Growth factors present in alpha granules of platelets and their biological actions [2, 36, 37].
\r\n\tWithin this scenario, special attention needs to be devoted to financial implications, due to their pervasiveness. Nobody would question the key role that finance plays to complement the real sphere of the economy and that has increasingly attracted both academics and practitioners. As a result, traditional pillars – such as financial markets, products, and institutions – have evolved significantly, with financial innovation fueling further progress over time. The global side of the coin features – among others – financially connected markets, international financial exchanges, and financial conglomerates that provide valuable opportunities in terms of international corporate finance. On the other side, recent advances have involved a wider recourse to ESG factors, allowed forward steps towards a more inclusive financial system, and have made digital finance a must, rather than an option, even though much remains to be accomplished, for instance, to facilitate access to formal financial channels in many underdeveloped regions.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book aims to examine emerging trends, new perspectives, and empirical applications that deal with globalization and sustainability. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview of these important concepts as valuable support to successfully meet the challenges and take on the opportunities ahead. At the same time, drawing upon empirical evidence can contribute to bridging the gap between theory and practice, which also fits within the scope of this book.
Platelet-rich plasma or PRP therapy is a form of regenerative medicine where body’s own cells, tissues or organs can be utilized by replacing, regenerating or engineering to restore or establish normal function. While the role of PRP therapy is already established in sports injuries, dental and oral surgery and pain relief, it also comes as a promising option in various procedures in cosmetic dermatology, trichology and more recently hair transplant.
Synonyms: Autologous platelet gel, plasma-rich growth factors, platelet-concentrated plasma, platelet-rich concentrate, platelet releasate [1, 2].
Definition: Platelet-rich plasma is volume of the plasma fraction of autologous blood with an above baseline platelet concentration (usually more than 1,000,000 platelets/μl), leading to 300–700% enrichment [3, 4].
Whole blood consists of 93% red blood cells, 6% platelets and 1% white blood cells. In PRP, the proportion of these cells in blood is inverted, that is, the red cell layer is reduced to 5% and platelets and leucocytes are increased to about 94% to stimulate tissue regeneration [5].
The cellular response to injury occurs in four stages: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation and remodeling. In each phase, there is an enhanced cellular or molecular activity involving the platelets. Platelets and plasma are responsible for hemostasis, leucocytes and activated platelets mediate the inflammation, and growth factors derived from platelet alpha granules influence regeneration of tissues. Leucocyte content of PRP influences the inflammatory process, and angiogenic and mitogenic growth factors aid tissue regeneration [6].
Various growth factors are secreted from the α-granules of concentrated platelets activated by aggregation inducers [3]. These factors are known to regulate processes of cell migration, attachment, proliferation and differentiation and promote extracellular matrix (ECM) accumulation by binding to specific cell surface receptors [7].
Regenerative potential of PRP depends on the levels of released growth factors (GFs). PRP contains more than 20 GFs and other proteins, such as adhesion molecules, chemokines, etc., which interact, leading to inflammation, cell proliferation, differentiation and regeneration [3].
Activation of the platelets causes degranulation, leading to transformation of secretory proteins (e.g., Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) etc.) to a bioactive state by the addition of histones and carbohydrate side chains. Then, active proteins are secreted, which bind to transmembrane receptors of target cells, including mesenchymal stem cells, osteoblasts, fibroblasts, endothelial cells and epidermal cells. The agonist bound transmembrane receptors then activate an intracellular signal protein, leading to expression of a gene sequence which directs cellular proliferation, formation of matrix, collagen synthesis, etc., thereby provoking tissue repair and tissue regeneration (Table 1) [8].
Platelet growth factor | Biological actions |
---|---|
PDGF αα,αβ,ββ | Mitogenic factor for mesenchymal cells, proliferation of fibroblasts/smooth muscle cells, secretion of collagenase and synthesis of collagen, macrophage proliferation and chemotaxis of neutrophils |
TGF (alpha-beta) | Stimulates mesenchymal cells proliferation; regulates mitogenesis of endothelial cells and fibroblasts; secretion of collagenase and synthesis of collagen, regulates mitogenic effects of other growth factors, stimulates angiogenesis, inhibition of proliferation of macrophage and lymphocyte |
VEGF | Stimulates angiogenesis, increases vessel permeability and stimulates mitogenesis of endothelial cells |
EGF | Stimulates angiogenesis, regulates secretion of collagenase and stimulates epithelial and mesenchymal mitogenesis |
FGF | Promotion of growth and differentiation of fibroblasts and mesenchymal cells |
CTGF | Promotes neoangiogenesis, regeneration of cartilage, fibrosis and platelet adhesion |
IGF-1 | Chemotactic for fibroblasts stimulates protein synthesis, in combination with PDGF, and enhances rate and quality of wound healing |
HGF | Mediates regeneration |
FGF-9 | Aids generation of new follicles |
The mean blood platelet level is approximately 200,000 ± 75,000/μl. Platelet concentration of more than 1 million/μl (about four to seven times the mean levels) is regarded as concentration of PRP that is therapeutically effective. A bell-shaped response curve which indicates a dose-dependent nature is associated with PRP. Lower or higher concentrations than 1.5 million platelets/μl inhibit the angiogenic potential in human endothelial cells. In vitro studies on dermal papilla cells also support that PRP should be used at the concentrations of 5–10 times the mean levels [2].
The platelets actively secrete growth factors within 10 min after activation, and more than 95% of the presynthesized growth factors are secreted within 1 h [8].
Therefore, PRP should be used within 10 min of activation. The viability of the concentrated platelets remains for up to 8 h, and it stays sterile if placed on a sterile surgical table [2].
The platelets remain viable for 7–10 days and continue releasing the growth factors in tissue during this period [6].
Centrifugation separates the blood components, depending on their specific gravities, that is, RBCs are the heaviest, followed by WBCs, whereas platelets are the lightest. The first centrifugation is slow, so that the spinning down of platelets is avoided and isolation of plasma occurs easily. Platelets are mostly concentrated right on the top of buffy coat layer. Subsequent centrifugation is faster, so that platelets are spun down, leading to separation as a pellet at the bottom of the tube from the platelet-poor plasma (PPP) above. The final concentration of platelets depends on volume reduction of the PPP. About three-fourth of the supernatant is discarded, and the platelet-rich pellet is resuspended in rest of the plasma. The suspension formed is used as PRP. Double-spin method is preferred over the single-spin method, as the therapeutic concentration of platelets is not achieved by using the latter [2].
Whole blood is collected by venipuncture in acid citrate dextrose (ACD) tubes [8].
Blood is not chilled at any time before or during platelet separation.
Blood is centrifuged using a ‘soft’ spin.
Supernatant plasma containing platelets is transferred into another sterile tube (without anticoagulant).
Centrifuge the second tube at a higher speed (hard spin) to get a platelet concentrate.
The lower one-third is PRP, and upper two-thirds are called platelet-poor plasma. Platelet pellets are formed at the bottom of the tube.
PPP is removed, and the platelet pellet is suspended in a minimum quantity of plasma (2–4 ml) by gently shaking the tube.
Whole blood is stored at 20–24°C before centrifugation.
After storage, blood is centrifuged at a ‘high’ speed.
Three layers are formed because of the density: The bottom layer consists of RBCs, the middle layer consists of platelets and WBCs and the top is PPP layer.
Supernatant plasma is removed from the top of the container.
The buffy-coat layer is transferred to another sterile tube.
There are various automated devices and kits available in the market.
We use YCell Bio kit and REMI centrifuge for preparation of PRP.2 Vials, each containing 13.5 ml of whole blood mixed with 1.5 ml of ACD-A solution and centrifuged for 4 min at 3000 RPM. A total of 5–6 ml of buffy coat along with PRP is harvested from these two vials and injected as required. It gives five to seven times concentration of the baseline platelet count.
Ehrenfest et al. proposed a classification in 2009 according to which platelet concentrates can be classified into four main families depending on their cell content and fibrin architecture [9].
Pure platelet-rich plasma (P-PRP) or leucocyte-poor platelet-rich plasma-preparations which are leucocyte poor and have a low-density fibrin network on activation. They can be used as liquid solutions or as an activated gel. Therefore, it can be injected (as used in sports medicine) or can be placed during gelling on a wound or suture (similar to fibrin glue). Following the first slow spin centrifugation, only the superficial buffy coat layer is aspirated out and taken for second centrifugation [2]. Example: PRGF (plasma rich in growth factors or preparations rich in growth factors).
Leucocyte- and platelet-rich plasma (L-PRP) products-preparations with leucocytes and with formation of low-density fibrin network on activation. Largest number of commercial or experimental systems belongs to this group. During preparation of L-PRP, PPP, entire buffy coat layer and upper 1–2 mm of red blood cell layer are pipetted out after the first centrifugation [2]. Like P-PRP, they can be in liquid or gel form.
