Calculated coarsening rate constants Kp of MX, Laves phase, and M23C6 precipitated in P91 and P92 steel based on the shown fit values for the interfacial energy γ [22].
\r\n\tAbout 25 percent of all foods produced globally are lost due to microbial growth. L. monocytogenes is a microorganism ubiquitously present in the environment and affects animals and humans. L. monocytogenes can enter a factory and is able to survive in biofilms in the food processing environment. The use of adequate sanitation procedures is a prerequisite in risk prevention. Moreover, effective control measures for L. monocytogenes are very important to food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tThe safety and shelf life maximizing of food products to meet the demand of retailers and consumers is a challenge and a concern of food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tTo obtain food systems more sustainable, several developments are ongoing to ensure safe food products with an extended shelf life and a reduction of food loss and waste. The problem of antimicrobial resistance is also a great issue that must be taken into consideration.
\r\n\r\n\tThe implementation of natural antimicrobials, using food cultures, ferments, or bacteriophages, is one approach to control L. monocytogenes in food products that meet the consumer preference for clean label solutions.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art about Listeria monocytogenes in terms of occurrence in humans, animals, and food-producing plants. Its control by more natural agents allows for more sustainable food systems and points future directions to transform challenges into opportunities.
The need to reduce emissions of pollutants (mainly CO2) to the atmosphere enforced by increasingly stringent EU directives has contributed to the development of conventional energy. Restrictions on emissions to the atmosphere caused by the combustion of fossil fuels have forced the power industry to increase the thermal efficiency of power units (from 33–35 to 40%, and ultimately up to 50%). On the other hand, the need to increase the thermal efficiency of power units involves a significant increase in steam parameters (pressure, temperature). This requires the construction of new and the modernization of existing power units to allow them to operate at the so-called supercritical or ultra-supercritical steam parameters. The increase in steam parameters in new and existing power units was possible due to the materials revolution in the power industry and was associated with the introduction of new grades of steels and cast steels with higher resistance to creep and oxidation than that of the materials used so far. The implementation of new materials in the power industry took place primarily through modifications and optimizations of steels that were already being used in the power sector. It has contributed not only to the increase in steam parameters, but also to the reduction in overall dimensions of boiler components, and thus in their weight, which has also a significant impact on the reduction in the energy production costs [1, 2].
One of the new steel groups introduced to the power industry was high-chromium martensitic steels containing 9–12%Cr. By the optimization of carbon content and the introduction of additions and micro-additions such as W, Co, V, Nb, N, B, and Cu to these steels, the construction materials characterized by high mechanical properties were obtained. For example, their creep strength is higher by approx. 20–25% than that of the steels used so far [2, 3]. The expected high reliability and long life of up to a minimum of 200,000 h of pressure parts made from, among others, 9–12%Cr steels require understanding and describing the effects and microstructure degradation processes for these materials. Based on many years of Authors’ own research and literature data, the main steel/martensitic cast steel microstructure degradation mechanisms and their impact on mechanical properties were described and characterized in this paper.
The basic requirement for creep-resistant steels used in the broadly understood power industry is to maintain—for a relatively long time of operation (at present, 200–250,000 h)—the assumed mechanical properties at the operating temperature of power equipment components. The maintenance of the required mechanical properties of creep-resistant steels during long-term service depends on the stability of their microstructure. The structural components of the power equipment are influenced by the continuous destruction process, which has a significant impact on the life and time of safe service of a specific component. Therefore, the time of safe service for devices used in the power industry is one of the most important parameters related to their life, and it determines their applicability in this sector [1, 4, 5].
During their long-term service, progressive changes in microstructure of creep-resistant steels take place—the process of degradation of their microstructure occurs. For 9–12%Cr martensitic steels, the main microstructure degradation mechanisms include [6–8]:
matrix recovery and polygonization processes,
coagulation of M23C6 carbides,
precipitation of secondary phases: Laves phase and Z-phase, and
depletion of alloying elements in matrix.
Martensitic steels in the hardened condition are characterized by high dislocation density within the martensite laths (1016–1018 m−2). Due to high-temperature tempering of hardened steel, a more thermodynamically stable microstructure with still high dislocation density at 1012–1014 m2 (including free dislocations) within the subgrains formed during the tempering is obtained. The dislocation substructure in 9–12%Cr steels is characterized by small elongated subgrain (of 200–400 nm in width) and low-angle boundaries [6, 7, 9, 10]. High dislocation density and microstructure refinement with dislocation boundaries has a very intensive impact on the 9–12%Cr steel hardening with the dislocation hardening mechanism and the grain boundary hardening mechanism, respectively. The calculations in [11] showed that the gain in yield strength in martensitic steels for the above-mentioned mechanisms is 18 and 33%. In addition to this hardening, the following further mechanisms are additionally used to form the structure and mechanical properties of 9–12%Cr steels: solution hardening with interstitial and substitution elements and precipitation hardening [9, 11, 12]. In high-chromium martensitic steels, the precipitation hardening mechanism is mainly performed by the secondary particles precipitated when tempering M23C6 carbides and MX precipitates. In 9–12%Cr creep-resistant steels, three types of MX precipitates can occur [3, 13, 14]:
Primary niobium-rich spheroidal NbC carbides (carbonitrides)
Secondary lamellar VN (VX) nitrides (carbonitrides), which are precipitated within the martensite laths during high-temperature tempering
Precipitate complexes consisting of the spherical NbX precipitate in which the VN precipitate nucleates, referred to as the “V-wings”
The degree of hardening with secondary phase precipitates depends mainly on the amount and size of precipitates and their distribution within the matrix.
High-chromium martensitic steels in the as-received condition (i.e., after quenching and tempering) have a metastable microstructure, which will be affected by gradual evolution as a result of long-term service (Figure 1).
The microstructure of GP91 cast steel in the as-received condition [
Long-term effect of the temperature and time, in the case of creep as well as stress, leads to a decrease in strengthening with the dislocation mechanisms and the grain boundaries. A decrease in free dislocation density within grains and increase in size of the subgrains take place. The decrease in dislocation density with the time of service/aging is associated with the progressing process of their regrouping, arranging, annihilation, and entangling the dislocations in grain boundaries as well as the formation of cellular dislocation and subgrain microstructure (Figure 2). The matrix recovery and polygonization process results in the disappearance of martensite lath microstructure and the formation of polygonised ferrite microstructure Figures 3 and 4.
The interaction of dislocations with lath/subgrain boundaries, PB2 steel, TEM.
The microstructure of: (a) T91 steel after long-term service [
The microstructure of polygonised ferrite with numerous precipitates in GP91 cast steel after low-cycle fatigue at 600°C with strain amplitude of 0.60%.
In the microstructure of martensitic steels, the formation of polygonal structure during service takes place due to the progressive increase in the size of subgrains. This process is slow because of low mobility of these subgrains. The stability of subgrain size has a positive impact on the maintenance of high mechanical properties, including creep resistance [16]. The increase in the size of subgrains occurs due to the migration or coalescence of the sub-boundaries.
The increase in the size of sub-boundaries usually takes place with the “Y” mechanism [15, 17, 18]. The migration with this mechanism is based on the movements of “Y” nodes that are the place where three sub-boundaries meet, which allows the coalescence of two low-angle boundaries. The increase in the size of subgrains with the “Y” node movement mechanism is shown in Figure 5.
The morphology of “Y” nodes in: (a) P91, (b) PB2, TEM [
The matrix recovery and polygonization process takes place in the presence of secondary dispersion phases, which act as a stabilizing agent. The lath microstructure stability depends on the stability of M23C6 carbides precipitated on these phases (Figure 6). M23C6 carbides precipitate on the tempered martensite lath boundaries and on the subgrain boundaries preventing their growth due to the matrix polygonization, repolygonization, and recrystallization processes [17, 19]. In addition, the elongated shape of M23C6 carbides precipitated on the sub-boundaries (Figures 1, 3, and 5) has a positive impact on anchoring the boundaries by them as their contact surface with the boundary on the same volume fraction is bigger than for spherical particles [18].
The interaction of dislocations in GP91 cast steel with particles of precipitates occurred after low-cycle fatigue.
The thermodynamic thermal stability of M23C6 carbides is not too high—the Cr23C6 carbide formation enthalpy is: –20 kJ/mol [20]. In the as-received condition, the size of M23C6 carbides in martensitic steels is 50–150 nm [8, 21]. The long-term service/aging contributes to changing the morphology of M23C6 carbides. These precipitates show a high tendency to coagulation. The process of coagulation of precipitates is determined by two basic factors: the thermodynamic and the kinetic one. The thermodynamic factor results from a large value of the surface energy of the interphase boundaries. As a result of coagulation, the surface energy decreases and aims at reaching the energy equilibrium. The kinetic factor of coagulation, on the other hand, is connected with the diffusion and reactions occurring on the boundary surface. They run at different rates, and the slowest one determines the rate of particle growth in the system, and thereby determines the kinetics of coagulation. The constant of the rate of growth of particles Kp in the matrix of martensitic steels is presented in Table 1.
