω) of the sequent \n
The possibility of reduction of an object description length by means of adding a formula setting some properties of initial predicates to the premise of a sequent was mentioned in the model example in Section 2. Properties of initial predicates also were used in the item 3 of the algorithm of multi-agent description. In fact, in the both cases instead the sequent of the form (4) \n
To solve the problem (2) and to extract a maximal common up to the names of arguments sub-formula of two elementary conjunctions it is needed to check whether two elementary conjunctions are isomorphic. A polynomial in time rough algorithm for such a checking was offered in [12] by Petrov. Numerical experiments with this algorithm give over 99.95% of valid results.
\nContrary to the grammar definition of globalization according to the Oxford Dictionary (“the process by which business or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale”), to treat this topic we will take the first move from the well-known source Wikipedia, which more properly describes globalization as follows: “the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide.”
Once this working start could be accepted, we could rely on the following basic points, anyway to be analytically discussed:
political interaction,
stable economic relationships,
cultural exchanges, included linguistic ones.
These processes are antique ones from the origins of the civilized word or so, dating back (just to synthetically exemplify) to Etruscan and Romans relationships, to Phoenician maritime trade, to inter-African economic exchanges, and—skipping some 1000 years due to common knowledge—to Marco Polo and Euro-Asian commercial traditions along the silk way, as well as to Euro-American ones after Colombo discovering the New Lands.
In every such cases, i) new political interactions immediately started, driving in rare cases to relationships on equality base but, more frequently, to the domination of a nation over other entities, this being the origin of colonial empires from Portugal onward; ii) stable and (rapidly) growing economic relationships on the basis either of mutual agreement or of widespread embezzlement, plunder, and sack, for example, Spain started a huge gold import from South America so as to give life to her cultural
In any case, not to say always, these processes brought about i) a dominant political authority, ii) its government, bureaucracies, laws, iii) its language, and iv) its money.
Every political domination, in fact, was of close lands or far ones, in every case accompanied by the following unifying processes, some of which are highly relevant both in those times and today, as still surviving ones:
the unity of political and bureaucratic direction, the new official language included;
the subdual to the same civil, penal, and fiscal laws (anyway with current local adjustments case by case);
the direct connections between new motherlands and colonies from the point of view of transport routes, trade, and financial agreements or even impositions and monetary regimes (in some cases special ones, as the African French Franc).
This way, reflecting back to the political
the (sub)continental equalizations of a)1) the Roman Empire, especially at its climax, a)2) the Sacred Roman Empire of Charlemagne, a)3) the Persian empire of prince Babur from Saudi Arabia to Iran to India, and a)4) the <Great China> of the Quing dynasty, especially under Kangxi, Yong-zen, Quian-long Emperors;
the three early colonial empires of Holland, Portugal, and especially Spain;
the intercontinental empires deriving from the second colonization conquests, giving life to French Empire and moreover to the British one, as at the end of the nineteenth-century Great Britain dominated 1/3 of world lands.
The above distinction offers us, as a matter of fact, the chance to quote a relevant, well-known interpretative category, the Gerschenkron model referred to the
These international dynamics can be summarized in Table 1.
Relevant phases | Geopolitical orders |
---|---|
Mediterranean economy | Venetian domain and Maritime Republics |
Northern and Western Europe | Northern European and Franco-German economies |
Age of ocean navigation and discovery | Spain and Portugal |
Dominance of Imperial China | Golden years of the Qing dynasty under Kangxi (1654–1722) |
Replacement of maritime powers | Dominance of England until 1914 |
Scramble for Africa | European claims on African territories |
US dominance | United States of America as dominant superpowers after 1944 |
Rise of Imperial Japan | Following the Meiji revolution (1852–1941) and then 1948–1990 (or 2000 according to others) |
World expansion of China | The “Four Modernizations” after 1982 |
Rise and decline of states.
Source: authors’ elaboration.
At the same time, the abovementioned distinction, once generally interpreted, allows us to recall to memory one more well-known distinction, that is, the difference between i) land powers and ii) see powers. As a matter of fact as, Babur (and China) apart, in every remaining case the intercontinental domination was the fruit of naval strength and the military fleet to conquer, to preserve, and to secure commercial routes.
Moving first to the industrial revolution, thanks to its technical advances as well as the capitals accumulated by privateer war, England succeeded both in establishing a world domination and in impeding the existence in Europe of any leading country (or even alliance) able to jeopardize its supremacy, from Napoleon onward. Later, this natural behavior was theorized by relevant Anglo-Saxon admirals and scholars, Alfred T. Mahan, Halford J. Mackinder, Nicholas J. Spykman, among others. The supremacy we remember here declined anyway in favor of the USA, after the World War II (1941), Bretton Woods (1944), the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945), the Marshall Plan (1948). This way, the supremacy of the pound sterling disappeared in favor of the US dollar, and similarly for the rest, beginning by the India independency (1949).