Pure platelet-rich fibrin (P-PRF) or leucocyte-poor platelet-rich fibrin-preparations which are leucocyte poor and with a fibrin network which is of high density. They exist only in a strongly activated gel form. To make P-PRF, P-PRP is mixed with an activator and a specific separator gel is used. After incubating for some time, a stable platelet-rich fibrin matrix (PRFM) clot is formed [2]. It cannot be injected or used like traditional fibrin glue but as it has a strong fibrin matrix, it can be handled like a real solid material and used for various other applications.
Leucocyte- and platelet-rich fibrin (L-PRF) or second-generation PRP product-preparations with leucocytes and a high-density fibrin network. Blood is centrifuged immediately after collection without any anticoagulant, thrombin or CaCl2. Natural coagulation process leads to formation of three layers—lowest RBC layer, middle L-PRF layer and topmost plasma layer which is acellular. The PRF clot is pressed between two gauzes to form a strong membrane [2]. Like P-PRF, it exists in strongly activated gel form only.
In most of the protocols, large bore needles (>22) are used for withdrawal of the blood to avoid unintentional activation of platelets [10].
Waters and Roberts, in their study, found that there was decrease in platelet counts with longer draw time [11].
Separation of blood’s cellular constituents is achieved by the process of differential centrifugation. In differential centrifugation, acceleration force is adjusted, leading to sedimentation of certain cellular constituents, whereas other constituents are left in suspension. Relative centrifugal field or RCF is the force which is required for separation of two phases. RCF is expressed as multiples of the earth’s gravitational field (g). On accelerating g, speedy sedimentation is achieved. ‘g’ is the actual force being exerted on the spinning rotor’s contents, which leads to separation of the aqueous solutions [8].
Revolutions per minute (rpm) is calculated using the equation [12].
where ‘g’ is the RCF,
The RCF calculation is dependent on radius of the centrifuge rotor used [8].
AABB manual recommends temperature of 21–24°C for blood centrifugation for the purpose of obtaining PRP [13]. Macey et al. reported that cooling may retard the platelet activation, and therefore, it may be essential to obtain PRP with viable platelets [14].
An ideal anticoagulant should preserve best functionality, integrity and morphology of platelets [8].
Anticoagulants with citrate and dextrose of sodium citrate are recommended for the PRP preparation [15].
Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) is not preferred because it can damage the platelet membrane [8].
ACD binds calcium and prevents the clotting cascade initiation by the coagulation proteins. Citrate also makes blood more acidic than is physiological. As some growth factors are influenced by the tissue pH, some protocols recommend that PRP should be buffered back to a physiologic range before injection [16].
PRP is exogenously activated by thrombin, calcium chloride or mechanical trauma. Collagen is a natural activator; thus, when PRP is used in soft tissue, there is no need to be exogenously activated [10].
On activation of PRP, a fibrin network begins to form and solidification of the plasma occurs, leading to fibrin clot or membrane formation. If PRP is activated too strongly, the fibrin network formed will be a bivalent, unstable network. If it is activated in a more physiologic manner, there is formation of a tetramolecular stable network that enhances cells and growth factor enmeshment. It is undesirable to have overly viscous PRP when injecting into the soft tissue [16].
Anticoagulants do not interrupt platelet aggregation. This has been overlooked in preparing conventional PRP. Aggregated platelets stick to the syringe wall and do not get easily detached from them. The primary aggregation of platelets is reversible, so the platelets come off from the wall and float in the plasma again after several hours. Waiting for such a long time is not feasible in the daily practice. So platelet aggregation inhibitor (PGE1) can be used to prevent this aggregation [17].
Absolute contraindications:
Platelet dysfunction syndrome.
Critical thrombocytopenia.
Hemodynamic instability.
Septicemia.
Local infection at the site.
Patient unwilling to accept risks.
Relative contraindications:
Consistent use of NSAIDs within 48 h of procedure.
Corticosteroid injection at treatment site within 1 month.
Systemic use of corticosteroids within 2 weeks.
Use of tobacco.
Recent fever/illness.
Cancer—especially hematopoietic or bone.
Hemoglobin < 10 g/dl.
Platelet count < 105/μl.
Pain in the injected area, headache, heaviness of head.
Swelling and redness.
Infection-PRP is antimicrobial and is effective against most bacteria except
Allergic reaction—urticarial rash.
Skin discoloration, bruising.
Bleeding.
Cross labeling of samples—leading to serious side effects, for example, severe hypersensitivity reaction [18].
Growth factors from platelets act on stem cells present in the bulge area of the follicles, stimulating the new follicular development and promotion of neovascularization. They activate the proliferation and transdifferentiation of hair and stem cells and produce new follicular units. Basic fibroblast growth factor promotes the proliferation of papilla cells in vitro and, therefore, plays a key role in hair shaft elongation. Activated PRP promotes the proliferation and prevents apoptosis of dermal papillary cells [19].
Singhal et al. found out that by the end of 3 months, all 10 androgenetic alopecia (AGA) patients treated with PRP had a good hair growth with reduction in number of hair pulled out by average 65%. New hair growth was observed in six patients as early as 7 days and in four patients in 15 days. Three patients developed mild headache after the procedure. There was no inflammation or infection [20].
In an another study on PRP in 11 AGA patients, the hair pull test after four sessions (once in 2 weeks) of PRP became negative in nine patients. Moderate improvement in hair volume and coverage was reported [19].
Greco and Brandt in their study, involving five patients who were given PRP therapy and five patients in non-PRP group (10 AGA patients in total), concluded that PRP used as mesotherapy in AGA patients leads to a significant increase in hair diameter and hair density [21].
Various modes of PRP therapy for AGA are as follows [2]:
Interfollicular PRP injection—an amount of 0.05–0.1 ml/cm2, in a retrograde fashion from deep to superficial, at distance of a centimeter, throughout the treated site.
PRP mesotherapy—microneedling with a roller of 1–1.5 mm long needles followed by interfollicular PRP injections (or using mesogun) over the treated area, and later, PRP is sprayed on top of the scalp and left overnight. It is usually repeated at an interval of 1–3 months.
PRP as an adjunct to hair transplantation:
The follicular grafts are dipped into PRP for about 15 min, before implantation to increase their rate of survival following implantation [22].
PRP is injected into the recipient area of scalp before or just after graft implantation [23].
PRP is injected at and around the donor strip excision line, in follicular unit transplantation (FUT), to decrease bleeding, stimulation of wound healing and reduction of scarring.
At our institute, we studied the effects of PRP therapy in 30 male patients with grade I to IV androgenetic alopecia. Three sessions of PRP at an interval of 1 month were given. Along with PRP, multivitamin supplements, peptide-based topical serum and high protein diet were also advised. Growth of new hair was observed to start at about 4–6 weeks after first session in 60% of the patients. By 8 weeks, increase in hair diameter was noted in 80% of the patients. There was significant improvement with perceptible difference in diameter and density of hair at 3 months after the completion of PRP sessions (Figure 1).
Video-microscopic image of a patient with androgenetic alopecia who underwent PRP therapy. Note new hair growth at 4 weeks after first PRP session and marked improvement in density and diameter of hair follicles after 4 months post 3 monthly sessions of PRP.
There were nine cases of female pattern hair loss in whom, we observed that more number of sessions were required for perceptible improvement to occur, that is, mean of six PRP sessions was required. New hair growth was seen as early as 6–8 weeks. On video-microscopy, moderate increase in density and diameter of hair was noted at about 6–10 months. Marked improvement in skin texture was observed. We also noted gradual diminution of the perifollicular halo with successive PRP therapy. Reduction in active hair fall was noticed as early as 4–6 weeks (Figure 2).
Trichoscopic images (50×) after six sessions of PRP in female patterned hair loss. Trichoscopic images (50×) before and after three sessions of PRP in female patterned hair loss.
We conducted a randomized control study of 40 patients with androgenetic alopecia undergoing hair transplant, and 20 patients each were allocated to PRP and the control group. In the PRP group, after harvesting and slitting, 0.2–0.3 ml PRP was injected at 1 cm gap to the depth of dermis and subcutis in freshly done slits, whereas the non-PRP group received normal saline instead of PRP. There was more than 75% growth in all patients in PRP group after 6 months, whereas only 20% of non-PRP group had similar growth. PRP group had much denser and lengthier follicle growth. Also, in PRP group, number of multiple grafts was more, shafts were longer, better texture of hair was seen, posttransplant catagen fall was less and there was absence of redness after 3 months. PRP therapy during hair transplant was found to play a significant role in regrowth of hair and remarkably improved the density and quality of hair growth 8 months after transplantation (Figure 3).