Precipitate | Steel | Temperature, °C | Based on solubilities at tempering temperature | Based on solubilities at exposure temperature | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kp, m3 s−1 | γ, J/m2 | Kp, m3 s−1 | γ, J/m2 | |||
MX | P92 | 600 | 1.17 × 10−32 | 0.5 | 8.58 × 10−33 | 0.5 |
650 | 9.5 × 10−32 | 0.5 | 65.5 × 10−33 | 0.5 | ||
Laves phase | P92 | 600 | – | – | 2.91 × 10−31 | 1.0 |
650 | 41.6 × 10−31 | 1.0 | ||||
M23C6 | P92 | 600 | 0.12 × 10−29 | 0.1 | 1.88 × 10−30 | 0.1 |
650 | 1.37 × 10−29 | 0.1 | 4.78 × 10−30 | 0.1 | ||
P91 | 600 | 2.88 × 10−29 | 1.0 | 7.67 × 10−30 | 0.5 | |
650 | 25.3 × 10−29 | 0.8 | 59.8 × 10−30 | 0.3 |
Calculated coarsening rate constants Kp of MX, Laves phase, and M23C6 precipitated in P91 and P92 steel based on the shown fit values for the interfacial energy γ [22].
The coagulation of M23C6 carbides reduces their amount with almost the same volume fraction and results in the increase in distance between these precipitates. Also, nonuniform distribution of these precipitates within matrix makes them become a less effective factor controlling the increase in the size of subgrains (Figure 7). The literature data [23] show that the subgrain boundaries with mutual disorientation angle of less than 20° are not the points of preferential carbide precipitation. According to the research in [24], only about 8% of M23C6 carbides was precipitated at the low-angle boundaries with mutual disorientation angle of 8–15°. The low-angle boundaries represent at least 60% of the total amount of boundaries in tempered martensite. This limits their role and reduces their effectiveness as a substructure stabilizer, which results in the reduction in creep strength. The precipitate-free boundaries show higher mobility, which results in an increase in their width. The increase in the size of M23C6 carbides precipitated at the boundaries is also conducive to the reduction in ductility of 9–12%Cr steels [6, 8, 22–26].
The microstructure of martensitic steels with both wide and narrow martensite laths visible: (a) P91, (b) PB2, TEM.
In steel with micro-addition of boron, the carbon atoms in M23C6 carbides are partially replaced by boron during the tempering, which results in the formation of M23(C, B)6 carboborides. Like M23C6 carbides, these precipitates occur at the grain boundaries and at the martensite lath boundaries. However, these precipitates are more finely dispersed and characterized by higher thermodynamic stability compared to M23C6 carbides [9, 14, 27]. This results in a slower increase in the size of these precipitates, which has a positive effect on the stability of tempered martensite lath microstructure and results in a higher creep resistance. Also according to [24], vanadium plays a significant role as a factor controlling the process of coagulation of M23C6 carbides. Vanadium dissolved in the matrix is conducive to decreasing of the coefficient of chromium diffusion in ferrite. Similar influence is also observed in the case of tantalum [28]. The temperature of work has a considerable effect on the rate of coagulation of M23C6 carbides. Elevating the temperature of service by 50°C can cause a growth of the rate of coagulation of these precipitates even by an order of magnitude.
The martensitic steels gain high creep resistance mainly due to the precipitation hardening provided by: MX nitrides, carbonitrides (where: M = V, Nb; X = C, N). MX precipitates are characterized by nanometric dimensions of about 10–50 nm, and in spite of their low volume fraction of 0.020–0.025, they ensure very strong hardening of creep-resistant steels (Figure 8).
The MX precipitates in T91 steel after service: (a) NbC and VX, (b) V-wings [
The hardening with these precipitates is ensured by anchoring and hindering the motion of dislocations [6, 7, 9, 14, 15, 18, 29]. The calculations made for the P91 steel showed that the stress required for dislocation to “bypass” the carbide and nitride particles with the Orowan mechanism is as follows: for M23C6—39 MPa, for NbC—15 MPa, and for VN—106 MPa [30]. The MX precipitates in 9%Cr steels have a very high thermal stability (Table 1). The approximate formation enthalpy for these precipitates is as follows: for VC and NbC carbides, 55 and 70 kJ/mol, respectively, and for VN nitride, 125 kJ/mol [19]. High stability of MX precipitates and their coherent (semi-coherent) interphase boundaries cause that after approx. 100,000 h creep at 600°C, their size is similar to that as in the as-received condition [24, 30, 31].
In martensitic steels used at above 600°C and containing at least 10%Cr, MX precipitates represent a metastable phase and undergo a transition into a more thermodynamically stable Z-phase (Figure 9a) [30–34]. The disappearance of finely dispersed MX precipitates in the microstructure of these steels due to the MX carbide → Z-phase transition (complex Cr(V, Nb)N nitride) results in a very fast decrease in creep resistance [31, 32, 34, 35].
Z-phase precipitate in T91 steel after service (a), interaction of dislocations inside the subgrain with MX precipitates (b).
According to [32, 35], one large Z-phase precipitate is formed at the expense of dissolving approx. 1000–1500 finely dispersed MX precipitates in the matrix. The disappearance of MX precipitates in martensitic steels during service in favor of Z-phase eliminates the effect of precipitation hardening with these particles. Nevertheless, as shown in [12], the interaction of MX precipitates with dislocations (Figure 9b) is still observed in the microstructure of P91 steel after service, and single Z-phase precipitates do not adversely affect its properties, and thus the creep strength (Figure 10).
Results of short-term creep tests of T91 steel after service [
Unlike the MX precipitates, both the chemical composition and the size of Z-phase depend on chemical composition of the steel it precipitates in and on creep duration. The Z-phase in 9%Cr steels is approx. 80–100 nm, whereas in steels with 11–12%Cr it is much larger and amounts to approx. 0.5–2 μm. Consequently, in 9%Cr steels the Z-phase precipitation is accompanied by a slight reduction in the volume fraction of MX precipitates, whereas in 12%Cr steels MX precipitates are virtually completely transformed into this complex nitride [31, 32, 36]. In addition, in 9%Cr steels the Z-phase precipitates after approx. 105 h at the earliest, while in 12%Cr steels the precipitation of this phase can be observed as early as after 103 h. Hence, the effect of Z-phase precipitates on creep strength is slight in steels with 9%Cr, whereas in 12%Cr steels it is significant [25, 32, 35, 36].
In high-chromium martensitic steels, the Z-phase precipitation may proceed with two mechanisms [32, 33]. The schematic transition of MX precipitates into Z-phase in high-chromium martensitic steels is shown in Figure 11.
Schematic transition of MX precipitates into Z-phase [
On the other hand, dissolving NbX precipitates in the matrix “releases” carbon atoms, which results in the precipitation of chromium-rich M23C6 carbides, frequently nearby the Z-phase particles. The precipitation of Z phase is preferential near the grain boundaries of prior austenite, and in the steels containing delta ferrite additionally also near the interphase boundary martensite/delta ferrite [14, 25, 33, 35, 36]. This is due to faster diffusion of substitution elements nearby these defects. It results in the formation of near-boundary areas free from MX precipitates, which leads to the accelerated matrix recrystallization and reduction in strength properties in these areas. Such changes lead to the formation of creep grain, which is unequal in volume, and consequently to a faster destruction of steel during service [32, 35, 36]. The disappearance of finely dispersed MX precipitates also results in disproportionately high reduction in hardness in relation to other mechanical properties [21].
In martensitic steels containing approx. 9%Cr, a more important problem is the increase in the size of M23C6 carbides as well as the precipitation and growth of intermetallic Fe2Mo Laves phase [6, 7, 25, 37]. In 9–12%Cr steels in the as-received condition, the Laves phase does not occur. The precipitation of this phase takes place during service/aging mainly at the grain/lath boundaries, frequently nearby M23C6 carbides Figure 12 [37–39]. In the case when the total content of W + Mo in the steel amounts to at least 4.53, the particles of Laves phase precipitate heterogeneously at grain boundaries as well as homogeneously within grains, forming the precipitation free zone on both sides of the grain boundary [40].
Precipitation of Laves phase at the grain boundary nearby M23C6 carbides: (a) T91 steel, (b) GP91 cast steel [
It is assumed that due to high dispersion in the initial period of the precipitation the Laves phase has a positive effect on properties of these steels by increasing the precipitation hardening. However, low stability of the Laves phase results in its high coagulability, which results in a very fast increase in its size [15, 25, 37, 39].
The Laves phase precipitating in 9–12%Cr creep-resistant steels makes the matrix deplete of substitution elements (tungsten, molybdenum, chromium), which increases the tendency of these steels to the recovery and polygonization process and reduces their resistance to oxidation. On the other hand, the matrix depletion of substitution elements (Cr, Mo, W), which are also components of M23C6 carbides, has a positive effect on the inhibition of coagulation of these precipitates [12, 38]. According to [41, 42], the nucleation and growth of Laves phase requires the enrichment of micrograin boundaries not only in Mo and Si, but also in phosphorus.
