Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
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Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
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"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5098",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Plant Genomics",title:"Plant Genomics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Plant genomics aims to sequence, characterize, and study the genetic compositions, structures, organizations, functions, and interactions/networks of an entire plant genome. Its development and advances are tightly interconnected with proteomics, metabolomics, metagenomics, transgenomics, genomic selection, bioinformatics, epigenomics, phenomics, system biology, modern instrumentation, and robotics sciences. Plant genomics has significantly advanced over the past three decades in the land of inexpensive, high-throughput sequencing technologies and fully sequenced over 100 plant genomes. These advances have broad implications in every aspect of plant biology and breeding, powered with novel genomic selection and manipulation tools while generating many grand challenges and tasks ahead. This Plant genomics provides some updated discussions on current advances, challenges, and future perspectives of plant genome studies and applications.",isbn:"978-953-51-2456-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2455-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5440-2",doi:"10.5772/60746",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"plant-genomics",numberOfPages:310,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0ba16cd782b25aa7646b2b058f6bc78f",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",publishedDate:"July 14th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5098.jpg",numberOfDownloads:27211,numberOfWosCitations:59,numberOfCrossrefCitations:60,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:111,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:230,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 7th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 28th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 1st 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 30th 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213344/images/system/213344.jpg",biography:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov received his B.S. (1997) in biotechnology from the National University, M.S. in plant breeding\n(2001) from Texas A&M University of USA, Ph.D. (2002) in molecular genetics, Doctor of Science (2009) in genetics, and full professorship (2011) in molecular genetics and molecular biotechnology from Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan. He founded (2012)\nthe Center of Genomics and Bioinformatics of Uzbekistan. He\nreceived the 2010 TWAS prize, and “ICAC Cotton Researcher of the Year 2013” for\nhis outstanding contribution to cotton genomics and biotechnology. He was elected\nas The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Fellow (2014) and as a member (2017)\nof the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan. He was appointed (2017) as a Minister\nof Innovative Development of Uzbekistan.",institutionString:"Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"12",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"12",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"365",title:"Molecular Genetics",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-plant-biology-molecular-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"49877",title:"Genomics Era for Plants and Crop Species – Advances Made and Needed Tasks Ahead",doi:"10.5772/62083",slug:"genomics-era-for-plants-and-crop-species-advances-made-and-needed-tasks-ahead",totalDownloads:2473,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Historically, unintentional plant selection and subsequent crop domestication, coupled with the need and desire to get more food and feed products, have resulted in the continuous development of plant breeding and genetics efforts. The progress made toward this goal elucidated plant genome compositions and led to decoding the full DNA sequences of plant genomes controlling the entire plant life. Plant genomics aims to develop high-throughput genome-wide-scale technologies, tools, and methodologies to elucidate the basics of genetic traits/characteristics, genetic diversities, and by-product production; to understand the phenotypic development throughout plant ontogenesis with genetic by environmental interactions; to map important loci in the genome; and to accelerate crop improvement. Plant genomics research efforts have continuously increased in the past 30 years due to the availability of cost-effective, high-throughput DNA sequencing platforms that resulted in fully sequenced 100 plant genomes with broad implications for every aspect of plant biology research and application. These technological advances, however, also have generated many unexpected challenges and grand tasks ahead. In this introductory chapter, I aimed briefly to summarize some advances made in plant genomics studies in the past three decades, plant genome sequencing efforts, current state-of-the-art technological