Not so curiously anyway—that’s why we recall this theory here as globalization is regarded—in both cases these maritime superpowers realized (or tried, and the USA still try) the following realities: i) a unique country dominating the world, ii) a country isolated by the sea (or Oceans) but ready to intervene by the army in other countries or even continents, iii) under such political principles as
This rough overview of well-known century-old dynamics teaches us anyway some peculiar hints, judged relevant here with reference to the topic under discussion as in so many cases still surviving today. These suggestions respectively regarding the role of legal systems and its special regulations, the role of the (imposed) monetary regime, are still to create new currency (and financial) areas, the not-so-peaceful rotation of sovereign powers, a political struggle, which can be interpreted as the oligopoly competition, frequently leading to wars in their different forms.
The historical dynamics are so poorly recalled here in memory because of common knowledge, brought about, along centuries and decades, a dramatic increase of international exchanges of economic goods, financial and monetary resources, capital and investments, knowledge, cultures, and ideas. At the same time, they generated the parallel increase of international trade, this happening with the Industrial Revolution of England and the further ones (Table 2), from the United States of America to Belgium, and to France (once she overcame the troubles of the revolution) and to the following ones of Germany, Italy, and other countries.
Features | The first | The second | The third |
---|---|---|---|
Year | 1750 and following | 1870 and following | 1970 and following |
Energy | Coal | Electricity, petroleum | Alternative energies |
Production outcomes | Iron | Steel, chemistry | Informatics |
Innovation | Steam engine | Internal combustion engine | Finance services and communications |
Basic sectors | Textile industry | Mechanical industry | Financial and High-tech sectors |
The three “industrial revolutions.”
Source: authors’ elaboration.
In particular, the Congress of Wien marked the beginning of a long period of peace for Europe—a century—till the World War I, with the French-German war of 1870–71 being there an
A century of peace meant, in addition, a century of technological progress (Table 3), this fuelling production, exchanges, communications, in such a way and in hurry we find it difficult to understand, and only comparable to the present Web revolution.
Invention | Year | Invention | Year |
---|---|---|---|
Battery | 1800 | Tyre | 1887 |
Typewriter | 1829 | Diesel engine | 1892 |
Dynamo | 1831 | Radioactivity | 1901 |
Refrigerator | 1834 | Airplane | 1903 |
Telegraph | 1837 | Cellophane | 1908 |
Phone | 1864–76 | Penicillin | 1928 |
Dynamite | 1867 | Television | 1929 |
Phonograph | 1877 | Helicopter | 1930 |
Internal combustion car | 1885 | Jet plane | 1939 |
The main inventions 1827–1939.
Source: authors’ elaboration.
The technical progress obviously influenced also public and private bureaucracies, work organization, labor relationships, these elements being constituting a relevant (and under-esteemed) factor in accompanying or even guiding the globalization process. On one side, new investments and the search for working (labor) resources oriented in fact internal and international immigrations; moreover, they contributed—in colonial Empires—to international investments, which, on their turn, further contributed to the globalization itself. On the other side, the new organizational techniques (e.g., Frederick W. Taylor) allowed to increase productivity, productions, salaries, profits, this fuelling once more offer, demand, and investments. Taylor’s suggestions had been practically anticipated and largely applied in Krupp factories before 1910, and were later utilized for large-scale consumer goods by Henry Ford from 1923 onward.
Technological advances of those days fuelled since then inter-continental integration, giving life to larger international communications, higher import-export, more trade agreements, and widespread international investments (Gualino, a tycoon ruler of Italian finance end-nineteenth-early twentieth centuries largely invested in St. Petersburg, unfortunately before 1917, Pirelli & Co. vertically integrated acquiring rubber plantations in Malaysia). All the same, on a larger scale, is happening in today world, especially after 1948 (Marshall Plan), 1976 (China’s Four Modernizations), 1991 (crumbling away of Soviet Russia), WTO, and WEB revolution.
With regard to the Four Modernizations, their purpose was to make China one great economic power, and the results are evident if we consider the evolution of the national shares of world production from 2000 to 2018 (Table 4).