The Laves phase precipitates with average diameter above 130 nm also contribute to the change in cracking mechanism from ductile to brittle (transcrystalline, cleavable fracture) and are the main reason for sudden reduction in creep strength of [40, 41, 43, 44]. The Laves phase and M23C6 carbide precipitates occurring during long-term service form the so-called continuous grid of precipitates at the grain boundaries (Figure 13), which contributes to a decrease in ductility of 9% Cr steel [8, 12, 43–49].
Continuous grid of precipitates at the former austenite grain boundaries (a) P91 steel (SEM), (b) GP91 cast steel (TEM) [
The increase in stability of the Laves phase precipitates in these steels can be achieved by the addition of boron and/or tungsten [50, 51]. On the contrary, phosphorus, silicon, and cobalt have an adverse effect as they stimulate the precipitation of the Laves phase [52, 53].
In the tempered structure of martensite in steel of the 9–12%Cr type, in the case of the typical volume fractions of particular precipitates and spacing between them, the Orowan stress can be estimated as shown in Table 2.
Particle | Volume fraction, % | Diameter, nm | Spacing, nm | Orowan stress, MPa |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fe2M | 1.5 | 70 | 410 | 95 |
M23C6 | 2 | 50 | 260 | 150 |
MX | 0.2 | 20 | 320 | 120 |
Volume fraction, diameter, and spacing of each kind of precipitates in high-chromium martensitic steel, together with Orowan stress from the values of interparticle spacing [14].
The precipitation processes as well as the growth of carbides and secondary phases, which occurs during the operation of creep-resistant steels, make the matrix deplete of substitution elements as a result of their diffusion into these precipitates.
The matrix depletion of the above-mentioned elements facilitates the self-diffusion processes, speeds up the matrix recovery and polygonization processes, and reduces the oxidation resistance, thus contributing to the reduction in high-temperature creep resistance and life of these steels [11, 54].
An important factor affecting the basic property of 9–12%Cr steels, i.e., creep strength, is aluminum content in the steel. The addition of aluminum to steel is to deoxide it in the metallurgical process, hence part of aluminum will remain as Al2O3 in the steel, while the other part in the atomic form is dissolved in solid solution. The aluminum content in 9–12%Cr steels for the power industry should not exceed 0.04%. Due to its greater affinity to nitrogen, aluminum forms large lamellar AlN nitrides of about 0.5–1.0 μm to prevent the formation of finely dispersed vanadium-rich MX precipitates. This results in not only a reduction in the volume fraction of vanadium-rich MX precipitates, but also in a change in their chemical composition. There occurs a decrease in the amounts of vanadium and nitrogen with simultaneous increase in the amounts of niobium and carbon in these precipitates, which makes niobium-rich carbides (NbC) become the main precipitate in martensitic steel. This results in a decrease in creep strength of martensitic steels: for P91—by about 10% at 600°C, whereas for P92 the time to rupture of test specimen was shorter by 7–30 times, depending on test temperature and stress [30, 55]. Higher than permissible aluminum content in 9–12%Cr steels has a positive effect on the increase in impact strength and reduction in brittle fracture appearance transition temperature, which is the result of positive effect of AlN on the austenite grain refinement. The increase in aluminum content from 0.03 to 0.094% in P92 steel makes the average diameter of austenite grain decrease from 50 μm (which corresponds to the grain grade of 5.5) to 10 μm (grain grade 10) [30, 56]. The negative impact of aluminum on creep resistance requires control of chemical composition of 9–12%Cr steel as early as at its production stage, in particular with regard to elements with high affinity to nitrogen, such as Al and Ti, so as to prevent from the formation of unfavorable AlN or TiN nitrides at the expense of finely dispersed VN precipitates.
The basic features of the microstructure of 9–12%Cr steel in the as-received condition and after long-term service/aging are summarized in Table 3.
Features of microstructure | As-received condition | Creep/aging | |
---|---|---|---|
Matrix | Dislocation density | High | Low/very low |
Size, width of subgrains/martensite laths | High-temperature tempered martensite microstructure with small width of laths | Recovery and polygonization process – transformation of the lath martensite microstructure into the polygonised ferrite grain microstructure | |
Precipitates | MX | Finely dispersed (~20–50 nm), precipitated inside laths at dislocations, limit grain growth, make steel precipitation-hardened | Finely dispersed (~20–50 nm), precipitated inside laths at dislocations, limit grain growth, make steel precipitation-hardened, change into Z-phase |
M23C6 | 50–150 nm, precipitated at the martensite lath boundaries and at the former austenite grain boundaries, stabilize substructure | ≥220 nm, partially precipitated at the subgrain boundaries, coagulate during creep/aging resulting in a reduction in creep strength and increase in embrittlement | |
Z-phase | Nonexistent | Formed at the expense of finely dispersed MX precipitates, causes sudden decrease in creep strength | |
Laves phase | nonexistent | Medium and large size of precipitates (≥0.5–1 μm), precipitated at the grain and subgrain boundaries nearby M23C6, decreases creep strength and reduces ductility |
Basic features of microstructure in 9–12%Cr steels in the as-received condition and after creep.
Due to the significant population growth and the rising housing standards, the need to use structural wood products has been increasing [1]. At the same time, the timber industry must come up with solutions for ensuring the preservation of natural resources because of the growing demand for lumber and decreasing availability of large-diameter old-growth trees [2, 3]. Previously sawn from massive logs, structural lumber is now made from reconstituted wood in various shapes and sizes, which is classified as engineered wood products (EWPs). EWPs can maximize the use of wood and utilize small-diameter logs in comparison with conventional lumber [3, 4]. There are several types of EWPs in terms of the elements used, such as veneer-, strand-, fiber- and lumber-based EWPs, among which the veneer-based group is the oldest but still widely used.
The veneer-based EWPs, or called layered wood composites, are made of veneer sheets or veneer strands bonded with an adhesive [2], mainly including plywood, laminated veneer lumber (LVL), and parallel strand lumber (PSL), Figure 1. These products are largely made from peeled logs and reconstituted wood, which can then be fabricated into large sheets known as engineered panels [7]. The significant advantage of using veneer, as opposed to sawn lumber, is that it can increase the yield of wood materials from logs, particularly from small-diameter logs [8]. Veneer-based EWPs have a more homogeneous structure and uniform mechanical properties than solid lumber, making them a good candidate for building materials in construction.
Veneer-based EWPs. Top left – plywood (source: photos obtained from Indiamart [
Veneer-based EWPs differ by wood species, adhesive type, as well as by layup structure. Figure 2 shows the cross-sections (i.e., the width-thickness plane, or x-y plane named here) of four widely used wood products in construction, i.e., solid wood/lumber, plywood, LVL, and PSL. In the y-axis, the dimensional change is similar between solid wood, plywood, and LVL due to limited efficacy of adhesive bonds in this direction, i.e., the radial direction of the wood. However, the dimensional change of PSL in the y-axis is smaller than that of the other three products because of its irregular arrangement of veneer strands in the x-y plane and application of an adhesive. On the x-axis, the dimensional change is largest in solid wood (Note: the x-axis is the tangential direction of the wood.) and smallest in plywood and PSL, with LVL being in between. In other words, solid wood has the largest variability in both x- and y-axes; plywood and LVL have the reduced variability in x-axes, and PSL has the smallest variability in both x- and y-axis.
Cross-sections of solid wood and veneer-based EWPs.
The first type of veneer-based EWPs invented is plywood [9]. Later, modifications applied to the veneer layups resulted in LVL, and afterward, the long veneer strands were used to make PSL. The veneer-based EWPs have been widely used in construction nowadays [8]. Plywood is usually used as the sheathing material for walls, floors, and roofs, and the web stock for I-joists. LVL is commonly used as beams, columns, and the flange stock of I-joists. PSL is mainly used as columns and beams.
Plywood is a glued wood panel consisting of several thin layers of veneer with wood fibers in adjacent layers at right angles in most cases. Usually, a plywood sheet consists of an odd number of veneer layers [2, 3, 10]. Each layer is called ply, so the plywood can be deemed as a wood sandwich [7]. The cross lamination of adjacent plies in plywood contributes to improved mechanical properties and dimensional stability in both length and width directions [10].
Plywood is one of the oldest veneer-based EWPs. More than 3500 years ago, a type of plywood was found in ancient Egypt, which is part of the coffin, dating back to the third Egyptian dynasty [8]. Later, around 1500 BC, some images were discovered in which workers cut plywood with an axe-like tool. These images also show that the glue, apparently of animal origin, was prepared in a pot on fire [6]. Furniture constructed from overlapping sheets of wood and inlay had been discovered in Egyptian tombs. Hardwood veneer was preferred due to its attractive texture and shades [11]. The introduction of plywood was linked to the high cost of wood. Due to the shortage of available wood than supply, Egyptians had to import, by sea, ebony and mahogany from East Africa and cedar and pine from Lebanon at a very high price [12]. Later, the ancient Greeks and Romans started producing plywood. Plywood was primarily used for the manufacturing of furniture and household items [11]. Plywood production took off in the 1850s thanks to the Swedish inventor Emmanuel Nobel, who created a model of a rotary lathe [8]. This model made it possible to remove the veneer in a certain and constant thickness from a wooden block. It gave the plywood a uniform thickness and structure [8].