developments of genomics era, and some of current grand challenges and needed tasks ahead in the genomics and post-genomics era. I also highlighted the related book chapters contributed by different authors in this book.",signatures:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49877",authors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],corrections:null},{id:"49663",title:"Integration of Next-generation Sequencing Technologies with Comparative Genomics in Cereals",doi:"10.5772/61763",slug:"integration-of-next-generation-sequencing-technologies-with-comparative-genomics-in-cereals",totalDownloads:1903,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cereals are the major sources of calories worldwide. Their production should be high to achieve food security, despite the projected increase in global population. Genomics research may enhance cereal productivity. Genomics immensely benefits from robust next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques, which produce vast amounts of sequence data in a time and cost-efficient way. Research has demonstrated that gene sequences among closely related species that share common ancestry have remained well conserved over millions of years of evolution. Comparative genomics allows for comparison of genome sequences across different species, with the implication that genomes with large sizes can be investigated using closely related species with smaller genomes. This offers prospects of studying genes in a single species and, in turn, gaining information on their functions in other related species. Comparative genomics is expected to provide invaluable information on the control of gene function in complex cereal genomes, and also in designing molecular markers across related species. This chapter discusses advances in sequencing technologies, their application in cereal genomics and their potential contribution to the understanding of the relationships between the different cereal genomes and their phenotypes.",signatures:"Thandeka N. Sikhakhane, Sandiswa Figlan, Learnmore\nMwadzingeni, Rodomiro Ortiz and Toi J. Tsilo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49663",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49663",authors:[{id:"176828",title:"Prof.",name:"Toi",surname:"Tsilo",slug:"toi-tsilo",fullName:"Toi Tsilo"},{id:"177047",title:"Ms.",name:"Thandeka",surname:"Sikhakhane",slug:"thandeka-sikhakhane",fullName:"Thandeka Sikhakhane"},{id:"177048",title:"Ms.",name:"Sandiswa",surname:"Figlan",slug:"sandiswa-figlan",fullName:"Sandiswa Figlan"},{id:"177049",title:"Dr.",name:"Learnmore",surname:"Mwadzingeni",slug:"learnmore-mwadzingeni",fullName:"Learnmore Mwadzingeni"},{id:"177772",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodomiro",surname:"Ortiz",slug:"rodomiro-ortiz",fullName:"Rodomiro Ortiz"}],corrections:null},{id:"49633",title:"Strategies for Sequence Assembly of Plant Genomes",doi:"10.5772/61927",slug:"strategies-for-sequence-assembly-of-plant-genomes",totalDownloads:2169,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The field of plant genome assembly has greatly benefited from the development and widespread adoption of next-generation DNA sequencing platforms. Very high sequencing throughputs and low costs per nucleotide have considerably reduced the technical and budgetary constraints associated with early assembly projects done primarily with a traditional Sanger-based approach. Those improvements led to a sharp increase in the number of plant genomes being sequenced, including large and complex genomes of economically important crops. Although next-generation DNA sequencing has considerably improved our understanding of the overall structure and dynamics of many plant genomes, severe limitations still remain because next-generation DNA sequencing reads typically are shorter than Sanger reads. In addition, the software tools used to de novo assemble sequences are not necessarily designed to optimize the use of short reads. These cause challenges, common to many plant species with large genome sizes, high repeat contents, polyploidy and genome-wide duplications. This chapter provides an overview of historical and current methods used to sequence and assemble plant genomes, along with new solutions offered by the emergence of technologies such as single molecule sequencing and optical mapping to address the limitations of current sequence assemblies.",signatures:"Stéphane Deschamps and Victor Llaca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49633",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49633",authors:[{id:"176741",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephane",surname:"Deschamps",slug:"stephane-deschamps",fullName:"Stephane Deschamps"},{id:"176854",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Llaca",slug:"victor-llaca",fullName:"Victor Llaca"}],corrections:null},{id:"49516",title:"Toward a First High-quality Genome Draft for Marker-assisted Breeding in Leaf Chicory, Radicchio (Cichorium intybus L.)",doi:"10.5772/61747",slug:"toward-a-first-high-quality-genome-draft-for-marker-assisted-breeding-in-leaf-chicory-radicchio-cich",totalDownloads:1868,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Radicchio (Cichorium intybus subsp. intybus