Pre- and post-procedural photographs of a patient 6 months after undergoing follicular unit extraction (F.U.E.) hair transplant with PRP injections during the transplant.
A double-blinded, placebo and active-controlled, half-head, parallel group study on 45 patients designed to evaluate the efficacy of PRP in alopecia areata concluded that PRP is a safe and alternative treatment for AA. PRP was found to significantly increase hair regrowth and to decrease hair dystrophy and burning or itching sensation without any side effects. Ki-67 levels, which are a cell proliferation marker, were significantly higher in PRP group [24].
Singh found in their study that out of 20 patients with alopecia areata treated with PRP, only one had a relapse. There were no side effects, and all patients well tolerated the procedure [25].
A study done to determine the efficacy of single injection autologous PRFM for deep nasolabial folds (NLFs) correction concluded that PRFM provides significant long-term deep NLFs diminution. No fibrosis, irregularity, hardness, restricted movement or lumpiness was seen [26].
PRP has a high concentration of platelets with neovascularization properties and, thus, has the potential to promote survival of fat graft. Fat graft volume and weight were found to be significantly higher in the PRP group than in the control group. Histologic evaluation showed greater vascularity, fewer cysts and vacuoles, and lesser fibrosis in the PRP group [27].
PRP injections combined with fractional carbon dioxide resurfacing provide good results in treatment of acne scars as revealed by a simultaneous split face trial [28].
We find combination of PRP therapy with Er:YAG laser resurfacing to be effective therapeutic modality for the treatment of post acne atrophic scars. This combination also helps in decreasing the downtime and incidence of adverse effects like post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation which are conventionally associated with usage of Er:YAG lasers alone. So, higher fluences can be used for treatment with less chances of post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation (Figure 4).
Pre- and post-photographs of a patient who was treated with PRP in combination with Er:YAG laser resurfacing (three sessions) for post-acne atrophic scars.
A study on skin rejuvenation with autologous platelet-rich plasma demonstrated good results with increase in the skin homogeneity and the patient satisfaction without serious side effects [29].
PRP enhances gene expression of matrix molecules, such as collagen and stimulates fibroblast proliferation ex vivo in the experimental models, thereby increasing total protein synthesis. PRP enhances elastin production by fibroblasts and stimulation of myofibroblast [29].
PRP and activated platelet poor plasma (aPPP) treatment increased the proliferation of human dermal fibroblasts, increased procollagen type I carboxy-terminal peptide production by human dermal fibroblasts, increased expression of type 1 collagen, alpha1 and type 1 collagen, alpha2, increased Matrix Metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) and MMP-3 proteins expression. MMPs digest various structural components of the ECM and are centrally involved in dermal remodeling. PRP can be topically applied or directly injected into the skin [7].
Skin remodeling can be enhanced by increasing the penetration and inducing mild inflammatory reactions through use of microneedles and lasers along with PRP [7].
PRP helps in remodeling of the skin.
As an adjuvant to lasers or microneedling, it is usually done once in every 4–6 months for 1 year and then yearly as maintenance therapy [30].
Fractional nonablative (Erbium glass) laser therapy combined with topical application of PRP resulted in objective improvement in elasticity of skin, a lower erythema index and an increased density of collagen. Histologically, an increase in length of dermo-epidermal junction, in amount of collagen and fibroblasts, was seen in the treated skin [31].
PRP can be combined with fractional ablative lasers (carbon dioxide) for treatment of deep wrinkles and severe photodamaged skin. The combination helps in reducing transient adverse effects like erythema and decreases the downtime, leading to rapid healing [32].
PRP injections once a month for 3 months, have shown good results for infraorbital rejuvenation, without any obvious adverse effects in a split face blinded trial [33].
We found combination of PRP therapy with Er:YAG laser to be efficacious for facial and periorbital rejuvenation without much adverse effects. It is performed once every month for a total duration of 3 months. It promotes neocollagenogenesis and provides an environment for vascularization, leading to reduction in fine lines and improvement in texture and complexion as seen in Figure 5.
Before and after three sessions of PRP therapy with Er:YAG laser resurfacing for periorbital rejuvenation.
For treatment of striae distensae, a combination of intradermal radiofrequency (RF) device with autologous PRP was synergistically effective, had fewer adverse effects and was well tolerated.
No significant side effects other than transient bruising were noted. Bipolar RF generated thermal energy, thereby denaturing the elastic fibers and collagen bundles, while PRP stimulated wound healing, leading to synergism and good cosmesis [34].
Combined enhanced penetration platelet-rich plasma and ultrasound following plasma fractional radiofrequency were also found to be useful in treatment of striae distensae in a study [35].
PRP therapy is one of the most upcoming forms of regenerative medicine with the potential to improve the homeostasis of the treated cells and tissues, provided that harvesting standards are maintained. Since it belongs to one’s own body, safety is always ensured unlike various plant- and animal-derived stem cells or medications which may prove deleterious to human body. There is negligible risk of reacting to one’s own cells and the procedure is minimally invasive with down time of or two days. It can give very promising results for facial rejuvenation, and nonsurgical face lifts minimizing and delaying the requirement of botulinum toxin and fillers. Results are, similarly, quite promising in burn and scar removal as monotherapy or in combination with lasers and micro-needling. PRP therapy also helps in hair strengthening and regrowth as monotherapy or in combination with hair transplant.
Chalcogenide thin films have attracted a great deal of attention for decades because of several reasons such as earth abundancy, environmental friendly [1, 2, 3], excellent structural [4, 5, 6], electrical [7, 8, 9], and optical properties [10, 11, 12]. These materials could be employed in various applications such as solar cells [13, 14, 15], ultraviolet light emitters, laser devices [16], spin functional devices, gas sensors, transparent electronics, corrosion resistant coating [17], microelectronics [18], optics, magnetic and acoustic wave devices. Several deposition methods including chemical vapor deposition [19], physical vapor deposition [20], sputtering [21], SILAR, spray pyrolysis [22], chemical bath deposition [23, 24, 25, 26], vacuum evaporation method [27], and electro deposition method [28, 29] have been used to produce thin films. Generally, these deposition methods could be divided into physical method and chemical techniques. Researchers highlighted that the chemical deposition method has many advantages such as inexpensive, and convenient for large area deposition [30, 31, 32].
Supercapacitor has been considered as one of the potential energy storage systems. The redox electrochemical capacitors and the electrochemical double layer capacitor have been extensively investigated by many researchers. Researcher reported that transition metal oxide, conducting polymers, and metal oxide thin films have been tested in supercapacitors. The perovskite structure consisted of the crystal structure of calcium titanium oxide. This material showed high absorption coefficient with a sharp absorption edge. The organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites based solar cell was made from sandwiching a perovskite absorber layer between the electron transport layer and hole transport layer. The obtained solar cells showed some unique advantages such as low-temperature processes for all sub cells, compatibility with flexible and lightweight applications. The thin film-based sensor could be used to convert physical or chemical quantity into equivalent electrical for measurement. Sensor is critical in improving the reliability and efficiency of manufacturing operations by providing faster and more accurate feedback regarding product quality.
In this book chapter, thin film based solar cell, thin film based supercapacitor and thin film based sensor will be discussed. The properties of the obtained films were reported. Lastly, the advantages and limitations of these materials will be highlighted.
Recently electronic devices such as computers, roll-up displays smartwatches, mobile phones and other portable devices abound in the twenty-first century. For greater performance, improved energy storage devices are required to reduce the energy consumption of these smart electronic devices [33]. As a result, devices with long-lasting battery, high power outputs, and quick recharge times are required. As a consequence, it is critical to create innovative energy storage materials and devices. The realities of scarcity of fossil fuels, and environmental damage should all be considered in this endeavor [34]. By modify the surface properties of the electrodes with a long life cycle, the supercapacitor (SC) is such an effective energy-saving technology that is environmentally friendly with quick charging, and high energy density are just a few of the benefits [35]. However, this redeemer (supercapacitor) has issues. Nevertheless, in comparison to lithium batteries, such savior (supercapacitor) has challenges such as poorer energy density, unavailability, and the high cost of ruthenium (IV) oxide (RuO2) and platinum electrode materials, all of whom have stymied the supercapacitor development. Supercapacitors, which are versatile, compact, ecologically benign, and yet still economical energy storage devices, are in growing market. The flexible supercapacitors, which bridges the gap between batteries and traditional capacitors, is a bright spot in the realm of energy-saving engineering. Flexible-all-solid-state thin film supercapacitor, an innovative novel thing, has gotten a lot of interest as unique energy storage devices because of its friendly construction, compact size, easy handling, and excellent power density with a quick charging-discharging rate. The supercapacitor is called as electrochemical capacitors it has a fast charging and discharging properties, excellent power density and high specific capacitance with compact construction, and inexpensive cost of maintenance. The three primary mechanisms of supercapacitor can be classified (Figure 1), which is depending of the reversible redox reactions and the accumulation of charge. There is electric double layer capacitors (EDLC), pseudo capacitor, and the combination of EDLC and pseudo capacitor called the hybrid supercapacitor [36].