Despite the fact that plywood is now widely used for sheathing in residential and commercial construction, early builders were hesitant to use the newly-born plywood panels because the blood and soybean protein-based glues used were not waterproof, and some panels delaminated when they got wet [13]. In 1934, waterproof synthetic wood adhesives were introduced, which solved the problem and eased builders’ concerns [8, 13]. During World War II, the use of plywood was exploded in many industries such as boats, aircrafts, footlockers, crates, and buildings [13]. It led to the post-war boom in plywood production [8], which was adopted for structural and exterior applications. One notable example of using plywood is the construction of the legendary bomber Mosquito [14]. This aircraft was introduced during the World War II. Spruce wood, birch plywood, and balsa wood were used in the construction of aircraft, which made it possible to achieve the necessary strength with a low weight structure [15]. Plywood and other structural panels have changed the way of constructing light wood-frame houses and buildings [11, 16]. Since the middle of the past century, usage of structural panels has expanded from a few niche applications to a popular commodity such as subflooring, roof and wall sheathing, corner bracing, and concrete forming [16]. Initially concentrated in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, where old-growth, large-diameter Douglas-fir was mostly used the plywood business therefrom expanded into the southeastern regions in the 1970s as the technological barrier of bonding southern yellow pine veneer was removed [13]. As seen from Figure 3, plywood consumption in Canada was rather stable in the last 15 years or so despite the emergence of other new types of building materials. However, Canada also imports plywood from other countries to meet its increasing demand in construction and other industries such as furniture [17].
Plywood production and consumption in Canada [
Figure 4 illustrates the key processes of manufacturing three major veneer-based EWPs, i.e., plywood, LVL, and PSL. An example of manufacturing Canadian softwood plywood is given below, which is used for structural applications. Specially chosen peeler logs are transported to a barker, where they are rotated against a steel claw, which removes the bark [18]. Then debarked logs are cut into peeler blocks. A block is placed on a massive lathe, rotating against a sharp knife. When the block turns, a continuous thin layer of wood, i.e., veneer is peeled off, similar to how paper unwinds from a roll.
Processes of manufacturing veneer-based EWPs.
The whole block is tried to use with an aim to generate a high yield of good quality wood material. The leftover small spindles are used to make other wood products. The long ribbon of the veneer is then cut with clippers into desired widths and sorted. It is also possible to remove defective pieces of veneer. Subsequentially, the veneer is dried to a moisture content of 5% or so in steam- or gas-heated ovens [18]. Depending on its intended use, the veneer may range in thickness from 0.3 mm (0.01 in) to 6.3 mm (0.25 in) [11]. After drying and sorting, the veneer is fed by glue spreaders, which apply an adhesive layer of uniform thickness. Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) adhesives are usually used in the manufacturing of plywood for structural and outdoor applications when exposed to the weather in its service [3]. Veneer sandwiches are sent to the hot press, which is a key step in the production process of curing the adhesive, subjected to a temperature of 150°C (300°F), and a pressure of 1.38 MPa (200 psi). After the press panels are cut to required dimensions, sanded, and graded [18].
In the fabrication of plywood for non-structural uses, such as furniture, cabinets, and indoor decoration, water-resistant urea-formaldehyde (UF) adhesives are used. The UF adhesives can be cured at a temperature of about 120°C (250°F) during hot-pressing, which can also be cured with high-frequency heating system with an aim to reduce the hot-pressing time and increase the production efficiency [3].
Quality control, which includes incoming management of raw materials, such as wood and glue, and manufacturing parameters at all stages of the production, must be applied in order to produce good quality plywood products. Acceptance quality control is the final stage of the manufacturing process. Many plywood manufacturers in western Canada produce structural plywood under the supervision of the British Columbia Council of Forest Industries (COFI), which constantly checks glue bond strength and other properties to guarantee that the products satisfy the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) standard [18].
Plywood can be made from various types of wood. Softwoods are commonly used to make veneer for plywood in North America, containing Douglas fir, western hemlock, spruces, pines, and firs [14]. These wood species can be divided into various categories based on their strength and use within the plywood structure. Spruce is used to make the majority of construction-grade softwood plywood in Canada [7]. More discussion on softwood plywood is given through the text in following sections.
Of hardwoods, birch, alder, linden, and lauan (“Philippine mahogany”) are most popular for veneer production [7, 10]. These species do not have distinguished earlywood and latewood zones, which are characterized by uniform density and structure, making them easy to be peeled to produce thin and durable veneer.Beautifully grained hardwoods are often combined in several ways to make a unique face pattern [7].
The first standard plywood sheet had a width of 1.22 m (4 ft) and a length of 2.44 m (8 ft), which appeared in 1928 [19]. Such a standard size for plywood sheets has, since then, almost not been changed. The common thickness of plywood varies from 3.2 mm (1/8 in) to 76 mm (3 in) [10]. It depends on the thickness of the veneer and the number of layers. The most common plywood contains 3, 5, or multiple layers. With a three-layer, the plywood is 2–3 mm (0.08–0.12 in) in thickness, which can be used as an underlayment between the subfloor and the tile. Hardwood decorative plywood is often uniformly selected for grain texture, which is widely employed for indoor uses. The universal hardwood plywood has five layers, resulting in a thickness of 4 mm (0.16 in) or so, which can be used for multiple outdoor and indoor applications. Multiple layer plywood with more than seven layers can be classified as thick plywood, which is widely used for structural purposes, requiring acceptable strength and durability under the loading condition [11]. The thick plywood needs a sub-floor or structural sheathing attached to the framing elements of a new canopy.
Hardwood can be peeled or sliced for the production of decorative veneer for making furniture, cabinets, and interior decoration. Slicing results in more loss in raw materials and more intensiveness in labor [16]. Hardwood veneer, such as birch, usually has a thickness of 1.5 mm (0.06 in), whereas softwood veneer is often cut to a thickness of 3 mm (0.12 in) for plywood and LVL production [8].
Plywood comes in a range of appearance grades, from flat natural surfaces suitable for finishing to cost-effective unsanded grades suitable for sheathing. More than a dozen typical thicknesses and over twenty different grades of plywood are available [14]. The plywood is usually graded based on the appearance quality of veneer in North America. There are commonly two classes of plywood, each of which has its own set of standards: (a) construction and industrial plywood and (b) hardwood and decorative plywood [3].
In Canada, the two most popular types of softwood plywoods are unsanded sheathing grade Douglas Fir Plywood (DFP), which conforms to CSA O121 “Douglas fir plywood”, and Canadian softwood plywood (CSP), which conforms to CSA O151 “Canadian softwood plywood”. The poplar plywood, which conforms to CSA O153 “Poplar plywood”, is also designated but less uses in construction [14]. The group of DFP can include other species in addition to Douglas fir. For example, the front and back faces are made of Douglas fir, but the inner plies can be made from any of the specified species, including Douglas fir, western hemlock, and the majority of spruce, pine, and fir species in Canada [14]. Plywood that contains other selected Canadian wood species in the face and back plies is labeled CSP. Most species that are only allowed as inner plies for DFP may also be used as the face or back plies for CSP. Three hardwood species, i.e., balsam poplar, trembling aspen, and cottonwood, are restricted to use as inner plies in DFP and CSP [14]. The sizes, grades, specialty panels, manufacturing tolerances, and glue bond quality of plywood are all stipulated in the standards CSA O121, CSA O151, and CSA O153. The structural plywood is put with a legible and durable stamp showing the manufacturer, the bond style (EXTERIOR), the species (DFP or CSP), and the grade [14]. DFP and CSP are both made in a variety of grades based on the appearance and quality of the veneer used for making the outer plies.
Many plywood mills are members of the associations, which are responsible for inspecting, testing, and certifying the products with stamps. These stamps indicate that the stamped products meet the standards accepted by the associations. One of the largest associations in North America is APA – The Engineered Wood Association (formerly American Plywood Association) [20]. There are usually two letters on a stamp, the first indicating the quality of one surface, while the second showing the quality of the opposite surface, Figure 5 [7]. This stamp ensures the customer that this product has followed the association’s stringent quality and efficiency standards [3]. In Canada, the CertiWood™ Technical Center (formerly CANPLY– the Canadian Plywood Association), a non-profit, industry-funded association, represents manufacturers of EWPs [21]. Those mills, being the members of CertiWood™ Technical Center, can put the stamp with the trademark CANPLY on their products [7, 21].