Nation | 2000 | 2007 | 2009 | 2014 | 2018 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
China | 8.2 | 15.4 | 21.5 | 32.8 | 28.4 |
USA | 24.8 | 17.4 | 15.1 | 14.1 | 16.6 |
Japan | 15.8 | 8.9 | 8.5 | 6.2 | 7.2 |
Germany | 6.6 | 7.5 | 6.5 | 5.3 | 5.8 |
Italy | 4.1 | 4.5 | 3.9 | 2.5 | 2.3 |
France | 4 | 3.9 | 3.6 | 2.5 | 1.9 |
South Korea | 3.1 | 3.9 | 3.6 | 3.7 | 3.3 |
India | 1.8 | 2.7 | 2.9 | n.d. | 3 |
Brazil | 2 | 2.6 | 2.7 | n.d. | n.d. |
Great Britain | 3.5 | 3 | 2.3 | n.d. | 1.8 |
National percentage share of world production 2000–2018.
Source: authors’ elaboration.
A further driver that oriented the globalization process after the World War II was trade openness [1], to which a set of factors contributed, such as [2]:
the 1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the liberalization of international trade;
the end of the Bretton Woods agreements (1971) and the resumption of international capital mobility;
the development of new information and communications technologies (ICT) and the reduction or cancelation of distances, almost at no cost;
the growing role of foreign direct investment (FDI) [3], which in the 1990s mobilized large amounts of capital, mainly from Europe and North America.
The above factors, together with others specifically referable to the individual geographical areas, led to a significant reduction in post-war trade barriers among the major industrialized countries, as well as a notable increase in capital movements [4].
In this regard, in addition to the GATT (1947), it is important to recall the creation of the European Common Market (1958 Treaty of Rome and 1968 customs union); the Canada US Free Trade Agreement (CUSFTA) of 1987; the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1992; the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) Agreement of 1992; the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) of 1995; and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) of 1995.
We mentioned above only a few among a number of trade agreements signed between the ‘40s and ‘90s of the last century. Also considering the 2000s, the increase in the number of regional trade agreements (RTAs) has been continuous and rapid (Figure 1).
RTAs currently in force (by year of entry into force), 1948–2022. Source: WTO OMC, regional trade agreements database.
As pointed out by Urata [5], regional trade agreements (RTAs) remove trade barriers and significantly contribute to the quantitative and geographical expansion of international trade.
This expansion is clearly visible if we consider the evolution of the worldwide trade in the decade immediately following the signing of GATT (Table 5).
1948 | 1953 | 1963 | 1973 | 1983 | 1993 | 1999 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exports | 58 | 83 | 157 | 578 | 1835 | 3639 | 5473 |
Imports | 66 | 84 | 163 | 589 | 1880 | 3752 | 5729 |
Worldwide trade 1948–1990 (billion dollars).
Source: World Trade Organization,
In terms of percentage change, the growth of the world merchandise trade by selected region, which took place between 1990 and 1999, is presented in Table 6.
World | North America | Latin America | European Union | Asia | Japan | Six East Asian traders | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exports | 6.5 | 7.0 | 8.5 | 6.0 | 7.5 | 2.5 | 10.0 |
Imports | 6.5 | 8.5 | 10.5 | 5.5 | 7.0 | 4.5 | 7.0 |
Percentage change in the volume of world merchandise trade 1990–1999.
Source: World Trade Organization,
The positive effects of the trade agreements continued throughout the following decade, in which global trade growth remained sustained (Table 7). If we disregard the distributional consequences [6] and limit the analysis to the values exchanged, world exports continued to increase (Table 7).
2000 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exports | 6452 | 10,503 | 12,128 | 14,021 | 16,149 |
Global export value of trade in goods 2000–2008 (billion dollars).
Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/264682/worldwide-export-volume-in-the-trade-since-1950/ (accessed 6 May 2022).
The above data show the bivalence of globalization: On one hand, they reveal its positive effects on international trade; on the other hand, they show that the negative influences of crises of local origin (US), such as the 2008 financial 0ne, spread with equal speed and magnitude, especially at the expense of weaker economies.
As a matter of fact, within economic integration—be it commercial or financial—the less-developed countries are generally dependent on the industrialized ones, with the consequent increase of their net indebtedness toward stronger economies. The subprime crisis caused profound effects and imbalances, to cast doubts on the real benefits of world integration in the absence of domestic growths [7].
In this latter respect, it is nevertheless relevant to consider that globalization, while not sufficient to reduce poverty on a large scale, anyway favors internal growth. According to Dreher [8], China was the country with the highest increase in the level of globalization from 1975 to 2000. Thanks to its increased integration with the rest of the world, the growth rate of its economy in 2000 was 2.33 percentage points higher than in 1975.