Classification of supercapacitors.
Thin films are very intriguing in modern research for a variety of applications in ethanol sensor, photocatalytic, thermoelectric and supercapacitor [37, 38, 39, 40]. The supercapacitors can store the electrical energy for all the electronic devices to stabilize the power supply. Generally, to prepare a pseudo capacitive electrode transition metal oxide (TMO) is the most popular approach, however relatively higher electrical resistivity restricts whose use several fields. As a consequence, the focus of researchers is turning to metal chalcogenides, which have a lower electrical resistivity than oxygen due to sulfur’s low electronegativity. The preponderance of these metal chalcogenides, mostly sulfides, are made from inexpensive and abundant transition metals. For example, Dai and co-workers [41] have prepared hierarchically structured Ni3S2 and multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) composites using the hydrothermal methods and the prepared device can have obtained the maximum Cs of 55.8 F g−1, it provides a highest energy density of 19.8 Wh/kg at power density of 789 W/kg. Xiao and co-workers [42] prepared a nickel cobalt sulfide nanoparticle graphene-based sheet (NiCo2S4@GR) there is no surfactant through simple one-step solvo thermal method, which results revealed the maximum Cs of 1708 F g−1 at a current density of 1.0 A g−1, while comparing without graphene. Mukkabla and co-workers [43] reported a Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxypyrrole) (PEDOP) Enwrapped bismuth sulfide (Bi2S3) nano flowers hybrid flexible SCS, and composite offered a maximum Cs of 329 F g−1 at 0.4 A g−1. Furthermore, these are usually undergoing redox reactions between the metallic ions valence states. Besides, TMO and transition metal chalcogenides, various metal nitrides have previously been observed has outstanding results as electrodes in supercapacitors and lithium ion batteries with impressive results. Recently, metal nitrates also have superior abilities in electrochemical properties with excellent chemical stability. Metal nitrides have gotten a lot of interest as supercapacitors electrodes since they have a lot of benefits. Metal nitrates have three major advantages. (1) It has a high σ (electrical conductivity) of 55,500 S/cm−1 while compared to the metal oxides as a result shows the excellent power density, (2) compared to the metal oxides and carbon based materials metal nitrates have a higher specific capacitance, which results shows the higher energy density, and (3) high mechanical stability. These characteristics make them extremely promising as high-performance supercapacitor electrodes. Balogun and co-workers [44] have summarized the performance of different metal nitrides like molybdenum nitrides (MoN), nickel nitride, titanium nitride. Among these metal nitrides, molybdenum nitride was considered as the first metal nitride which could be used as supercapacitor electrode materials. However, for supercapacitor applications, researchers mostly considering their materials cost and electrochemical performance. There are many transition metals and metal oxides are considerable for supercapacitor applications such as CuO, NiO, Mn3O4, Co3O4, Ni or CuCo2O4 and Ni or CuFe2O4 [45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50]. Compared to the other metal oxides, the metal ferrite based materials much attracted to the researchers. For example, Fe, Ni or Cu based Fe2O4 materials have an excellent performance in the energy storage applications. There are two major methods could be used to prepare the thin films supercapacitors, namely physical technique (physical vapor deposition and sputtering) and chemical method. The successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR), spin coater, and chemical bath deposition (CBD) are some examples for chemical deposition method (Figure 2).
Thin films deposition techniques.
Bandgar and co-workers [51] studied the nature of starting materials on the properties of NiFe2O4 thin films for flexible supercapacitors. There are several morphologies could be observed (nanosheet, flower, and feather) through different salts such as nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate (NiCl2·6H2O), nickel nitrate [Ni(NO3)2·6H2O], and nickel sulfate hexahydrate (NiSO4·6H2O), respectively. The nanosheet based electrode material received the maximum Cs of 1139 Fg−1, nanoflower and feather achieved the good Cs of 677 and 435 F g−1, respectively. Immanuel and co-workers [52] have optimized the Cr doped Mn3O4 thin films for high performance supercapacitors using the SILAR method. The experimental results showed that 3 wt % of Cr doped Mn3O4 thin films exhibited the maximum Cs of 181 Fg−1 at the current density of 1 Ag−1.
Jesuraj and co-workers [53] studied the pristine and Li doped NiO thin films using the spin coating method. Kin and co-workers [54] prepared the carbon based flexible supercapacitors using the chemical vapor deposition. Yu and co-workers [55] have prepared the cobalt nickel oxide and sulfide heterostructure thin films through electrodeposition method for supercapacitor applications. The obtained findings revealed the maximum energy density of 78.2 Wh·kg−1 at 542.8 W·kg−1 and the high power density of 5440.2 W·kg−1. Recently, Immanuel and co-workers [56] synthesized Mn3O4 nanorod thin films via SILAR method. The prepared Mn3O4 thin films showed the maximum Cs value of 295 Fg−1 at the scan rate of 2 mVs−1. Vivek and co-workers [57] prepared a reliable electrode material, and results obtained a maximum Cs of 426.40 Fg−1 at a current density of 1 Ag−1. Arulraj and co-workers [58] prepared the cubic shaped Ag2S using the CBD method on Ni mesh. The prepared Ag2S used a working electrode, which electrochemical performance showed the highest Cs of 179 C/g at constant charge and discharge current density of 1 A/g.
Any materials which have the crystal structure of calcium titanium oxide (CaTiO3), were known as the perovskite structure and the materials have stoichiometry of ABX3; where “A” is the larger cation, “B” is the smaller cation and “X” is the anion. Each unit cell of ABX3 crystal comprises of corner sharing BX6 octahedra, with the “A” moiety cubo-octahedral cavity. In case of organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites (OIHP), halide anions (I−, Br−, Cl−) are found at the “X”-site anion instead of oxygen, while monovalent (CH3NH3+, CH(NH2)2+) and bivalent (Pb2+, Sn2+) cations occupy the “A” and “B” sites, respectively. Halide perovskites were first reported by Moller in 1958 for cesium lead halides [59]. Further, it was also observed that small organic molecules with effective radii less than 260 pm [methylammonium (MA), formamidinium (FA), hydrazinium, hydroxylammonium) can also accommodate inside the PbX6 octahedrons. The word “hybrid” indicates that the crystal is made specifically by the combination of “organic” and “inorganic” components. The architecture of OIHP-based solar cell is quite simple and prepared by sandwiching a perovskite absorber layer between the electron transport layer (ETL) and hole transport layer (HTL). A standard OIHP based solar cell device has a structure composed of glass/ transparent conductive oxide (TCO)/TiO2 (ETL)/ mesoporous TiO2 (mp-TiO2)/ perovskite (~500 nm)/ HTL/ metal and a quite high efficiency exceeding 20% can be realized without including complicated processing steps. The operation of the perovskite device is sstraight forward; namely, the photo-electrons and holes created by light absorption are collected in the ETL and HTL, respectively, and the electrons flow through the outer circuit and recombine with holes at the HTL/metal interface. The efficiencies of OIHP-based solar cells have increased all the way from 3.8% in 2009 to 25.5% for single-junction solar cells, and 29.15% for the highest publicly disclosed perovskite/silicon (Si) tandem [60].
The properties of perovskite solar cells were discussed in terms of crystal structure and phase transition, electronic structure, optical properties and electrical properties. One of the interesting aspect of the crystal structure of halide perovskite is the structural flexibility of organic cation. Taking MAPbI3 as an example, the disorder-order transition of MA+ cation is believed to trigger the phase transition with the decrease of temperature. At high temperature MAPbI3 takes a cubic structure (space group: Pm-3 m; Z = 1). Since MA+ has a lower symmetry of C3v, the orientation of MA+ ion should be disordered to satisfy the Oh symmetry. As the temperature is lowered, tetragonal and orthorhombic phases are realized by an accompanying ordering of methylammonium ion. Structural transition from cubic to tetragonal phase occurs due to the reorientation of MA+ ion, as observed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies where lowering the number of disorder states of MA+ was observed from 24 in the cubic phase to 8 in tetragonal phase [61]. Below a critical temperature (tetragonal-orthorhombic phase transition), the MA+ molecule is frozen (only 1 degree of freedom) and the symmetry of MAPbI3 become orthorhombic. Similar crystallographic phase transition can be realized with replacing I by Br and Cl [62].