A sample stamp on plywood: 1- panel grade - panel grades are generally identified in terms of the veneer grade used on the face and back of a panel (e.g., A-B, B-C); 2- bond classification - exposure ratings for APA wood structural panels may be exterior or exposure 1; 3 - decimal thickness declaration; 4 - mill number - manufacturing mill identification number; 5- species group number - classified according to strength and stiffness under manufacturing standard; 6 - product standard [
The vast majority of construction and industrial plywood is used in applications where structural performance surpasses appearance. Some construction and industrial plywood are manufactured with faces chosen mainly for appearance of either plain natural finishes or lightly pigmented finishes [3]. Structural plywood is available in two exposure durability classes: interior and exterior [13]. INTERIOR plywood is only intended for use in dry indoor applications where the panels should be protected from moisture permanently; which is even glued with a water-resistant interior-use adhesive [13]. EXTERIOR plywood is the only panels suitable for outdoor exposure. They are bonded with a waterproof exterior-use adhesive [13], including EXPOSURE 1 and EXPOSURE 2. EXPOSURE 1 panels are waterproof and designed for applications where long construction delays or exposure to high moisture in service are possible [13]. EXPOSURE 2 panels are water-resistant and designed for protected applications, where only minor construction delays are expected since they are mainly developed for interior use [13]. Sheathing grades that are not listed for appearance usually have the grading stamp on one of the faces, whereas grades such as Good Two Sides are stamped on the edge to avoid affecting the appearance. The strength values stipulated in CSA O86 “Engineering design in wood” [22] are used for Sheathing grade panels based on layups containing only C-grade veneer. Typical DFP and CSP grades include Sanded grades, primarily used in concrete formwork or non-structural applications, and Select and Select Tight Face grades, which are primarily used in floor underlayment applications requiring a smooth and solid surface [14].
Chemical treatments can be applied to plywood to increase its resistance to decay and fire. In Canada, the preservative-treated plywood must be made following CSA O80 “Wood preservation” [23]. To assess the effects of fire retardants or some other potentially strength-reducing compounds, plywood producers shall conduct tests following ASTM D5516 “Standard test method for evaluating the flexural properties of fire-retardant-treated softwood plywood exposed to elevated temperatures” [24] and ASTM D6305 “Standard practice for calculating bending strength design adjustment factors for fire-retardant-treated plywood roof sheathing” [14].
The density of plywood depends on the wood species and thickness used, which varies from 400 kg/m3 (25 lb./ft3) to 800 kg/m3 (50 lb./ft3) [3]. This is compared to the density of oven-dry wood, ranging from approximately 320 kg/m3 (20 lb./ft3) to 720 kg/m3 (45 lb./ft3) [3]. Plywood has good machining properties; thus, it is possible to work with it just like with ordinary wood, such as sawing, nailing, and gluing. However, the cross-lamination design of plywood, in contrast to wood that is broken down the grain, prevents it from splitting readily in the grain direction. As a result, screws and nails can be used in structural applications near the edges of plywood panels.
Plywood has exceptional built-in resistance to raking, twisting, or distortion, which is especially crucial when care is taken for transferring large shear stresses generated by powerful winds or earthquakes [11]. Many strength properties are equalized by changing the direction at 90 degrees to the grain with each consecutive wood layer of veneer. This provides plywood with a two-way capacity, i.e., the properties in the width direction are approximately equal to those in the length direction. For example, 6 mm (1/4 in) sheathing plywood on a typical framed construction wall with doors and windows delivers double the rigidity and strength furnished by 19 mm (3/4 in) thick boards laid diagonally. When glued to the framework, the strength values for plywood walls are raised even further [11].
Because structural plywood uses waterproof resins, a weather-resistant panel can be obtained if the edges are properly sealed [10]. Awareness of the allowable design values of a plywood panel is not required except in special engineering applications such as diaphragms and earthquake-resistant shear walls. When properly fastened to framing at the correct spacing, the span ratings alone ensure that the panels can work well under the roof and floor loadings stipulated in the building code. In North America, the design values can be found in CSA O86 “Engineering design in wood” [22], Wood Design Manual [25], and APA – Plywood Design Specification [20] or in its Design Capacities of APA Performance-rated Structural-Use Panels Technical Note N375 [26]. For engineering applications, STRUCTURAL I panels are typically the best choice. The typical values of sheathing grades are listed in Table 1. The properties of plywood vary with the quality of the constituent layers.
Mechanical properties | Metric | Imperial | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
Tensile Strength | 27.6–34.5 MPa | 4000–5000 psi | Parallel to face; ASTM D3500 [28] |
Modulus of Rupture | 48.30-68.90 MPa | 7000-10000 psi | Parallel to face; ASTM D3043 [29] |
Modulus of Elasticity | 8.200-10.300 GPa | 1190–1490 ksi | Parallel to face; ASTM D3043 [29] |
Compressive Strength | 31.00–41.40 MPa | 4500–6000 psi | Parallel to face; ASTM D3501 [30] |
Shear Modulus | 0.138–0.207 GPa | 20–30 ksi | In-plane (rolling shear) ASTM D2718 [31] |
0.586–0.758 GPa | 85-110 ksi | Through thickness (edgewise shear) ASTM D2719 [32] | |
Shear Strength | 1.72–2.07 MPa | 250–300 psi | In-plane (rolling shear) ASTM D2718 [31] |
5.52–6.89 MPa | 800–1000 psi | Through thickness (edgewise shear) ASTM D2719 [32] |
Mechanical properties and testing standards of plywood (source: Wood Engineering Handbook [27]).
Plywood is widely employed in structural and non-structural applications [3], which can be an ideal option for use in both wet and dry environments [14]. It was reported that plywood took about 54.8% of the market share in 2017 in the construction sector in North America Figure 6 [21].
North America plywood market share by segment in 2017 (source: Figure obtained from BCC research, FAO, RAUTE, IMF, National Statistics Offices [
In construction, plywood is mainly used as a load-bearing element in platform-frame structures, including single-family and multi-family housing, such as sheathing and underlayment, since it has good dimensional stability and does not crack, cup, or twist [18]. Plywood panels are used as wall sheathing materials, providing high lateral resistance to shear walls and high racking strength, and assisting in achieving the overall thermal efficiency of walls [16, 18]. Roof sheathing is frequently made of plywood. The stiffness of which constitutes diaphragm action when using prescribed framing and nailing patterns [18]. Also, plywood often finds its uses in the fabrication of I-joists as web stocks, marine applications, pallets, industrial containers, and furniture, Figure 7. Extra thick plywood with special surface treatment can be used for facing concrete formwork in concrete structures [7, 10, 14].
Plywood applications [
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is a type of structural composite lumber (SCL) made by gluing several layers of veneer in the longitudinal direction of the wood, which differs from plywood that has the veneer layers cross-laminated. LVL is one of the most important members in the family of veneer-based EWPs [8]. This material was initially used to produce aircraft propellers and other high-strength aircraft components during World War II [18, 37]. The research and development of LVL can be dated back to the 1940s with an aim at making high-strength parts for aircraft structures out of Sitka spruce veneer [3]. LVL was used as a building material since the mid-1970s [18, 37, 38] when the research was focused on examining the effects of manufacturing variables on LVL with a thickness being up to 12.7 mm (1/2 in) [3]. LVL is now widely used as building and packaging materials [18].
The veneer manufacturing and drying processes are almost the same as those used in making plywood. Figure 4 illustrates the different processes in the manufacturing of LVL from plywood, largely including veneer orientation during layup, hot press type, and end cutting to produce the length required.
To make veneer sheets, the logs are usually peeled in a lathe. The thickness of veneer sheets in 1.5 mm (0.06 in) up to 6.4 mm (0.25 in) [16, 38], the length is 2640 mm (104 in), and the width is 1320 mm (52 in) or 660 mm (26 in) [18]. The veneer is dried to a moisture content of 6–10%, ideally 6–8% [38]. The veneer is clipped to remove any strength-reducing defects and graded. The veneer sheets are cut to the desired width for billet production [18]. The individual veneer sheets are then joined, with the grain of all veneers running in the direction of a billet’s length direction. End joints between different veneer pieces are staggered along the length of the billet to distribute any defects that could reduce strength. To effectively transmit load, the joints might be scarf joined or overlapped for some distance [18]. Then the veneer sheets are covered with a waterproof phenol-formaldehyde adhesive [18, 37, 38] or phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde or polyurethane adhesives [39].
The veneer layup of LVL differs from that of plywood. In the production of LVL, the veneer is oriented in the same direction, i.e., the longitudinal grain direction of the wood, providing the super strength in this direction, which is similar to or larger than solid lumber, Figure 8. Thus, LVL is commonly used for beams and columns in the construction of buildings [8, 10]. Veneer sheets in plywood are cross-laminated, making it possess two-way properties, i.e., similar properties in both major and minor directions, as mentioned in Section 2, suitable for sheathing materials.
Layups of LVL and plywood (source: image obtained from Gong [
The pre-pressing of LVL billets could be carried out in a single-opening cold press or a short continuous cold press [38]. The completed billets are simultaneously exposed to pressure to consolidate the veneer and heat to accelerate the curing of the glue [18]. In general, the press temperature used to produce LVL is rarely higher than 175°C (350°F). For the batch type presses, it is usually 160°C (320°F). For the continuous presses, the temperature might be significantly higher since there is a pre-heating zone. As veneer sheets are relatively low in permeability, it is recommended to avoid using a high press temperature, especially when combined with a long press time [38]. This process is similar to used in manufacturing of plywood, except that instead of being formed into thin flat panels, the veneer sheets for making LVL is formed into long billets up to 25 m (80 in) in length. After curing, the billets are sawn to specific lengths and widths for the target application(s) of a LVL product [18].