To treat the strategic problems of firms, it is maybe opportune to start by pointing out some basic differences between internationalization and globalization. The former was dominant from early twentieth century until the end of its ‘70ies, but the changes that occurred in the early ‘80ies produced a completely new type of phenomena, later on called—and not by a chance—
Undoubtedly, globalization changed the nature of competition as it was known before, when the number of international players was limited to firms possessing since decades, capital, knowledge, and the international culture to behave that way. Today, this number has gradually become larger and larger, a widespread one in every market and many (most?) industries of the world.
The main factors making globalization dominate since the ‘80s on are well-known ones: i) deregulation on one side and ii) the impact of new information and communication technology, the latter one maybe stronger than the former. Their interaction deeply changed the nature of markets and competition as well as the strategic behavior of companies, but also deeply influenced countries concerning international trade agreements, FDI, company law, that is, economic policies in one world [9, 10, 11, 12].
Deregulation enabled on one side companies to work more freely, especially as regards capital movements, international investments, mergers, and acquisitions, while information and communication technology on the other played a key role in accelerating global business transactions and deals, as they still do every day in a deeper way [13, 14].
Once transformed from international to global, competition showed largely new patterns of behavior, not to say completely renewed ones. Today, international players are in fact (and in particular they feel) more free than ever at every level (trade in goods and services, transfer of knowledge and technology, and FDI—Foreign direct investments and divestments), the latter ones representing one of the central nerves of restructuring global competition.
This way, passing to firms’ behavior within this largely new context, we could remember that, since its appearing, the enlarging of economic competition across continents was generally recognized by firms as a fruitful opportunity to grow. Anyway, this immediate feeling maybe undervalued at first sight its problems, challenges, and in some cases threats.
Globalization imposes in fact to big firms (but gradually also to mid-sized ones and to firms in general) a continuously growing confrontation with new competitors, a fierce one in some cases, which makes them suffer from the hardest competitive challenges.
As a result, companies must achieve a set of entirely new competences, among them i) to learn to make use of global resources (capitals, raw materials, finance, technology, labor, and others), ii) to make global their own products, and iii) to expand their own “local” competitiveness connecting it to new economic spaces, at the same time defending it from the challenges of other globalized firms.
In substance, companies must implement a global competitive strategy, expanding their markets but protecting at the same time their previous ones in case they can be now offended, as competitors too can individuate some competitive weakness to attack them, in spite of the fact they are (were?) locally dominated.
So, as all international firms are trying to put into action overlapping strategies, marketing techniques, products, services to customers, and tactics, this exacerbates the problem as such and drives to the need of implementing a
Does this mean that it is difficult for a company to become global in this era, and in case to remain such? This question brings with itself a former, fundamental one: How does a company compete in an unstable, difficult environment, establishing itself in this globalized world?
As a matter of fact, the term
The pure cost competition, once intended as pure labor or raw material cost-reduction, is generally speaking a dated choice, a no-longer adopted one, due to the higher complexity of products, markets, and consumer needs at present. This problem is anyway a twofold one.
From the point of view of old industrialized countries, firms tend to transplant, that is, to relocate in other countries (and continents in case) paying today attention to geo-politics, closeness to final demand, transportation costs. Cost reduction keeps its own role for sure, but either related to the newest technologies together with highly skilled personnel (e.g., at present, Pirelli Tyres largely producing in Rumania) or connected only to segments of the whole production-cycle (e.g., Brooks Brothers in Tunisia, China, or even Indonesia).
From the point of view of the so-called third world countries, on their turn, also cost competitiveness entered into a wholly new dimension with globalization. As a matter of fact, thanks to the same globalization, those countries are not compelled to duplicate step by step for every technological stage from the beginning to present (as Rostov presumed) [24], as they can land on (very) recent technological stages—and in some cases on the more recent ones—this way being able to join modern technologies together with relatively lower salaries. The very example of this strategy is China, which rapidly joined this way the most advanced countries of the world and then overcame them in most cases, and the same China in recent years invested (and relocating) in South-East Asia, Africa, and elsewhere to be permitted to go on the same way.
During the ‘60ies of the twentieth century, the microeconomic literature (and technical one as well) firmly suggested for firms the pursuing of “economies of scale,” these ones mainly intended as large-scale plants and very large in case. The underpinnings of the proposal were rooted in the less proportional growth of some costs (energy, warehouse, internal connections, and surveillance) at the growing of the plant. With respect to pure theory as well as contrary to reality in its general terms, those merely technical suggestions ignored the true firms’ dynamics: ups and downs of sales, plant and equipment rigidity, transportation costs, large or even impressive depreciation, and last but not the least, the local gathering of thousands of workers in a unique plant as a socioeconomic (and urbanistic) problem.