The band structure of MAPbI3 exhibits a direct bandgap of 1.6 eV at the R point. Calculated band structure suggests conduction band minima (CBM) is dominated by the Pb-
Organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites are direct band gap semiconductor and the direct transition produces large absorption coefficients of the order of 104–105 cm−1. In the case of perovskite thin films, the optical properties of perovskites are dramatically affected by the quality, composition and morphology of the film [67]. Sizes of the halide anions (X = I, Br, Cl) affected the electronic band structure of the system. Large anion (iodine based materials) showed a smaller bandgap and corresponded the absorption edge at 780 nm; whereas substituting iodine with smaller bromine (chlorine) anion shifts the absorption edge to 535 nm (408 nm) for MA+ based perovskite system [68]. A systematic blue shift of the PL emission peak is observed with the increase of Br concentration in mixed halide perovskite of the type MAPb(I1−xBrx)3. Further, replacing MA with CH(NH2)2 red shifts the absorption spectra by 40 nm, which makes CH(NH2)2PbI3 more suitable for high-performance solar cell applications [69]. Intermediated solid solutions of MASn1−xPbxI3 with x = 0.25 and 0.5 exhibited the smallest band gap of 1.17 eV [70]. Irrespective of bandgap tuning, fundamental understanding of absorption and PL spectra are essential to study the basic photo physical properties of hybrid perovskite. In spite of several optical investigations performed at different temperatures, there have been a lot of ambiguities in the data as well as its interpretations, especially observation of multiple peaks in the photoluminescence (PL) spectrum of organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites. Literature reports excitonic emission, tetragonal inclusion in orthorhombic phase, order-disorder transition, surface-bulk effects are responsible for these multiple PL emissions [71].
Space charge limited current (SCLC) is one of the effective approaches to measure mobility, diffusion length and trap density of hybrid perovskites. Due to the advancement in fabrication techniques, the diffusion length of hybrid perovskite has increased from 1 to ~10 μm in about 3 years [72]. This improvement reflects the progress that has been recently made in producing samples with better structural order and morphology. Further, it is also observed that the diffusion length has a strong dependence on the grain size of the film. The results showed that more than 1 μm diffusion length has been achieved by realizing films with an average grain size of 2 μm. The perovskite single crystal was found the highest measured diffusion length (10 μm) [73]. Carrier mobility of hybrid perovskite has also been improved over the years and exhibited morphology dependence. Mobility values exceeding 10 cm2V−1 s−1 have been measured in perovskite film [74] and above 100 cm2V−1 s−1 in perovskite single crystals. Further, it is also observed that the mobility (and also diffusion length) did not exhibit a strong dependence on the material composition. Further, the dielectric constant (relative permittivity) is a complex number given by, ε = ε/−ε//, where the real part ε/ is the charge storage ability and the imaginary part ε// is the energyloss. For MAPbI3, a small ε/ is obtained (ε/= 6.5 in experiment, while 5.6 to 6.5 in calculation) at optical frequency and only electronic polarization takes part in dielectric process [75]. With the decrease of frequency, ionic polarization and dipolar polarization (contribution from MA+ dipoles) leading to enhanced ε/ (ε/low ~ 60 at 100 KHz).This large dielectric constant facilitates the screening effect of Coulombic attraction between photoexcited electron-hole pairs (excitons), so that they can be separated easily. Also, noncentro symmetric crystal structure in tetragonal and orthorhombic phases proposed OIHP are ferroelectric in nature. It is also believed that ferroelectricity may give rise to hysteresis observed in current-voltage (I-V) curves. However, observation of ferroelectricity in hybrid perovskite is not well justified from polarization-electric field (P-E) hysteresis loop and second harmonic generation experiments. Despite the above controversies, it is of great interest to study the order-disorder transition of hybrid perovskites due to MA+ orientation inside the PbX6 octahedral [76].
Perovskite solar cell has gained attention due to favorable material properties of OIHP, which include a high absorption coefficient with a sharp absorption edge, high photoluminescence quantum yield, long charge carrier diffusion lengths, large mobility, high defect tolerance, and low surface recombination velocity. At the same time, easy solution processability and completely tunable optical bandgap from blue to red regions of wavelength just by mixing the B-site cation (Pb-Sn) and the X-site anion (I-Br-Cl), while maintaining the sharp absorption edge makes the OIHP family a potential candidate for application in multijunction/tandem solar cells. Another strong advantage of hybrid perovskite solar cells is quite high
Although OIHP solar cells produced quite impressive efficiency, they have several limitations too and to overcome these limitations are the major challenge for the commercialization of these devices. One significant drawback of OIHP is degradation of these perovskite materials under a range of environmental factors such as humidity, illumination, oxygen, and thermal stress. OIHP solar cells are ionic crystals, and the presence of H2O leads to the decomposition of the perovskite structures to hexagonal-shaped PbI2/hydrate crystals; which can be suppressed by introducing protective (passivation) layers. In case of mixed halide perovskites strong photo-induced phase segregation occurred under illumination and judicial choice of A-site cation can minimize this instability. Further, it is observed that a higher level of performance in OIHP solar cell is hindered by anomalous hysteretic behavior and large discrepancy between the forward and reverse scans put a question on the reproducibility of power conversion efficiency (PCE) of the device. In searching for the possible origins of hysteresis, several explanations such as ion migration, charge trapping/detrapping, photoinduced capacitive effect, and ferroelectricity have been imposed. Among them, ion migration and ferroelectricity are believed as feasible origins of the hysteresis in transport measurements. Extensive research efforts continue to find the long-term stability of OIHP solar cells.
Another major challenge is the realization of large-area module due to its fabrication limitations. Till now high efficiency of 17.9% has been realized for the large-area module with a size of 30 × 30 cm2 (aperture area: 802 cm2), which was formed by an inkjet printing technology. Thus development of proper fabrication technique is essential to make pinhole free large-area OIHP devices. Also in the large area tandem cells, current matching conditions for the top and bottom cells as well as each sub cell need to be established; which can be improved through technological advances.
High toxicity of heavy metal (lead) is a serious problem which cannot be neglected in OIHP-based solar cells. Although the content of lead (Pb) in OIHP solar panel (~1m2) is only a few hundred milligrams, could be severe problems in environmental impact. As an alternative people are trying to replace Pb2+ with Sn2+; but the efficiency of Sn-based photovoltaic devices are extremely poor. Thus, roof-top application of OIHP modules is difficult and large-area operations as solar farms are more appropriate. Also, encapsulation of photovoltaic module and environmentally friendly 100% recycling programs are essential for OIHP-based solar modules.
The future of perovskite solar cells was highlighted. As discussed earlier, the significantly reduced efficiency upon solar module area scaling-up is still the main challenge to face for the commercialization of OIHP-based solar cell. It is observed that efficiency decreases to 19.6% when the aperture area increases from 0.1 cm2 to about 10 cm2, and further drops to 17.9% with the area approaching 1000 cm2, which still lags far behind that of the crystalline silicon cells (26.7% at 79 cm2 and 24.4% at 13,177 cm2). Thus, intensive works should be conducted to precisely control the uniformity of the crystallization process in large-area perovskite films. Also, the fundamental photophysical mechanisms relative to the efficiency loss in OIHP modules should be further studied to understand role of surface and interface. Development of green solvent systems or the solvent-free deposition technology for fabricating large-area perovskite film will be an important research topic in the future. Besides the efficiency, more and more attention need to invest in the long-term stability of OIHP solar modules. Recently, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University in Japan reported over 1100-h operational lifetime for a 10 × 10 cm2 solar module. Although many research groups and companies claimed that their devices have passed International Electro Technical Commission (IEC) standard test, there are still some stability issues needed to be addressed at the next stage. Thus proper development of encapsulation technology is essential and we believe that a growing number of studies will move to exploit such multifunctional encapsulation materials in the near future. The single-junction OIHP cells with efficiency above 24% and long-term stability can be more cost-effective than tandem cells which may work at a PCE of 27–28%. Thus, more efforts should be made in fabrication and scaling up of single-junction OIHP-based solar cells with high efficiency, high yield, and long-term stability. Development of low-cost large-scale fabrication methods with highly reproducible results is required for commercialization of OIHP-based photovoltaic cells.
A thin film-based sensor is a type of transducer which converts a physical or chemical quantity into equivalent electrical for measurement. It is used to detect the presence of stimulus to very low concentrations of toxic or harmful target environment (gases) of importance, such as ammonia [77], carbon monoxide [78], carbon dioxide [79], nitrogen dioxide [80], sulfur dioxide [81], propane [82], liquefied petroleum gas [83], hydrogen sulfide [84], and volatile organic compounds. Worldwide thin film gas sensing technology is playing a major role in protecting the environment and improving homeland security. Sensors are also critical in improving the reliability and efficiency of manufacturing operations by providing faster and more accurate feedback regarding product quality. In the area of environmental health and safety, lowering the limits of detection can improve the quality of life through precise information regarding the pollutants in air, water and soil. High-performance thin-film sensors and systems are essential to monitoring various kinds and quantities of analysts.