During the manufacturing of LVL, the selection of veneer is, in terms of thickness and grade, of great importance. The right veneer thickness can help balance LVL properties and manufacturing costs in the production. The veneer used in the manufacture of LVL must be carefully selected in order to obtain the desired engineering properties. Ultrasonic scanning is often used to sort veneer sheets to ensure that the final product has the desired engineering properties [37]. The individual veneer is typically graded so that the strength characteristics of each LVL can be customized [10]. For esthetic reasons and superior flatwise bending properties, the best veneer sheets are usually used as surface plies, while lower-grade sheets are used for the inner plies [38]. For example, if the final use of LVL is scaffold planks, the higher grade veneer will be put on the plank’s outer sides [18].
With decreasing veneer thickness, the number of veneer sheets required increases for the same density, thickness, and layout technique of an LVL product. As a result, defects in LVL with thinner veneer will disperse more defects than in LVL with thicker veneer. Because of this, as the veneer thickness decreases, the variation diminishes, and the strength values increase. However, as veneer thickness decreases, resin content, press cycle time, and production cost increase [38].
The strength properties of veneer are more critical for LVL than those in plywood in general. As a result, it is highly desirable for LVL producers to avoid using the veneer sheets with deep lathe checks that cause a reduction in veneer strength. Deep lathe checks can decrease LVL’s shear strength and stiffness while having little effect on its MOE. Low shear rigidity can reduce LVL’s MOE rating [38].
LVL can be made from different softwood and hardwood species; however, in North America, Douglas-fir, larch, southern yellow pine, hemlock, aspen, and yellow poplar are the most widely used wood species for producing LVL [18, 37, 40].
LVL is available in thicknesses ranging from 19 mm (3/4 in) to 89 mm (3–1/2 in) and likely to 178 mm (7 in) [18, 41]. The most typical thickness of LVL used in construction are 38 mm (1–1/2 in) [3] and 45 mm (1–3/4 in) [18], from which broader beams can be conveniently assembled on a job site by fastening several LVL plies [18]. The typical depth is from 140 mm (5–1/2 in) to 508 mm (20 in). Different manufacturers can also provide different widths and depths. At the job site, LVL can easily be cut to a length required [37]. Typical lengths of LVL are 14.6 m (48 in), 17 m (56 in), 18.3 m (60 in), 20.1 m (66 in), and 24.4 m (80 in) [10, 37, 41]. LVL is manufactured in the form of billets with widths of 610 mm (24 in) or 1220 mm (48 in). The required depth of LVL can be cut from these billets [18].
LVL is a proprietary product; therefore, its engineering properties and sizes can differ from one manufacturer to another. As a result, there is no general production standard or design values in the LVL industry [37]. However, the Canadian Construction Materials Centre (CCMC) reviews and approves the design values, which are derived from test results following CSA O86 “Engineering design in wood” and ASTM D5456 “Standard specification for evaluation of structural composite lumber products” [37]. Each manufacturer develops the characteristic properties of its LVL products by in-grade testing. The manufacturer is also responsible for checking the properties of its products by constant monitoring and quality management. Each manufacturer publishes its own list of design properties, resulting in a unique grade for a given LVL product [42]. Products that satisfy the CCMC criteria are assigned an Evaluation Number and an Evaluation Report that describes the design strengths. They are then entered into the CCMC’s Registry of Product Evaluations. The manufacturer’s name or product marking, as well as the stress grade, are stamped on the material at different intervals, although this may not be present on every piece due to end cutting [37].
Figure 9 presents a stamp of LVL from APA – The Engineered Wood Association, which shows a qualified LVL grade (e.g., 3100Fb-2.0E), product evaluation reports, the treatment facility, and standard specifications for SCL.
LVL stamp: 1 – qualified LVL grade (usually represented by design values; 2 – APA mill number; 3 – product evaluation reports; 4 – standard specification for structural composite lumber (source: photo obtained from APA – the Engineered Wood Association).
The density of LVL is about 480–510 kg/m3 (30-32 lb./ft3) [43], which is similar to that of the wood made from. Compared to solid wood, LVL has more stable characteristics than solid timber. This is due to the fact that natural defects, such as knots, splits and slope of grain, are dispersed throughout the material or completely removed during the manufacturing, and dried veneer and adhesives are employed [37].
LVL can easily absorb water, resulting in the change in dimensions, in particular in the thickness direction since there are almost no adhesive restrictions. Therefore, LVL should be protected from the weather during job site storage and after installation [3, 37]. Wrapping the LVL materials for shipping to the job site is also critical for minimizing the moisture effect. End and edge sealing are the commonly used approach to avoid moisture penetration and protect LVL products in their services [37].
Both special cutting, notching, or drilling should be performed according to the manufacturer’s instruction. LVL acts similarly to solid sawn timber or glue-laminated beams of equal height, which requires the same fastening and connection requirements as solid lumber [40]. The primary sources of knowledge for design, standard installation descriptions, and performance characteristics are provided in the manufacturer catalogs and inspection reports [37].
LVL is mainly used as structural framing in residential and industrial buildings. In the building industry, LVL is widely used for beams or headers over windows and doors on the edge, for hip and valley rafters, scaffold planking, and the flange material of I-joists [3, 10]. LVL may also be used as truck bed decking and road signposts. LVL is chiefly used as a structural component, most commonly in hidden spaces where esthetics is not a concern. Certain manufacturers offer a finished or architectural grade look, but it typically comes at a cost. When using LVL in applications where esthetics is significant, standard wood finishing techniques may be used to accent the grain and preserve the surface layer. The finished wide outer layer of LVL looks like plywood [37]. Figure 10 shows such a complex curved structure constructed Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada, which was designed and built with 53 parallel CNC-cut spruce LVL sections [44]. Each curved structure was panelized into six segments, shipped to the construction site, and assembled into one piece [44].
Curved LVL structures at Simon Fraser University (Canada) - Ripple Cone Canopy (source: photos obtained from StructureCraft [
Veneer-based EWPs have also been used in the windmill industry, in which wood veneer sheets are used to make windmill blades [45]. Previously, the size of the wooden blade was constrained by the availability of large, consistent-quality tree trunks. Veneering, on the other hand, spreads out defects like knots, resulting in more substantial and more predictable stiffness properties. This makes it possible to make larger wooden blades. When compared to fiberglass, wood laminates provide substantial cost and reduced weight. There are examples of blades made primarily of LVL reinforced with carbon composite spars and coated with a fiberglass composite outer layer [46]. One of the largest windmill blades is 107 meters long (351 ft), which is longer than a football field, produced in Cherbourg, France. It was made from a high-tech sandwich structure consisting of thin layers of glass and carbon fibers and balsa wood veneer [47].
Parallel strand lumber (PSL) is known as a composite of veneer strands with wood fibers aligned primarily along the length of the member, i.e., the longitudinal direction of wood [3]. PSL is overall similar to laminated strand lumber (LSL) and oriented strand lumber (OSL) but is made up of veneer strands (sometimes called veneer strips). The length of veneer strands used in PSL is longer than the strands used in LSL and OSL, with a length-to-thickness ratio of around 300.
PSL was invented in 1975 by MacMillan Bloedel Ltd., in Vancouver, Canada, who set out to create a high-strength wood-based material [13]. The first PSL plant was opened in 1982, and its products were first commercially sold for Expo ‘86. MacMillan Bloedel, which is now called Weyerhaeuser, commercialized and patented its PSL products with the brand name Parallam®. The process has been improved over time to produce relatively giant and long beams, and the production and sales have steadily increased [48].
The process of manufacturing PSL allows prominent members to be built from small trees, resulting in the more efficient use of forest resources [49]. The first stages in the production of PSL are similar to those used in the production of plywood or LVL. Figure 4 illustrates the unique processes employed in the manufacturing of PSL, differentiating from those in plywood or LVL. To make veneer, logs are turned on a lathe [18]. The thickness of veneer is from 3 mm (1/8 in) to 6.4 mm (1/4 in) [3]. The veneer sheets are then dried to a moisture content of 2–3% before being sliced into long thin veneer strands parallel to one another [9]. After that, the veneer sheets are clipped into long, narrow veneer strands with a length of 2.4 m (8 feet), a width of 13 mm (1/2 in) [18], and a thickness from 2.54 mm (1/10 in) to 3.175 mm (1/8 in) [38].
The production process is designed to use materials from the log roundup and other less than full-width veneer in the veneer cutting stage. As a result, the process uses waste materials from a plywood or LVL operation [3]. The veneer strands are oriented to the length direction of a continuous billet using special equipment (Figure 11) and mixed with a waterproof exterior structural adhesive, such as phenol-formaldehyde, prior to hot-pressing.
Orientation of veneer strands in PSL (source: photos obtained from
The pressing process densifies the veneer strands to some degree, and the adhesive is cured with the aid of microwave technology [18, 49]. A continuous press is employed to produce PSL, which theoretically produces an unlimited length but is constrained only by transportation restrictions [3].
Douglas fir is used to produce PSL in Canada, and southern yellow pines are employed in the USA. In addition to this, western hemlock and yellow poplar are also used [3, 49, 51]. In general, there are no restrictions on the use of other wood species.