On this point, it is relevant to leave once for all the optimizing principles of early marginalists of the Walras-type, today unfortunately still widespread in most microeconomics text and since then constraining empirical phenomena into anti-realistic mechanical models.
Some of the most important scholars in the same field of economics are in fact teaching us since the last century how to cancel the very bases of those models:
firms maximize /minimize/optimize in
big firms are more interested in sales than profits, as in oligopolistic markets, it is more relevant to maintain and increase market shares, planning in case to make larger profits in future [31, 32];
the whole firm-system is a complex organizational world, where special technicalities from the mathematical or statistical field must be applied uniquely to solve special technical problems of financial, productive, or commercial in nature.
After some decades of understandable oblivion due to the abovementioned imperfections and risks, also economies of scale took a quite different meaning with globalization. They are now no longer intended from the merely plant-scale and/or manufacturing point of view, but from the standpoint of general firms’ costs. The new goals of firms pursuing “economies of scale” regard now, better than ever, the general optimization of i) purchasing, ii) R&D, iii) advertising costs, and iv) transportation ones as well.
The relevance today of such optimizations needs not to be underlined here, due to the increase of raw materials costs in the last decades on one side and the larger and larger amount of expenses implied by technological advances (high R&D within electronics, informatics, aerospace, military appliances), modern marketing techniques (especially for luxury goods, fashion, jewels, food, and drink), and farer and farer world deliveries in addition to energy and labor costs.
The convenience of large-scale plants tends to remain for industries—or branches of them—where firms actuate the fully integrated cycle (oil refining, basic chemicals, basic iron, and steel), where the same output in large amounts favors the scale of operations, this way taking profit from the efficiency of processes together with the reduction of logistic costs1.
This whole system, anyway, provided market demand is growing or constant, or taking the minimum possible variance at least [33], not to accumulate unsold stocks or even being compelled to slow or stop the production; those risks concur in explaining the large success in the last 50 years of the so-called
In other industrial sectors producing industrial goods, the most important problem is given on the contrary by the ratio
This basic difference was underlined by the same Alfred Marshall, to be true only
“The central task of the heavy steel industries is the handling of great volumes of homogeneous fluid steel, ready to be worked up into an infinite variety of products large and small. There is no other group of industries, in which the forces making for the increase of the business unit are promoted in like degree by the magnitude of the aggregate volume of the homogeneous fluid material which has to be produced.
The textile industries on the other hand offer the best instances of the coexistence of numerous establishments repeating one another; because the full technical economies of large scale production (…) can be obtained by an establishment of moderate size” (p. 218)2.
In every case, as a conclusion, the problems for firms in general, and for plant in particular, are to individuate their critical dimension in relation to i) industry, ii) served markets and market segments, and iii) competitors.
The abovementioned cross-world competition brought with itself large changes also as regards both technological and marketing primacies.
The need to be able today to sell all over the world emphasized the role i) of brands-innovation-advertising-distribution for high segments from electronics to information, to fashion and jewels, to cars to food-liqueurs-champagnes, and to armaments and weapons, ii) of brand and distribution for mid-level ones, and iii) of cost control and distribution for lower ones.
Innovation, performances, and in some cases uniqueness became relevant for luxury goods, price-quality relation for mid-quality ones, and price for lower ones.
In every case anyway, and much more frequently than before due to world communications and the WEB, brand recognizing became relevant for every market (the so-called world brands), but nevertheless also for specialized or “minor” segments, as these too got transformed from local-national to continental to world ones in some cases.
In addition, the larger economic resources expanded all over the world due to economic advances, to public and private debts, and to printing of money by States and privates (crypto-currencies), and increased both the quantity of demanded goods and the quest for quality by every group of consumers. Within industrialized countries, we face in fact today a large tendency to high tastes in every market and field, not to speak of such presences as advertising addicts /glamor influences/till the reckless passions by the so-called fashion victims. These factors concur to explain the transition of many global firms to superior-upper segments of demand, and consequently to new product-portfolio strategies.
In addition, we must keep in mind that a further result is the fierce competition now in action, which implies a relevant increase of costs for every type of firm in particular as far as R&D, advertising, and distribution are concerned, the very local ones being the only ones excluded from these commitments.