The typically thin film-based sensors are described using the main characteristics such as sensing response, stability, repeatability, reproducibility, linearity, response time, and recovery time. An efficient thin-film sensor;
Must have a high sensing response towards a very low concentration of target gas.
Would give the same sensing characteristics after repeated usage (stability) and for different sensors of the same kind.
Should be capable of responding fast towards a target gas.
Must regain initial characteristics as soon as the target gas is flushed.
Thin-film sensor response should increase linearly with increasing the concentration of target gas.
The thin film-based gas sensors are used for equally the identification and quantification of gases, and hence should be both selective and sensitive to a required target gas in a mixture of gases. Sensitivity defines the smallest concentration of gas/vapour that can be fruitfully and repeatedly sensed by a thin film sensor.
Thin film-based semiconductor is commonly used materials as sensor application as indicated in Table 1. This is because of its versatile advantages like high sensitivity and low manufacturing is metal oxide which contain the elements having one oxidation state because it requires more energy to form more than one oxidation states. Semiconductor metal oxide films have been exploited for the sensing of various toxic and harmful gases in the form of ceramics, thick films, thin films or nanostructures. Sensors based on ceramics have shown advantages in terms of their mechanical strength, large resistance to chemical attack and good thermal and physical stability and most of the available commercial sensors are based on ceramics only. One of the additional attractive features associated with low temperature operated semiconductor thin film sensor is that it can lead to a complete integration with well-established Si based micro-electronics technology.
S. No. | Material/modifier | Temperature (°C) | Gas concentration (ppm) | Response | Response/recovery time | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | SnO2/Pt | 200 | 1000 | 89 | 20/27 sec | [85] |
2. | ZnO/PANI | 36 | 1000 | 13 | 3.3/9.8 min | [86] |
3. | TiO2/PANI | 273 | 0.1 vol% | 0.63 | 3.3/3.0 min | [87] |
4. | TiO2/Ni | 250 | 1000 | 37 | −/− | [88] |
5. | ZnO/PEDOT: PSS | 27 | 1000 | 0.58 | 3.7/3.1 min | [89] |
6. | ZnO/MWCNT | 30 | 1500 | 61 | 5.8/3 min | [90] |
7. | h-BN/− | RT | 3.0 vol% | 6.17 | 55/40 sec | [91] |
8. | PANI/− | RT | 100 | 12.10 | 11/07 sec | [92] |
9. | ZnO-TiO2/PANI | 30 | 20 | 412 | 35/54 sec | [93] |
10. | CdS/− | 70 | 20 | 173 | 5.52/3.46 min | [94] |
11. | Ag-BaTiO3/CuO | 250 | 5000 | 0.28 | 15/10 min | [95] |
12. | CuO-CuxFe3−xO4 | 250 | 3000 | 0.50 | 9.5/− min | [96] |
13. | CdO | 250 | 5000 | 0.01 | 3.33/5 min | [97] |
14. | PEDOT-BPEI | RT | 1000 | 0.03 | −/60 min | [98] |
15. | La1−xSrxFeO3 | 380 | 2000 | 0.25 | 11/15 min | [99] |
16. | ZnO | 200 | 3000 | 0.03 | 8 /40 sec | [100] |
17. | ZnO-La (50%) | 400 | 5000 | 0.65 | 90/38 sec | [101] |
18. | SnO2/PANI/Ag | 30 | 1000 | 67 | 1000/900 sec | [102] |
19. | TiO2/Zn | RT | 1.5 vol% | 2.92 | 120/− Sec | [103] |
20. | Fe2O3/ PANI | RT | 20 | 229 | 2.35/3.8 min | [104] |
Literature survey of various gas sensing characteristics of different metal oxidebased nanomaterials with different modifiers.
The limitation of thin film based sensor was described. A number of thin film sensors might be recognized from sensor arrays which yield slightly different responses to various target gases. The availability of thin film gas sensor potentially creates a complicated selection problem, and is more important in view of cost and technology limitations. Many researchers have self-sufficiently confirmed practical limitations to thin film gas detection at low temperature and have attributed it to the requirement of high activation energy which can be attained only at elevated temperatures. A reduction in the number of sensors to be involved in E-Nose is advantageous due to several reasons as discussed. Sensors which exhibit an insignificant response to target gases, increase variance (noise) in E-Nose and do not assist pattern recognition process. Furthermore, sensors exhibiting similar responses to the target gases provide no additional information and are redundant.
In future, low temperature operation of the thin film sensors is an attractive proposition for the industry since it not only holds a promise to cut down the costs but also overcome technological limitations of miniature heaters of high wattage. In order to identify the target gases other classification technique such as artificial neural network approach is required where the selected features/variables obtained from principal component analysis (PCA) could be used as input features, and will be carried out in future. Therefore, a new methodology or novel design approach is essentially required in order to fulfil the essential requirements of future sensor in the market.
Metal chalcogenide materials are considered as excellent absorber materials in photovoltaic cell applications. These materials exhibited excellent absorption co-efficient and suitable band gap value to adsorb the maximum number of photons from sun radiation. Photovoltaic cell can be used to convert sunlight into electricity. These materials have a several advantages such as flexible, lower in weight, have less drag and very thin layer (from nanometer to micrometers). Preparation of the films has been reported by many researchers via different deposition methods. The properties of obtained films were studied by using various tools. The obtained experimental findings revealed that these materials could be classified into two groups, namely p-type and n-type materials. Experimental results confirmed that electron (n-type material) can absorb the energy from photons, following that, jump to the p-type materials, to produce electric potential.
Metal chalcogenide materials are considered as excellent absorber materials in photovoltaic cell applications [105, 106]. These materials exhibited excellent absorption co-efficient and suitable band gap value to adsorb the maximum number of photons from sun radiation [107, 108]. Photovoltaic cell can be used to convert sunlight into electricity. These materials have a several advantages such as flexible, lower in weight, have less drag and very thin layer (from nanometer to micrometers). Preparation of the films has been reported by many researchers via different deposition methods [109]. The properties of obtained films were studied by using various tools [110]. The obtained experimental findings revealed that these materials could be classified into two groups [111, 112], namely p-type and n-type materials. Experimental results confirmed that electron (n-type material) can absorb the energy from photons, following that, jump to the p-type materials, to produce electric potential.
Based on the global photovoltaic market [113], the market shares of silicon based solar cell decreased from 92% (in 2014) to 73.3% in 2020. Silicon based solar cell accountable for the highest percentage of market share due to the abundant raw material availability and high efficiency value. The thin film based solar cells increased from 2014 (7%) to 2020 (10.4%). Solar cell market is expected to growth rapidly due to the rising demand for commercial, residential and utility applications. According to the market share of thin film technologies [114], there are three common thin film materials such as amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride and copper indium gallium selenide. Amorphous silicon based solar cell was the oldest thin film technologies, and it dominates overall market from 2000 to 2003. This type of solar cell can absorb a wide range of the light spectrum, did excellent in low light, but loses efficiency rapidly. The CdTe films have been deposited successfully onto glass. Quaternary thin films such as copper indium gallium selenide were prepared via co-evaporation method. The global demand for CdTe films and CIGS films was expected to drive the market start from 2004 and onwards [114].
The cadmium telluride thin films could be used as solar absorber due to suitable band gap value and high absorption coefficient in the visible light region [115]. The materials have high absorption coefficient was able a low absorber thickness (about 1 μm) to absorb sufficient sunlight. Generally, several researchers reported the synthesis of CdTe films by using various deposition methods such as chemical bath deposition [116], spray pyrolysis [117], thermal evaporation [118], molecular beam epitaxy [119], close space sublimation [120], pulsed laser deposition method [121], hydrothermal method, electrochemical deposition technique. Researchers pointed out that the CdTe films deposited onto glass substrates showed some problems such as heavy and fragile. Currently, more and more research activities are focusing on the synthesis of CdTe films onto metal foils in order to lower the investment in equipment and infrastructure. The thin film deposited onto flexible substrates could be folded in any shape, and the researcher concluded that the supporting structure requirements are minimum if compared to heavy glass substrates. Table 2 showed the advantages, limitations, power conversion efficiency of CdTe films. Also, the solar power plant was described in the table. So far, the First Solar Company is the main producer of CdTe film.