The available stock sizes for PSL have to be compatible with existing wood framing materials and standard dimensions [18]. PSL beams are available in thicknesses from 89 mm (3–1/2 in) to 178 mm (7 in), and in-depth from 235 mm (9–1/4 in) to 457 mm (18 in) [41]. PSL columns come in square and rectangular shapes of a dimension of 89 mm (3–1/2 in), 133 mm (5–1/4 in), or 178 mm (7 in) [41]. Smaller thicknesses can also be used, either individually as single plies or in combination for multi-ply applications [18, 49]. Steel connectors are usually required for larger dimensions [51]. PSL is available in lengths up to 20 meters (66 ft) [41].
The beam-like PSL products can be also ripped into thin boards, Figure 12, which opens a window for non-structural applications [18].
Boards ripped from PSL (source: photos adopted from
PSL is a proprietary product, the same as LVL. Therefore, specifications and dimensions are unique to each manufacturer. In North America, both PSL and LVL are treated as the same structural composite lumber [18]. The evaluation procedure and grade determination of PSL are the same as LVL (refer to Section 3.4). Figure 13 presents a stamp of PSL (Parallam® Plus), including a description of the product and uses, the type of treatment, and the treatment facility. The treatment stamp can also reference the treating standards (such as AWPA U1/UC4A by the American Wood Protection Association) and third-party quality program monitor (SPIB - Southern Pine Inspection Bureau) [53].
Stamp on PSL (Parallam® plus) (source: image obtained from Weyerhaeuser [
Since natural defects such as knots, the slope of grain, and splits have been scattered across the material or eliminated during the manufacturing process. The combination of a structural adhesive used with dried wood veneer strands, heat, and pressure employed during pressing makes PSL less warping than solid timber. Therefore, PSL is a type of highly consistent, uniform EWPs [49], which exhibits much less variability and larger load-bearing capabilities than solid lumber [51]. The density of PSL is 720 kg/m3 (45 lb./ft3) [54], which is similar to that of the wood used. Other advantages of PSL are given to its high strength, stiffness, and dimensional flexibility [49]. PSL is less susceptible to shrinkage, warping, and splitting as it has a moisture content of 11% [49].
The texture of PSL is rich due to the grain of wood veneer strands and dark glue lines. PSL is a visually appealing construction material that fits well to the applications that require a high level of finished appearance [49]. The techniques applicable to sawn lumber can be used to machine, stain, and finish PSL. At the end of the manufacturing period, PSL is sanded to ensure exact dimensions and a high-quality appearance. Stain can be used to emphasize the warmth and texture of the wood [49]. It should be pointed out that the special cutting, notching, or drilling of PSL shall be performed in compliance with the manufacturer’s instruction.
As mentioned above, both PSL and LVL are treated as the same SCL in Canadian practices; therefore, their design values are the same. Table 2 lists the key strength properties of sample SCL. Some specific design values can be obtained from manufacturers [41].
Property | Value (MPa) |
---|---|
Modulus of elasticity, E | 13,800 |
Allowable bending stress, fb (300 mm depth) | 37.0 |
Allowable shear stress, fv (perpendicular to glue line or wide face of the strand) | 3.7 |
Allowable bearing stress, fcp (parallel to glue line or wide face of the strand) | 9.4 |
Major strength properties of SCL (source: Canadian Wood Council [41]).
PSL is mainly used in residential, commercial, and industrial construction as structural framing components, such as beams and columns in the post-and-beam construction, and headers, pillars, and lintels in the light-frame construction [18]. According to Part 3 of the National Building Code of Canada, CCMC has approved PSL for use as heavy timber construction [51]. Due to the excellent strength characteristics of PSL, it is possible to use it in the design of the roofs with a large span and rooms with open spaces. Figure 14(left) presents PSL beams that are used for an open floor plan at Vancouver Firehall No.15, Vancouver, Canada. Another example is presented in Figure 14(right), showing a portable Concord Pacific Display Pavilion at Vancouver, Canada, which uses a glass-enclosed superstructure made of exposed PSL columns. In addition, PSL is a visually attractive material; thus, it is well suited to applications where the finished look is essential. It can be also appropriate for hidden structural applications where appearance is unimportant [18].
Floor and columns made of PSL in Vancouver Firehall No.15 (left) and Concord Pacific display pavilion (right), respectively (source: photos obtained from StructureCraft [
EWPs are relatively recent structural members that have been widely incorporated in the building industry in North America and beyond. They have been invented and used for making timber buildings and furniture. The family of veneer-based EWPs mainly has three major members, i.e., plywood, LVL, and PSL. Because the majority of veneer-based EWPs are designed to handle relatively large loads, they must be manufactured in accordance with recognized standards or technical guides to ensure that the required engineering design values and applications are met. Veneer-based EWPs have been accepted and acknowledged in the building industry as premium structural materials. It is possible to make these products considerably large from small-diameter logs. The only restriction can be the length of LVL and PSL during transportation [38].
Non-traditional resources (such as under-utilized wood species) can be used to manufacture veneer-based EWPs of better physical and mechanical properties than other traditional structural products (such as solid timber products) [1]. Due to engineering design, removal of defects, drying of wood materials, application of adhesive, and layer-by-layer bonding, the veneer-based EWPs are stronger and more durable than solid wood of the same size. This is an outstanding advantage for constructing a building requiring high strength without a bulky appearance. Typically, LVL and PSL have about three times larger bending strength and 30% larger stiffness than the lumber products of comparable sizes [41].
Interest in veneer-based EWPs products will continue to grow for ecological reasons. For example, restrictions have been introduced in many countries on deforestation of large-diameter old-growth trees. Due to the needs in the construction market, alternative materials must be further developed. The rapid advancement in technology, along with the available raw materials, i.e., small-size fast-growth trees, would inevitably accelerate the development of EWPs [2]. Also, in recent years, the minimization of carbon footprints in construction has reached a consensus. Many architects and engineers have been designing and constructing buildings with 100% solid wood and EWPs. Meanwhile, research on the standardization of the veneer-based EWPs and expansion of their uses is no doubt required. Modernization of existing equipment and improvement of the gluing systems will allow the creation of innovative designs and special shapes that are currently not available for wood products. This will certainly expand the matrix of applications for veneer-based EWPs, as well as making them become more competitive in the market of building materials.
This piece of work was financially supported by the New Brunswick Innovation Research Chair Initiative Program by the New Brunswick Innovation Foundation (Canada) and the Collaborative Research and Development Grants by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (CRDPJ 523922-18).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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In cases, the ultrasound appearance is a cystic image with different content and the differential diagnosis is often difficult. Body—research methods: the organs affected by abdominal congenital anomalies involve the gastrointestinal tract (stomach, duodenum, small bowel or colon, and gall bladder), the kidney and urinary tract, the peritoneal cavity (ascites), suprarenal glands, and tumors of the reproductive system (especially the ovaries). In order to identify the affected structures, it is mandatory to know the normal aspect of the abdominal content at different gestational ages. The diagnosis may be very difficult, but its accuracy is important, considering the need of further counseling the couple. In minor conditions, without chromosomal anomalies or associations, the outcome is usually good, and there are even possibilities of in utero treatment. In severe conditions, with poor outcome, the couple can choose to terminate the pregnancy, after counseling is provided. Conclusion: abdominal congenital anomalies are common findings in ultrasound screenings for anomalies in all the trimesters of pregnancy and their recognition is important for subsequent management.",book:{id:"6307",slug:"congenital-anomalies-from-the-embryo-to-the-neonate",title:"Congenital Anomalies",fullTitle:"Congenital Anomalies - From the Embryo to the Neonate"},signatures:"Ples Liana and Anca Lesnic",authors:[{id:"212333",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Liana",middleName:null,surname:"Ples",slug:"liana-ples",fullName:"Liana Ples"}]},{id:"64417",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Comprehensive Approach to the Process of Breastfeeding",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-comprehensive-approach-to-the-process-of-breastfeeding",totalDownloads:1267,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"6191",slug:"selected-topics-in-breastfeeding",title:"Selected Topics in Breastfeeding",fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Breastfeeding"},signatures:"René Mauricio Barría P",authors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",middleName:null,surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}]},{id:"62854",title:"The Surgical Technique of Caesarean Section: What is Evidence Based?",slug:"the-surgical-technique-of-caesarean-section-what-is-evidence-based-",totalDownloads:2448,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Caesarean section is the most frequent obstetric operation which is associated with increased maternal morbidity and mortality. Although these risks are low, affected women may suffer from severe consequences and this may affect subsequent pregnancies and deliveries. A variety of surgical approaches have been described, however, on low evidence level. The objective of this chapter is therefore to systematically search the literature and analyse the available evidence including preoperative workup, prophylactic antibiotics, skin disinfection, preoperative bladder catheterization as well as details of the individual steps of the actual operation itself such as skin incision types, preparation of soft tissue and womb, removal of the placenta, cervical dilatation and stitching of the womb, peritoneum, rectus muscle, fascia, subcutaneous fat, and skin. We systematically searched for meta-analysis, systematic reviews, and big studies and evaluated the evidence for each individual step.",book:{id:"6707",slug:"caesarean-section",title:"Caesarean Section",fullTitle:"Caesarean Section"},signatures:"Jan-Simon Lanowski and Constantin S. von Kaisenberg",authors:[{id:"100660",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:"Sylvius",surname:"Von Kaisenberg",slug:"constantin-von-kaisenberg",fullName:"Constantin Von Kaisenberg"},{id:"240353",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan-Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Lanowski",slug:"jan-simon-lanowski",fullName:"Jan-Simon Lanowski"}]},{id:"18348",title:"Anaesthetic Considerations during Laparoscopic Surgery",slug:"anaesthetic-considerations-during-laparoscopic-surgery",totalDownloads:28882,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"916",slug:"advanced-gynecologic-endoscopy",title:"Advanced Gynecologic Endoscopy",fullTitle:"Advanced Gynecologic Endoscopy"},signatures:"Maria F. Martín-Cancho, Diego Celdrán, Juan R. Lima, Maria S. Carrasco-Jimenez, Francisco M. Sánchez-Margallo and Jesús Usón-Gargallo",authors:[{id:"14715",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco M.",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Margallo",slug:"francisco-m.