var. foliosum L.) is one of the most important leaf chicories, used mainly as a component for fresh salads. Recently, we sequenced and annotated the first draft of the leaf chicory genome, as we believe it will have an extraordinary impact from both scientific and economic points of view. Indeed, the availability of the first genome sequence for this plant species will provide a powerful tool to be exploited in the identification of markers associated with or genes responsible for relevant agronomic traits, influencing crop productivity and product quality. The plant material used for the sequencing of the leaf chicory genome belongs to the Radicchio of the Chioggia type. Genomic DNA was used for library preparation with the TruSeq DNA Sample Preparation chemistry (Illumina). Sequencing reactions were performed with the Illumina platforms HiSeq and MySeq, and sequence reads were then assembled and annotated. We are confident that our efforts will extend the current knowledge of the genome organization and gene composition of leaf chicory, which is crucial for developing new tools and diagnostic markers useful for our breeding strategies in Radicchio.",signatures:"Giulio Galla, Andrea Ghedina, Silvano C. Tiozzo and Gianni\nBarcaccia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49516",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49516",authors:[{id:"176837",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianni",surname:"Barcaccia",slug:"gianni-barcaccia",fullName:"Gianni Barcaccia"},{id:"177788",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Ghedina",slug:"andrea-ghedina",fullName:"Andrea Ghedina"},{id:"177789",title:"Dr.",name:"Giulio",surname:"Galla",slug:"giulio-galla",fullName:"Giulio Galla"},{id:"177790",title:"Mr.",name:"Silvano Caenazzo",surname:"Tiozzo",slug:"silvano-caenazzo-tiozzo",fullName:"Silvano Caenazzo Tiozzo"}],corrections:null},{id:"49983",title:"Sequencing of Non-model Plants for Understanding the Physiological Responses in Plants",doi:"10.5772/62511",slug:"sequencing-of-non-model-plants-for-understanding-the-physiological-responses-in-plants",totalDownloads:1695,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"From a genomic point of view, plants are complex organisms. Plants adapt to the environment, by developing different physiological and genetic properties, changing their genomic and expression profiles of adaptive factors, as exemplified by polyploidy studies. These characteristics along with the presence of duplicated genes/genomes make sequencing with early low-throughput DNA sequencing technologies in plants a challenging task. With the development of new technologies for molecular analysis, including transcriptome, proteome or microarray profiling, a new perspective in the genomic analysis was open, making possible to programs in species without genomic maps. The opportunity to extend molecular studies from laboratory model scale toward naturally occurring plant populations made it possible to precisely answer the longstanding important ecological and evolutionary questions. Some plant species have unique properties that could help to understand their adaptability to environment, crop production, pest protection or other biological processes. Molecular studies on non-model plants, including algae, mosses, ferns and plants with very specific characteristics are ongoing.",signatures:"Jannette Alonso-Herrada, Ismael Urrutia, Tania Escobar-Feregrino, Porfirio Gutiérrez-Martínez, Ana Angélica Feregrino-Pérez, Irineo Torres-Pacheco, Ramón G. Guevara González, Sergio Casas-Flores and Andrés Cruz-Hernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49983",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49983",authors:[{id:"176841",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",surname:"Cruz-Hernández",slug:"andres-cruz-hernandez",fullName:"Andres Cruz-Hernández"},{id:"177797",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Gerardo",surname:"Guevara-González",slug:"ramon-gerardo-guevara-gonzalez",fullName:"Ramón Gerardo Guevara-González"},{id:"177800",title:"MSc.",name:"Jannette",surname:"Alonso-Herrada",slug:"jannette-alonso-herrada",fullName:"Jannette Alonso-Herrada"},{id:"177801",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ismael",surname:"Urrutia-Anaya",slug:"ismael-urrutia-anaya",fullName:"Ismael Urrutia-Anaya"},{id:"177802",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Angélica",surname:"Feregrino-Pérez",slug:"ana-angelica-feregrino-perez",fullName:"Ana Angélica Feregrino-Pérez"},{id:"177803",title:"Dr.",name:"Irineo",surname:"Torres-Pacheco",slug:"irineo-torres-pacheco",fullName:"Irineo Torres-Pacheco"},{id:"177804",title:"Dr.",name:"Porfirio",surname:"Gutiérrez-Martínez",slug:"porfirio-gutierrez-martinez",fullName:"Porfirio Gutiérrez-Martínez"},{id:"177805",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Casas-Flores",slug:"sergio-casas-flores",fullName:"Sergio Casas-Flores"}],corrections:null},{id:"49920",title:"MicroRNAs Sequencing for Understanding the Genetic Regulation of Plant Genomes",doi:"10.5772/62203",slug:"micrornas-sequencing-for-understanding-the-genetic-regulation-of-plant-genomes",totalDownloads:3080,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous non-coding RNAs that play