Advantages | Limitations | Solar power plant | Power conversion efficiency (%) |
---|---|---|---|
CdTe has band gap about 1.5 eV, it can absorb sunlight at close to ideal wavelength, it captures energy at shorter wavelength. | Toxic effect of cadmium | The Topaz Solar Farm was located in California, United States. The photovoltaic power station includes 9 million CdTe thin film modules [122]. | 19% as reported by Gloeckler and co-workers [123] |
The cadmium is abundant | Very limited availability of tellurium | In the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm (California, United States), it employed 8.8 million CdTe film modules [124]. | 13.3% as highlighted by Kamala and coworkers [125] |
CdTe film based solar cell showed the shortest energy payback time and the smallest carbon footprint. | It does not remain stable under severe stress | The Waldpolenz Solar Park was located in Germany, has used CdTe film modules, was 52megawatt photovoltaic power station [126]. | 15% as pointed out by Devendra and co-workers [127] |
It is very important to enhance the efficiency of solar cells | Templin solar power plant was located in Germany, has installed more than 1.5 million CdTe film modules [128]. | 17.8% as concluded by Deb and coworkers [129] | |
9.59% as described by Xixing and coworkers [130] |
Advantages, limitations, power conversion efficiencies and CdTe film based solar power plant.
The copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) thin films have been prepared by using different deposition methods such as thermal evaporation method [131], spray pyrolysis [132], solvothermal method [133], physical vapor deposition [134], and electro deposition method [135]. Table 3 showed the advantages, limitations and power conversion efficiency of CIGS thin films. These films showed p-type absorbing layer materials and the tunable band gap (1.07–1.7 eV) value [141]. Researcher highlighted that there are 99% of the light will be successfully absorbed in the first micrometer of the materials [142]. The solar cell is classified as heterojunction structures [143]. Generally, the junction is produced between thin films having various band gap values. Experimental results showed that the addition of small amount of gallium can improve the voltage, boost band gap value and enhance the power conversion efficiency of solar cell [144]. There are several companies produced CIGS solar cell such as Solar Frontier, Solyndra, SoloPower, Global Solar, SulfurCell, MiaSole and Nanosolar. The solar cell showed open circuit voltage, short circuit current and the maximum power values of 5 V Dc, 95 mA and 0.25 watts, respectively.
Advantages | Limitations | Power conversion efficiency (%) |
---|---|---|
CIGS thin films have been deposited onto substrates (flexible) | Less efficient if compared to silicon based solar panels | Conventional solar cell: 22.67%. Adding the BSF (PbS) layer in solar cell: 24.22% as reported by Barman and Kalita [136] |
The active layer could be deposited in polycrystalline form. | Higher production costs if compared to other thin film technologies. | The highest efficiency is 25.5% as highlighted by Sobayel and coworkers [137] |
Much lower level of cadmium will be used during the synthesis of thin films | Complex structures | The highest power conversion efficiency was 26.4% as concluded by Sobayel and co-workers [138] |
CIGS thin films based solar panel indicated better resistance to heat. | Boubakeur et al. have achieved power conversion efficiency of 21.08%. [139] | |
Much less expensive if compared to silicon based solar cells. | Nour and Patane reported the highest power conversion efficacy about 24.5%. [140] |
The advantages, limitations and power conversion efficiency of CIGS thin films.
The copper rich p-type CuInS2 films were synthesized by using thermal co-evaporation method. The obtained results showed that small (less than 10%) solar to electrical conversion losses when the copper to indium ration between 1 and 1.8. The highest power conversion efficiency was 10.2% as reported by Scheer and co-workers [145].
The chemical bath deposition was used to produce Ni3Pb2S2 thin films [146]. The photovoltaic parameters such as open circuit voltage (0.61 V), short circuit current density (9.9 mA/cm2), fill factor (0.47) and power conversion efficiency (2.7%) were studied. The band gap was calculated based on the absorption spectra and was about 1.4 eV.
The atomic layer deposition was employed to produce SnS films [147] as highlighted by Rafael and co-workers. These materials are non-toxic solar cell, and the power conversion efficiency was 4.36%. Vera and co-workers [148] reported that SnS heterojunction solar cell was made, and reached power conversion efficiency about 3.88%.
The performance of p-type InSe films for solar cell was reported. The open circuit voltage (0.55 V), short circuit current density (7.09 mA/cm2), fill factor (53.85%, and power conversion efficiency (0.52%) were highlighted. Researchers explained that higher series resistance and reduced shunt resistance lead to lower value of efficiency. The band gap values are in the range of 1.75–1.95 eV in as-deposited films, annealed films at 250 and 300°C as concluded by Teena and co-workers [149].
The electrochemical technique was used to produce CdSe film MnCdSe films as described by Shinde and co-workers [150]. XRD analysis showed the obtained films are polycrystalline with hexagonal crystal phase. The SEM images revealed that nanosphere morphology and nanonest structure for CdSe and MnCdSe films respectively. The band gap value was measured, and the reduced from 1.81 eV (CdSe) to 1.6 eV (MnCdSe). The fill factor and power conversion efficiency of CdSe films 0.71 and 0.67%, respectively. The MnCdSe films showed power conversion efficiency about 0.37%.
The ternary compound such as Cu2SnS3 (CTS) films showed high absorption coefficient (104 cm−1) and wider range of band gap energy (0.9–1.7 eV). Researchers reported that easy to control the secondary phase during the synthesis of CTS films. The formation of cubic, monoclinic, tetragonal and orthorhombic structure strongly depended on deposition method and annealing process. The magnetron sputtering method was used to produce CTS films. The films reached the highest power conversion efficiency about 2.2%, due to the formation of pure phase of CTS, lowest sheet resistance (8.2 Ω/cm2), highest shunt resistance (111.1 Ω/cm2) and uniform morphology [151]. The p-type CTS films have been produced via co-evaporation method [152]. The photovoltaic parameters such as open circuit voltage (248 mV), short circuit current density (33.5 mA/cm2), fill factor (0.439) and power conversion efficiency (3.66%) were highlighted. Mingrui and co-workers [153] described the preparation of CTS films by using sputtering method. The films prepared at 2812 seconds indicated the highest efficiency value (2.39%), with fill factor (39.7%), open circuit current voltage (208 mV) and short circuit current density (28.92 mA/cm2).
The Cu4SnS4 films showed p-type electrical conductivity and the band gap values (0.93–1.84 eV). Chen et al., have reported the synthesis of thin films by a combination of mechanochemical and doctor blade techniques [154]. The highest power conversion efficiency reached 2.34%. The influence of the film thickness on the properties of samples was study. Based on the absorption spectra, the absorption edge moved towards longer wavelength with increasing the film thickness (0.25–1 μm). Also, band gap reduced (1.47–1.21 eV) due to reduction of structural disorder and the increase in the crystalline size.
The Table 4 showed the power conversion efficiency of the various thin films. The obtained experimental results confirmed that metal sulfide, metal selenide and metal telluride thin films could be used in solar cell applications. The photovoltaic parameters were strongly depended on various experimental conditions. Researchers also highlighted a lot of research activities have been carried put in order to enhance the power conversion efficiency of thin film based solar cell.
thin films | Power conversion efficiency (%) | References |
---|---|---|
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 5.74 | Kazuo and co-workers [155] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 2.62 | Hironori and co-workers [156] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 6.8 | Wang and co-workers [157] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 4.1 | Schubert and co-workers [158] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 0.23 | Chet and co-workers [159] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 3.2 | Jonathan and co-workers [160] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 3.4 | Ennaoui and co-workers [161] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 0.396 | Sawanta and co-workers [162] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 6.03 | Tsukasa and co-workers [163] |
Cu2ZnSnS4 | 0.12 | Shinde and co-workers [164] |
CuS | 0.39 | Donghyeok and co-workers [165] |
CdS | 8 | Karl [166] |
ZnS | 8.83 | Qiu and co-workers [167] |
PbS | 2.02 | Omer and co-workers [168] |
PbS:Mo | 2.16 | Omer and co-workers [168] |
Sb2Se3 | 7.6 | Wen and co-workers [169] |
Sb2Se3 | 5.93 | Liang and co-workers [170] |
Sb2Se3 | 5.6 | Chao and co-workers [171] |
CuInTe2 | 3.8 | Manorama and co-workers [172] |
CuInTe2 | 4.13 | Lakhe and co-workers [173] |
CuInTe2 | 1.22 | Jia and co-workers [174] |
CuInSe2 | 1.75 | Hyun and co-workers [175] |
CuInSe2 | 2 | Se and co-workers [176] |
CuInSe2 | 4.57 | Prabukanthan and co-workers [177] |
MnCuInSe2 | 6.38 | Prabukanthan and co-workers [177] |
Power conversion efficiencies of different types of thin films.