A further problem is also represented by the insufficiency of i) mass production, ii) new design of products, and iii) price/quality levels conform to the new international standards, to guarantee the success of companies in the new era of globalization, or to make
online trade, home consignments included,
higher volume and more efficient distributing networks,
express transportation logistics,
and, in particular for top segments,
exclusive advertising,
top class testimonials,
loyalty (“club members” and more).
Testimonials (and moreover
Quite a different story, on their side, for producers of industrial goods, technical appliances and machinery in general, it is well known that in these fields the critical factors of success are quite different ones, mentioning here four of them just to remember the most important ones:
technological advances,
(experimented) special technical innovations together with their reliability,
technical performance and performances /price ratio,
fast technical assistance, at inter-continental level in case.
All the abovementioned factors contribute to explain the gigantic growth of M&A, mergers, and acquisition as a rapid tool to achieve, case by case, some special goals, or a multiple set of them as well [35]. According to the renewed company goals of today
growing to reach the so-called
focusing on a different productive and segmental equilibrium, which means completing the company
Generally speaking, from the internal point of view we cannot forget that every competitive strategy by firms is closely related to system factors and the global organization as well, in particular concerning the following:
the tension to goals by top managers (
the nature and efficacy and efficiency of the internal structure,
its organizational culture and behavior,
the quality of coordination among strategic business units, together with the ability of the departments/units to join strategies choices and the global market [36].
Strategy is connected in fact to the quality and objectives of persons within every family, firm, institution, and country, but for firms in particular their growth is connected with the attempts of a particular group of human beings to do something [37]3.
As a matter of fact, some companies in the globalized world faced globalization in a courageous way with smart results later on, being able at the same time to take advantage of external opportunities and to adapt themselves to changes, and the dissemination of products and brands jointly being a goal and a result. They were able to anticipate competitors to nip at their heels taking into account i) the larger propensity of consumers to spend (not only in proportion to income but also recurring to debt), ii) the epochal changes in consumers’ culture and values, and iii) the fast dynamics of consumers’ tastes and needs, today from voluble to volatile ones.
As a result, these firms repositioned themselves, individuating innovative strategic directions to seize a competitive position among their (new) important competitors. They applied creative strategies in addition to previous ones—cooperation agreements, strategic alliances, M&A included—in line with their new
Some other firms, on their turn, followed the previous ones, which succeeded in engaging in global competition, anyway being at first generally undecided, topically dubious about the right road to be taken, organizationally conflicting about the timing and the dimension of new investments. This sum of problems caused in a large number of cases delays on one side and/or insufficient investments on the other hand, and both these problems being anyway partly repaired in some others cases by the wiser directions taken by looking at the experience of forerunners and eventually to their errors.
The remaining set of firms was reluctantly forced to renew themselves. Their delays were implied by a set of different, cooperating reasons, and among them, the following ones:
their cultural approach to novelties, linked to locally minded markets, competitors, and strategies;
their tendency to prioritize existing markets and product;
the incertitude related to the amount of new commitments;
their fear not to able to transition to globalization from the resource point of view as well as to orchestrate the new complexities implied by the horizon of activities [38, 39, 40, 41].
To these obstacles, it is easy to add the internal frictions among top managers, prominent shareholders, and also stakeholders in some cases, each of them reasoning maybe in terms of personal advantage rather than firm perspectives.
As a consequence, a set of companies suffered from serious problems represented by their inability to coordinate and harmonize on a large scale, and their previous practices are related to specialized segments, finance, technology, and their cultural and administrative skills as well.
All these problems negatively affected the strategic directions and current choices of these companies, which, still thinking in an improper way, tried somehow to imitate the most powerful and concentrated companies in the planet (USA, Europe, Japan) to get revitalized, anyhow with late, uncertain, or even unstable results, not to speak of cases when they took downward turns.
The main difference among them all lies in the fact that dominant companies, or prominent oligopolists, no longer really belong to one country only, while, in the perspective of globalization, other companies belonging to different countries still work on similar but partial strategies, which makes difficult even not impossible to obtain the same competitive advantages or defenses at least. The same difference between the two groups, which creates further dis-equilibria, acts on the ability of getting convenient means of production (capital, technology, human resources, raw materials, and others), where the first ones are largely favored by their timely entrance into globalization and globalized visions of the world. The only problem can be represented by conflicts and wars among countries: Globalization made easier the availability of those means for companies, making them more independent and profitable, but at the same time, it tends to make conflicts more intense or widespread ones.
After the protracted upward development of globalization described in Section 1, world trade fell sharply in 2009 (Table 8).
2008 | 2009 | |
---|---|---|
Exports | 16,149 | 12,556 |
Global export value of trade in goods 2008–2009 (billion dollars).
Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/264682/worldwide-export-volume-in-the-trade-since-1950/ (accessed 6 May 2022).
Figures represented in Table 8 clearly show the drop in both growth and hopes caused by the bankrupt of both Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac.
The global financial crisis of 2008 was followed by an extremely fluctuating and sometimes stagnant trend in international trade (Figure 2).
Global export value of trade in goods 2010–2020 (billion dollars). Source: Authors’ elaboration based on data from
In these sudden (or gradually postponed) storms, both businessmen and politicians ask themselves
The problem referred here is a well-known one, whose most important consequences are connected to i) the spatial extension and ii) the time span of the crisis.
While the latter can be traced back to the abovementioned political “solution,” the former one is strictly connected to such factors as follows:
the monetary dimensions of the crisis,
its (in)direct influences on further either financial or banking crises,
the psychological shocks it can produce,
the degree of integration between the interested country and the world financial system.
Factors 1–3 are self-explaining ones, and in a sense the fourth too, about which we limit here to recall i) the dramatic effects of
Two more notations seem anyway of some interest here:
the
the same
Financial crises are anyway not alone in causing (heavy) disturbances to world economy, and globalization in particular. One more category storms includes all the more or less important mismatches occurring along years in different continents,
To recall here only the most dramatic of them, we could rapidly mention the French Revolution (1789), the crumbling down of the Chinese Empire (1911), the Soviet Revolution in Russia (1917), the pulling out of the Shah in Imperial Persia (1979), not to mentions the so many local military rebellions in Africa, South America, and elsewhere.
Mention apart is deserved, to better clear our topic, by the World War I, originated by apparently silly causes (the assassination of an Austrian Archiduke), but as a matter of fact signing the dramatic end of the unbelievable more than 40 years of expansion and growth of the Western World which on due course since the Franco-German War of 1871.
Treating these two kinds of problems, scholars turn by turn qualify these disturbances as
This approach, which gave origin to a set a studies in particular in non-Anglo-Saxon world [43, 44]4, distinguishes two basic kinds of forces operating within economic dynamics, moving it currently or by exception, in regular v. erratica a way.
So, squeezing some thousands of pages in a few lines, we could describe Frisch interpretation as such the following:
economic systems are composed by inner variables and choices as well as by external permanent ones, the former due to the actions of economic agents, and the latter represented by demography, politics, technology, competition, money&banking, and so on, which favor/ obstacle/orientate economic choices (
this fusion of individual choices and permanent external influences might be
Obvious to mention among most important impulse variables as the last 100 years are concerned, the World War I and II, the Sino-Japanese war of 1931 ff., the Italian war against Ethiopia 1934–1935 and—after some 20 years of peace 1944 (Bretton Woods) to Vietnam war (1964 ff.)—the set on international wars and disturbances, in addition to abovementioned ones, also the two
Generally speaking, the political, sociocultural, economic, and industrial consequences of those impulse variables are well known ones to the reader, with general overturning—in worst cases—of boundaries, population distribution, public finance, industrial equilibria, but, at the same time, a fast development of technology, and so many advantages for the winner, if any. One more feature anyway to be mentioned—physical and financial destructions apart—is the common and general increase of prices, industrial, and consumer ones, which change the equlibria of families, firms, and in case the State in some cases in a dramatic way.
Propagation variables, each of them normally working with better or worse an equilibrium, are on their turn differently shocked by the aforementioned impulses, anyway under an immediate disorder under the pressure of the impulse ones. We conclude this flash leaving on one side the analysis of the consequences once more to the reader, and on the other listing the most important propagation variables:
natural propagation forces:
demography,
psychologies,
technology;
political propagation forces:
institutions,
international relations,
money, banking, and finance;
half-endogenous propagation forces:
type and size of firms,
competition structures,
distribution of income and wealth (according to Pareto theories) [43].
Cross-border acquisitions and all the more foreign direct investments are normally hailed by growing firms to sustain their expansion either within their own continent or in further ones as well. And we cannot deny that, decades ago, these activities were often conducted in the search of low-cost raw materials and labor in Latin America, South-East Asia, and mainly Africa. As we all know, this implied in not so few cases also workers’ and environment exploitation, that convenient branching out being accepted by 3rd World countries with mixed sentiments just to favour their own economic development. The situation concurred this way to increase the differences between big industrial countries on one side, mid-sized half-industrialized ones on the other hand, and developing countries to conclude.