important regulatory roles in animals and plants by targeting mRNAs for cleavage or translational repression. Small RNAs are classified into different types by their biogenesis and mode of action, such as miRNAs, siRNAs, piRNAs, and snoRNAs. In the case of miRNAs, this specific type regulates gene expression in plants and animals by targeting mRNAs for cleavage and translational repression, respectively. Diverse miRNAs regulate plant development, metabolism, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. The identification of miRNAs has been accomplished in diverse species, organs and developmental or diverse biotic and abiotic stress conditions. Novel massive sequencing techniques and further bioinformatics analysis have allowed the identification of hundreds of miRNAs in Arabidopsis thaliana, Oryza sativa, Malus domestica, Zea mays, Solanum lycopersicum, and other plants. Functional characterization of a given miRNA in a specific biological context has shown their role in the fine-tuning mechanisms of posttranscriptional gene regulation. In this chapter, besides making a summary of genome-wide miRNA profiling in plants, we describe how gain and loss of function approaches influence plant phenotypes that affect development, physiology or stress responses, pointing to miRNAs as effective tools for the generation of new plant phenotypes that improve plant productivity and conservation.",signatures:"Christopher A. Cedillo-Jiménez, Marcelo Hernández–Salazar, Tania Escobar-Feregrino, Juan Caballero-Pérez, Mario Arteaga-Vázquez, Alfredo Cruz-Ramírez, Irineo Torres-Pacheco, Ramón Guevara-González and Andrés Cruz-Hernández",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49920",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49920",authors:[{id:"176841",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",surname:"Cruz-Hernández",slug:"andres-cruz-hernandez",fullName:"Andres Cruz-Hernández"},{id:"177797",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Gerardo",surname:"Guevara-González",slug:"ramon-gerardo-guevara-gonzalez",fullName:"Ramón Gerardo Guevara-González"},{id:"62984",title:"Dr.",name:"Irineo",surname:"Torres-Pacheco",slug:"irineo-torres-pacheco",fullName:"Irineo Torres-Pacheco"},{id:"177791",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Hernández–Salazar",slug:"marcelo-hernandezsalazar",fullName:"Marcelo Hernández–Salazar"},{id:"177792",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Christopher Alexis",surname:"Cedillo-Jiménez",slug:"christopher-alexis-cedillo-jimenez",fullName:"Christopher Alexis Cedillo-Jiménez"},{id:"177793",title:"Ms.",name:"Tania",surname:"Escobar-Feregrino",slug:"tania-escobar-feregrino",fullName:"Tania Escobar-Feregrino"},{id:"177794",title:"BSc.",name:"Juan",surname:"Caballero-Pérez",slug:"juan-caballero-perez",fullName:"Juan Caballero-Pérez"},{id:"177795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Arteaga-Vázquez4",slug:"mario-arteaga-vazquez4",fullName:"Mario Arteaga-Vázquez4"},{id:"177796",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo",surname:"Cruz-Ramírez",slug:"alfredo-cruz-ramirez",fullName:"Alfredo Cruz-Ramírez"}],corrections:null},{id:"49554",title:"The Extraordinary Nature of RNA Interference in Understanding Gene Downregulation Mechanism in Plants",doi:"10.5772/61689",slug:"the-extraordinary-nature-of-rna-interference-in-understanding-gene-downregulation-mechanism-in-plant",totalDownloads:2291,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gene silencing (also known as ribonucleic acid [RNA] interference [RNAi] or interfering RNA) was first recognized in plants and is considered one of the most significant discoveries in molecular biology in the last several years. These short-chain ribonucleic acid molecules regulate eukaryotic gene expression. The phenomenon involves a process that promotes RNA transcripts degradation through complementarity between RNA molecules and RNAi transcripts, resulting in the reduction of their translation levels. There are two principal classes of regulatory RNA molecules: small interfering RNAs (siRNA) and microRNAs (miRNA). Both are generated from the cleavage of double-stranded self-complementary RNA hairpins by a DICER enzyme that belongs to the RNase III family. Small RNAs (of about 21–24 nucleotides in size) guide specific effector Argonaute protein to a target nucleotide sequence by complementary base pairing. Thereby, the effector protein complex downregulates the expression of RNA or DNA targets. In plants, cis-regulatory RNAi sequences are involved in defense mechanisms against antagonistic organisms and transposition events, while trans-regulatory sequences participate in growth-related gene expression. siRNA also performs neutral antiviral defense mechanisms and adaptive stress responses. This document is an attempt to scrutinize the RNAi nature in understanding gene downregulation mechanism in plants and some technical applications.",signatures:"Jorge Ricaño-Rodríguez, Jacel Adame-García, Silvia Portilla-\nVázquez, José M. Ramos-Prado and Enrique Hipólito-Romero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49554",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49554",authors:[{id:"176624",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Ricaño-Rodríguez",slug:"jorge-ricano-rodriguez",fullName:"Jorge