Chalcogenide thin films have received a great deal of attention for decades due to some unique properties. The thin film based supercapacitor can have store the electrical energy for all the electronic devices to stabilize the power supply. Metal nitrates have gotten a lot of interest as supercapacitors electrodes due to showed higher electrical conductivity, higher specific capacitance, good energy density, and excellent mechanical stability. Perovskite solar cell indicated higher power conversion efficiency value. The organic inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells are very simple, and prepared by sandwiching a perovskite absorber layer between the electron transport layer and hole transport layer, reached power conversion efficiency exceeding 20%. The thin film-based sensors showed high sensitivity and low manufacturing cost. In future, low temperature operation of the thin film sensors is an attractive proposition for the industry. The market shares of silicon based solar cell decreased, while thin film based solar cells increased in the global photovoltaic market due to the low material consumption, low manufacturing cost, shorter energy pack back period. Solar cell market is expected to growth rapidly due to the rising demand for commercial, residential and utility applications.
The author (HO SM) gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the INTI International University.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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In the system in constant torque region, is a technique for adapting the speed controller to the presence of the reactive motor torque component, which improves the quality of the transient processes, is proposed. It is also recommended to approximate the dependence of the flux-forming current component on the motor torque by the “dead zone” nonlinearity, which will simplify the optimal control algorithm and avoid solving the fourth-degree algebraic equation in real time. For the speed control with field weakening technique, a novel system is recommended. In this system, the control algorithms are switched by the variable of the direct stator current component constraint generated in accordance with the MTA law: the upper limit is calculated in accordance with the “field weakening control” (FWC) strategy, and the lower limit in accordance with the MTV strategy. The steady-state stator voltage constraint is implemented through the variable quadrature stator current component limitation. The effectiveness of the proposed solutions is confirmed by the simulation results.",book:{id:"7485",slug:"applied-modern-control",title:"Applied Modern Control",fullTitle:"Applied Modern Control"},signatures:"Olga Tolochko",authors:[{id:"249845",title:"Dr.",name:"Tolochko",middleName:null,surname:"Olga",slug:"tolochko-olga",fullName:"Tolochko Olga"}]},{id:"62036",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78786",title:"Development of a Genetic Fuzzy Controller and Its Application to a Noisy Inverted Double Pendulum",slug:"development-of-a-genetic-fuzzy-controller-and-its-application-to-a-noisy-inverted-double-pendulum",totalDownloads:769,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Fuzzy logic is used in a variety of applications due to its universal approximator attribute and non-linear characteristics. The tuning of the parameters of a fuzzy logic system, viz. the membership functions and the rulebase, requires a lot of trial and error. This process could be simplified by using a heuristic search algorithm like genetic algorithm (GA). In this chapter, we discuss the design of such a genetic fuzzy controller that can control an inverted double pendulum. GA improves the fuzzy logic controller (FLC) with each generation during the training process to obtain an FLC that can bring the pendulum to its inverted position. After training, the effectiveness of the FLC is tested for different scenarios by varying the initial conditions. We also show the effectiveness of the FLC even when subjected to noise and how the performance improves when the controller is tuned with noise.",book:{id:"6806",slug:"fuzzy-logic-based-in-optimization-methods-and-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Anoop Sathyan and Kelly Cohen",authors:[{id:"200834",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelly",middleName:null,surname:"Cohen",slug:"kelly-cohen",fullName:"Kelly Cohen"},{id:"243285",title:"Dr.",name:"Anoop",middleName:null,surname:"Sathyan",slug:"anoop-sathyan",fullName:"Anoop Sathyan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"75699",title:"Data Clustering for Fuzzyfier Value Derivation",slug:"data-clustering-for-fuzzyfier-value-derivation",totalDownloads:279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The fuzzifier value m is improving significant factor for achieving the accuracy of data. Therefore, in this chapter, various clustering method is introduced with the definition of important values for clustering. To adaptively calculate the appropriate purge value of the gap type −2 fuzzy c-means, two fuzzy values m1 and m2 are provided by extracting information from individual data points using a histogram scheme. Most of the clustering in this chapter automatically obtains determination of m1 and m2 values that depended on existent repeated experiments. Also, in order to increase efficiency on deriving valid fuzzifier value, we introduce the Interval type-2 possibilistic fuzzy C-means (IT2PFCM), as one of advanced fuzzy clustering method to classify a fixed pattern. In Efficient IT2PFCM method, proper fuzzifier values for each data is obtained from an algorithm including histogram analysis and Gaussian Curve Fitting method. Using the extracted information form fuzzifier values, two modified fuzzifier value m1 and m2 are determined. These updated fuzzifier values are used to calculated the new membership values. Determining these updated values improve not only the clustering accuracy rate of the measured sensor data, but also can be used without additional procedure such as data labeling. It is also efficient at monitoring numerous sensors, managing and verifying sensor data obtained in real time such as smart cities.",book:{id:"9976",slug:"fuzzy-systems-theory-and-applications",title:"Fuzzy Systems",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Systems - Theory and Applications"},signatures:"JaeHyuk Cho",authors:[{id:"329648",title:"Prof.",name:"JaeHyuk",middleName:null,surname:"Cho",slug:"jaehyuk-cho",fullName:"JaeHyuk Cho"}]},{id:"62600",title:"Introductory Chapter: Which Membership Function is Appropriate in Fuzzy System?",slug:"introductory-chapter-which-membership-function-is-appropriate-in-fuzzy-system-",totalDownloads:1904,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:53,abstract:null,book:{id:"6806",slug:"fuzzy-logic-based-in-optimization-methods-and-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Ali Sadollah",authors:[{id:"147215",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Sadollah",slug:"ali-sadollah",fullName:"Ali Sadollah"}]},{id:"63216",title:"The Design and Development of Control System for High Vacuum Deoxygenated and Water-Removal Glove Box with Cycling Cleaning and Regeneration",slug:"the-design-and-development-of-control-system-for-high-vacuum-deoxygenated-and-water-removal-glove-bo",totalDownloads:1041,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This study proposed a high vacuum deoxygenated and water removal glove box control system. Through parameter setting, the system can automatically perform various glove box cleaning operations and quickly reach the micro-oxygen and micro-water concentration requirements. In addition, two sets of reaction tanks are built in the system, and the hardware pipeline switching design and monitoring software control are used to provide two sets of reaction tanks to execute the cycling cleaning and cycling regeneration operation procedures synchronously, which can effectively solve the problem of interruption of the experimental process, improve the efficiency of its cleaning operations, and greatly reduce the manpower and material costs of the glove box operation. In addition, the system can automatically record the relevant data during various operations for the analysis of glove box monitoring effectiveness.",book:{id:"7485",slug:"applied-modern-control",title:"Applied Modern Control",fullTitle:"Applied Modern Control"},signatures:"Ming-Sen Hu",authors:[{id:"248986",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ming-Sen",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"ming-sen-hu",fullName:"Ming-Sen Hu"}]},{id:"63072",title:"Fuzzy Controller-Based MPPT of PV Power System",slug:"fuzzy-controller-based-mppt-of-pv-power-system",totalDownloads:1902,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The power demand has been increasing day by day due to population growth, new industrial development, etc. Meeting power demand is one of the challenge factors for fossil fuel-based power generation alone as well as the environmental issue of carbon footprint. Consequently, there is a need to concentrate on alternate energy sources to meet the power demand. In this chapter, the photovoltaic (PV) cell operation under various weather conditions is analysed, and based on the performance, the MPPT controller is developed by using fuzzy logic controller. The proposed system has been modelled in MATLAB environment, and the system performance has been analysed. Finally, the simulation results are evaluated and compared with IEEE 1547 standard for proving the effectiveness of the proposed system.",book:{id:"6806",slug:"fuzzy-logic-based-in-optimization-methods-and-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"M. Venkateshkumar",authors:[{id:"243101",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Mven",slug:"m-mven",fullName:"M Mven"}]},{id:"62654",title:"Fuzzy Information Measures with Multiple Parameters",slug:"fuzzy-information-measures-with-multiple-parameters",totalDownloads:941,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Information theory deals with the study of problems concerning any system. This includes information processing, information storage, information retrieval and decision making. Information theory studies all theoretical problems connected with the transmission of information over communication channels. This includes the study of uncertainty (information) measures and various practical and economical methods of coding information for transmission. In this chapter, the introduction of a new generalised measure of fuzzy information involving two real parameters is given. The proposed measure satisfies all the necessary properties of being a measure. Some additional properties of the proposed measure have also been studied. Further, the monotonic nature of generalised fuzzy information measure with respect to the parameters is studied and validity of the same is checked by constructing the computed tables and plots on taking different fuzzy sets and different values of the parameters. Also, a new generalised fuzzy information measure involving three parameters has been introduced.",book:{id:"6806",slug:"fuzzy-logic-based-in-optimization-methods-and-control-systems-and-its-applications",title:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic Based in Optimization Methods and Control Systems and Its Applications"},signatures:"Anjali Munde",authors:[{id:"254393",title:"Dr.",name:"Anjali",middleName:null,surname:"Munde",slug:"anjali-munde",fullName:"Anjali Munde"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"721",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:288,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:617,paginationItems:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. 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