Along years, the so-to-say mismatching implied by these attitudes of foreign companies (ranking top down from US, Great Britain, France, and others shouting “profits profits!”) drew public attention to the political, social, and cultural realms affected by their actions and behavior. This way, in hosting nations, some backlashes against globalization were registered within the civil society and by governments as well inducing in some cases a growing unwillingness to progress in multinational cooperation, better in multilateral co-operations of such a way. In worst cases, not only NGO-Non Governmental Organizations reacted to reputed exploitments, but a whole theory was developed—
The last critics overvalued real cases of that kind as they had their roots in the anarchist-
stability of institutions,
efficiency of infrastructures,
respect of property rights, especially the foreign investors’ ones.
Anyway, the calculus of costs and benefits has to be attentively weighted for both companies and host countries.
Companies gained only putative advantages, or even benefits shorter than expectations, putting into action egoistic behaviors, (un)voluntarily tending either to exploit or to make “easy money,” taking advantage from their bargaining power irrespective of fairness, workers’ /population/environment rights, in addition to the host-country interest in general. They must not only obey to these comprehensive ethical principles, but in addition to pay attention to the following technical factors:
to navigate the different legal systems of every foreign country (in particular as commercial and tax laws are regarded, tax payment included);
identically, to respect different labor laws granting protection to workers’ rights;
to get adequately accustomed to different new cultures, which have to be also considered full of language/behavior/marketing/advertising teachings.
On the side of host countries, on their turn, they too must pay attention to a number of factors, including or even mixing advantages and risks. General and special advantages can be resumed as follows:
expansion of foreign trade, increase of occupation, developing of sub-contractors and sub-suppliers new firms, and growth of internal demand also due to the
gains from cultural and technological transfers, including modern management practices and advanced labor skills.
Some critical questions stay anyway in the background, as they need a (preferably a previous or a step-by-step) solution:
the general attitude toward foreign participation to their economic system, together with the conditions to welcome it, tariffs cutting included;
the degree, timing, and extent of liberalization of their own economy,
the putting into action of measures apt to expand their degree of participation in the world economy, through conditions at the same time consistent with i) country political independency defense, ii) human and workers’ rights enforcement, and iii) environment protection safeguard.
Since first steps, globalization produced some contradictions between companies on the one hand and the governments of host countries on the other hand as regards the difference between wished and effective results. Many countries and companies fronted in fact difficulties in facing globalization at first, especially as objectives, trade, competition, and employment were concerned, and this lack of understanding increased in the first period; the gap between State regulation and company strategies, they both maybe undervaluing the burdens of the same globalization.
In terms of objectives, while State policies aimed to raise the standard of living, companies were looking to increase their market shares in order to grow, also due to a critical feature they understood, which could be summarized saying for most industries “grow to survive,” not to be secluded in small or even local markets nor, at worst, to fail. This way companies were compelled to think in two ways, adopting a twofold competitive strategy, a two-dimensional one: i) the local dimension to be able to compete locally, with both traditional competitors and new ones from other countries, and ii) the transnational dimension to compete all over the continent or world with global(ized) firms.
This way expanding companies joined a new strategy to their previous ones, entering in local markets both to sell and to make FDI in the field of production, so gaining footholds in the global market. In relation to the deepness of those investments, strategies between local responsiveness and global integration began to take shape (Export strategy, Standardization strategy, Multi-domestic strategy, and Transnational strategy).
With globalization, also competition gradually became a global one, changing in nature as well as in ways and means. States soon or later adopted the goal of raising new standards of economic efficiency for the country as whole, and companies on their turn had to raise their own efficacy and efficiency up to the level of the
Originally, local governments concentrated themselves slowly, and in some cases so-to-say insensitively on globalization, to realize later on, especially in the last 20 years or so that it was relevant to enter into bilateral/multilateral trade negotiations in order to be active a part in the world development agenda, or at least to be able to protect i) local environment, ii) citizens’ and workers’ rights, and iii) the equality of conditions. Local regulations increased their span and deepness, as host’ countries tended to set regulatory standards and restrictive policies for the implementation of international agreements and strategic cooperation, to reduce as much as possible the negative impact of globalization. In addition, also global regulations greatly increased their impact, especially in favor of States (or national governments) having limited contractual powers.
Once most countries found that there is no escape from globalization
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\n\nA Conflict of Interest is a situation in which a person's professional judgment may be influenced by a range of factors, including financial gain, material interest, or some other personal or professional interest. For IntechOpen as a publisher, it is essential that all possible Conflicts of Interest are avoided. Each contributor, whether an Author, Editor, or Reviewer, who suspects they may have a Conflict of Interest, is obliged to declare that concern in order to make the publisher and the readership aware of any potential influence on the work being undertaken.
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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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