-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Francisco M. Sánchez-Margallo"},{id:"29449",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Martín-Cancho",slug:"maria-fernanda-martin-cancho",fullName:"Maria Fernanda Martín-Cancho"},{id:"39772",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan R.",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"juan-r.-lima",fullName:"Juan R. Lima"},{id:"39773",title:"Mr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Celdran",slug:"diego-celdran",fullName:"Diego Celdran"},{id:"39774",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Usón-Gargallo",slug:"jesus-uson-gargallo",fullName:"Jesus Usón-Gargallo"},{id:"62320",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Sol",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco-Jiménez",slug:"maria-sol-carrasco-jimenez",fullName:"Maria Sol Carrasco-Jiménez"}]},{id:"41721",title:"Artificial Insemination in Poultry",slug:"artificial-insemination-in-poultry",totalDownloads:9531,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:null,book:{id:"3206",slug:"success-in-artificial-insemination-quality-of-semen-and-diagnostics-employed",title:"Success in Artificial Insemination",fullTitle:"Success in Artificial Insemination - Quality of Semen and Diagnostics Employed"},signatures:"M.R. Bakst and J.S. Dymond",authors:[{id:"155683",title:"Dr.",name:"Murray R.",middleName:null,surname:"Bakst",slug:"murray-r.-bakst",fullName:"Murray R. Bakst"},{id:"167852",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica",middleName:null,surname:"Dymond",slug:"jessica-dymond",fullName:"Jessica Dymond"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"189",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"80860",title:"From Open to Minimally Invasive: The Sacrocolpopexy",slug:"from-open-to-minimally-invasive-the-sacrocolpopexy",totalDownloads:35,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101308",abstract:"With an increased demand for pelvic organ prolapse surgeries as the population ages, mesh-related osteomyelitis will become more prevalent. This case series enriches the paucity of data on management options for delayed osteomyelitis related to pelvic organ prolapse mesh. A literature review revealed no case reports of delayed onset osteomyelitis presenting up to a decade after colpopexy mesh placement. We present three cases of delayed osteomyelitis, their presentation, diagnosis and management at a tertiary academic referral center. Patients presented between 1 and 10 years after mesh colpopexy. Three different mesh materials were utilized during the initial procedures: Restorelle Y, Gynamesh and Gore-Tex mesh. The first case demonstrates failed expectant management with eventual surgical intervention on a medically compromised patient. The two subsequent cases describe elective complete mesh resection after several prior failed mesh revision attempts. This short case series and literature review illustrates that mesh-related osteomyelitis after a remote sacrocolpopexy carries significant morbidity. Mesh removal by means of minimally invasive surgery in the hands of an experienced surgical team utilizing DaVinci Robotic System is a good option and may lead to best patient outcomes.",book:{id:"11040",title:"Hysterectomy - Past, Present and Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11040.jpg"},signatures:"Adriana Fulginiti, Frank Borao, Martin Michalewski and Robert A. Graebe"},{id:"80782",title:"Cases of Postpartum Hemorrhage and Hysterectomy in Thailand’s Northern and Northeastern Provincial Hospitals",slug:"cases-of-postpartum-hemorrhage-and-hysterectomy-in-thailand-s-northern-and-northeastern-provincial-h",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102948",abstract:"PPH is a major cause of maternal death. Hysterectomy is safe to treat uncontrollable PPH. However, it may not be the best option for women who want to have children. The risk score tool to detect PPH earlier is needed in low-resource cities such as Chiang Rai and Sakon Nakhon province. This study aims to perform a risk score tool to prevent PPH in the northern and northeastern hospitals in Thailand; using mixed methods, identify risk factors for PPH from 20 articles globally and in Thailand using Med Calc, and develop the tool for prediction of PPH; and tool testing and a one-year follow-up on PPH-related hysterectomy cases. Results showed that this risk score tool can detect PPH earlier, reducing the number of PPH and hysterectomy cases. This risk score tool needs to be implemented in the same situations as hospitals to save pregnant women’s lives.",book:{id:"11040",title:"Hysterectomy - Past, Present and Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11040.jpg"},signatures:"Thawalsak Ratanasiri, Natakorn I. Tuporn, Somnuk Apiwantanagul, Thitima Nutrawong, Thawalrat Ratanasiri and Amornrat Ratanasiri"},{id:"80633",title:"Hysterectomy: Past, Present and Future",slug:"hysterectomy-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103086",abstract:"Hysterectomy is a major operation and is as old as time. This chapter touches briefly on the history of this procedure, its present aspects and general advice for these women who may need a hysterectomy, and finally the direction of new developments about it.",book:{id:"11040",title:"Hysterectomy - Past, Present and Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11040.jpg"},signatures:"Zouhair Odeh Amarin"},{id:"80589",title:"Total Vaginal Hysterectomy for Unprolapsed Uterus",slug:"total-vaginal-hysterectomy-for-unprolapsed-uterus",totalDownloads:54,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101383",abstract:"Vaginal hysterectomy was the first method to extract the uterus. Vaginal hysterectomy goes back a long way into the history of medicine. Although the first hysterectomy was carried out by Themison of Athens in the year 20 B.C., the idea of extracting the uterus through the vagina was first mentioned in 120 B.C. by Soranus of Ephesos, a distinguished obstetrician. The first elective vaginal hysterectomy was performed by J. Conrad Langenbeck in 1813. The patient was a 50-year-old multipara, who suffered from chronic pelvic pain attributed to a prolapsed uterus with a hard, bleeding tumor. The operation was carried out in challenging conditions, without anesthesia, proper instruments, or surgical assistants. Until the early 1950s, vaginal hysterectomy was the method of choice for removing the uterus. With the widespread introduction of general anesthesia and antibiotic therapy, the site of vaginal hysterectomy was taken over by abdominal hysterectomy. With the introduction of minimally invasive surgery in gynecology, vaginal hysterectomy has regained its place. Harry Reich performed the first total laparoscopic hysterectomy in 1989, being one of the most renowned vaginal surgeons, and he still claims at the beginning of the 21st century that … when the first choice of approach for hysterectomy is possible, is the vaginal route. This chapter presents the relevant anatomy from the point of view of the vaginal surgeon and the standard technique used by the author in over 5,000 vaginal hysterectomies. All intraoperative drawings and photographs are original.",book:{id:"11040",title:"Hysterectomy - Past, Present and Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11040.jpg"},signatures:"Petre Bratila"},{id:"80400",title:"Laparoscopic Hysterectomy in Morbidly Obese Patients",slug:"laparoscopic-hysterectomy-in-morbidly-obese-patients",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101307",abstract:"The following chapter will focus on laparoscopic hysterectomy in morbidly obese patients. The discussion reviews the physiological changes associated with morbid obesity and the potential implications on pneumoperitoneum during laparoscopic surgery. Important considerations such as perioperative care and operating room setup are discussed. Additionally, obtaining abdominal access, reviewing the surgical approach, and post-operative considerations are all highlighted within this chapter.",book:{id:"11040",title:"Hysterectomy - Past, Present and Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11040.jpg"},signatures:"Merima Ruhotina, Annemieke Wilcox, Shabnam Kashani and Masoud Azodi"},{id:"80238",title:"Surgical Site Infection after Hysterectomy",slug:"surgical-site-infection-after-hysterectomy",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101492",abstract:"Surgical site infections (SSIs) are associated with increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. SSIs are defined as an infection that occurs after surgery in the part of the body where the surgery took place. Approximately 1–4% of hysterectomies are complicated by SSIs, with higher rates reported for abdominal hysterectomy. Over the past decade, there has been an increasing number of minimally invasive hysterectomies, in conjunction with a decrease in abdominal hysterectomies. The reasons behind this trend are multifactorial but are mainly rooted in the well-documented advantages of minimally invasive surgery. Multiple studies have demonstrated a marked decrease in morbidity and mortality with minimally invasive surgeries. Specifically, evidence supports lower rates of SSIs after laparoscopic hysterectomy when compared to abdominal hysterectomy. In fact, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologist recommends minimally invasive approaches to hysterectomy whenever feasible. This chapter will review the current literature on surgical site infection (SSI) after hysterectomy for benign indications.",book:{id:"11040",title:"Hysterectomy - Past, Present and Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11040.jpg"},signatures:"Catherine W. Chan and Michael L. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). 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