Ricaño-Rodríguez"},{id:"176991",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacel",surname:"Adame-García",slug:"jacel-adame-garcia",fullName:"Jacel Adame-García"},{id:"176992",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Hipólito-Romero1",slug:"enrique-hipolito-romero1",fullName:"Enrique Hipólito-Romero1"},{id:"176993",title:"Dr.",name:"José María",surname:"Ramos-Prado",slug:"jose-maria-ramos-prado",fullName:"José María Ramos-Prado"},{id:"177760",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Portilla-Vázquez",slug:"silvia-portilla-vazquez",fullName:"Silvia Portilla-Vázquez"}],corrections:null},{id:"49691",title:"Genomic Approaches to Developing Molecular Markers Linked to Grey Leaf Spot Resistance Loci in Ryegrasses",doi:"10.5772/61966",slug:"genomic-approaches-to-developing-molecular-markers-linked-to-grey-leaf-spot-resistance-loci-in-ryegr",totalDownloads:1581,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ryegrass grey leaf spot (GLS), which is also called ryegrass blast, is caused by Magnaporthe oryzae (anamorph Pyricularia oryzae). It is a serious disease in ryegrasses including perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and Italian ryegrass (L. multiflorum Lam.). Heavily infected young seedlings die within days, and grass stands can be seriously damaged by the disease. Thus, the development of GLS-resistant cultivars has become one of the most important objectives in ryegrass breeding. This chapter provides an overview of the current information regarding molecular marker development in the breeding of GLS-resistant ryegrass cultivars. It focuses on the pathology of GLS, heritability and breeding of GLS resistance, and development of molecular markers linked to a major ryegrass GLS resistance gene.",signatures:"Wataru Takahashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49691",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49691",authors:[{id:"89190",title:"Dr.",name:"Wataru",surname:"Takahashi",slug:"wataru-takahashi",fullName:"Wataru Takahashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"51235",title:"Advances in Plant Tolerance to Abiotic Stresses",doi:"10.5772/64350",slug:"advances-in-plant-tolerance-to-abiotic-stresses",totalDownloads:4295,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:43,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the last 50 years, it has been shown that abiotic stresses influence plant growth and crop production greatly, and crop yields have evidently stagnated or decreased in economically important crops, where only high inputs assure high yields. The recent manifesting effects of climate change are considered to have aggravated the negative effects of abiotic stresses on plant productivity. On the other hand, the complexity of plant mechanisms controlling important traits and the limited availability of germplasm for tolerance to certain stresses have restricted genetic advances in major crops for increased yields or for improved other traits. However, some level of success has been achieved in understanding crop tolerance to abiotic stresses; for instance, identification of abscisic acid (ABA) receptors (e.g., ABA-responsive element (ABRE) binding protein/ABRE binding factor (AREB/ABF) transcription factors), and other regulons (e.g., WRKYs, MYB/MYCs, NACs, HSFs, bZIPs and nuclear factor-Y (NF-Y)), has shown potential promise to improve plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. Apart from these major regulons, studies on the post-transcriptional regulation of stress-responsive genes have provided additional opportunities for addressing the molecular basis of cellular stress responses in plants. This chapter focuses on the progress in the study of plant tolerance to abiotic stresses, and describes the major tolerance pathways and implicated signaling factors that have been identified, so far. To link basic and applied research, genes and proteins that play functional roles in mitigating abiotic stress damage are summarized and discussed.",signatures:"Geoffrey Onaga and Kerstin Wydra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51235",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51235",authors:[{id:"176967",title:"Prof.",name:"Kerstin",surname:"Wydra",slug:"kerstin-wydra",fullName:"Kerstin Wydra"},{id:"176968",title:"Dr.",name:"Geoffrey",surname:"Onaga",slug:"geoffrey-onaga",fullName:"Geoffrey Onaga"}],corrections:null},{id:"50897",title:"Advances in Plant Tolerance to Biotic Stresses",doi:"10.5772/64351",slug:"advances-in-plant-tolerance-to-biotic-stresses",totalDownloads:3193,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:30,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Plants being sessile in nature encounter numerous biotic agents, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, insects, nematodes and protists. A great number of publications indicate that biotic agents significantly reduce crop productivity, although there are some biotic agents that symbiotically or synergistically co-exist with plants. Nonetheless, scientists have made significant advances in understanding the plant defence mechanisms expressed against biotic stresses. These mechanisms range from anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, development and evolution to their associated molecular dynamics. Using model plants, e.g., Arabidopsis and rice, efforts to understand these mechanisms have led to the identification of representative candidate genes, quantitative trait loci (QTLs), proteins and metabolites associated with plant defences against biotic stresses. However, there are drawbacks and insufficiencies in precisely deciphering and deploying these mechanisms, including only modest adaptability of some identified genes or QTLs to changing stress factors. Thus, more systematic efforts are needed to explore and expand the development of biotic stress resistant germplasm. In this chapter, we provided a comprehensive overview and discussed plant defence mechanisms involving molecular and cellular adaptation to biotic stresses. The latest achievements and perspective on plant molecular responses to biotic stresses, including gene expression, and targeted functional analyses of the genes expressed against biotic stresses have been presented and discussed.",signatures:"Geoffrey Onaga and Kerstin Wydra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50897",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50897",authors:[{id:"176967",title:"Prof.",name:"Kerstin",surname:"Wydra",slug:"kerstin-wydra",fullName:"Kerstin Wydra"}],corrections:null},{id:"50295",title:"Genomics of Salinity Tolerance in Plants",doi:"10.5772/63361",slug:"genomics-of-salinity-tolerance-in-plants",totalDownloads:2668,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants are frequently exposed to wide range of harsh environmental factors, such as drought, salinity, cold, heat, and insect attack. Being sessile in nature, plants have developed different strategies to adapt and grow under rapidly changing environments. These strategies involve rearrangements at the molecular level starting from transcription, regulation of mRNA processing, translation, and protein modification or its turnover. Plants show stress-specific regulation of transcription that affects their transcriptome under stress conditions. The transcriptionally regulated genes have different roles under stress response. Generally, seedling and reproductive stages are more susceptible to stress. Thus, stress response studies during these growth stages reveal novel differentially regulated genes or proteins with important functions in plant stress adaptation. Exploiting the functional genomics and bioinformatics studies paved the way in understanding the relationship between genotype and phenotype of an organism suffering from environmental stress. Future research programs can be focused on the development of transgenic plants with enhanced stress tolerance in field conditions based upon the outcome of genomic approaches and knowing the mystery of nucleotides sequences hidden in cells.",signatures:"Abdul Qayyum Rao, Salah ud Din, Sidra Akhtar, Muhammad Bilal\nSarwar, Mukhtar Ahmed, Bushra Rashid, Muhammad Azmat Ullah\nKhan, Uzma Qaisar, Ahmad Ali Shahid, Idrees Ahmad Nasir and\nTayyab Husnain",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50295",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50295",authors:[{id:"83285",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul Qayyum",surname:"Rao",slug:"abdul-qayyum-rao",fullName:"Abdul Qayyum Rao"},{id:"147560",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayyab",surname:"Husnain",slug:"tayyab-husnain",fullName:"Tayyab Husnain"},{id:"179282",title:"Mr.",name:"Salah Ud",surname:"Din",slug:"salah-ud-din",fullName:"Salah Ud Din"},{id:"179283",title:"Ms.",name:"Sidra",surname:"Akhtar",slug:"sidra-akhtar",fullName:"Sidra Akhtar"},{id:"179284",title:"Mr.",name:"Bilal",surname:"Sarwar",slug:"bilal-sarwar",fullName:"Bilal Sarwar"},{id:"179285",title:"Mr.",name:"Mukhtar",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mukhtar-ahmed",fullName:"Mukhtar Ahmed"},{id:"179286",title:"Dr.",name:"Uzma",surname:"Qaisar",slug:"uzma-qaisar",fullName:"Uzma Qaisar"},{id:"179287",title:"Dr.",name:"Bushra",surname:"Rashid",slug:"bushra-rashid",fullName:"Bushra Rashid"},{id:"179288",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Ali",surname:"Shahid",slug:"ahmad-ali-shahid",fullName:"Ahmad Ali Shahid"},{id:"179289",title:"Dr.",name:"Idrees Ahmad",surname:"Nasir",slug:"idrees-ahmad-nasir",fullName:"Idrees Ahmad Nasir"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"880",title:"Plant Breeding",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"00fb30196097697f0e1211ce27ba426d",slug:"plant-breeding",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. 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\r\n\tThis book looks to discuss new developments in allergy and allergic diseases in recent years. Under the light of recent literature, guidelines, as well as position papers, main allergic diseases like asthma and allergic rhinitis, and their treatments will be in focus. New diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in anaphylaxis as well as food allergy come forward in the last years. New immunotherapeutic modalities, oral sublingual-other ways in food allergy, and the use of baked products, as well as probiotics in food allergy management, will be told in detail. Also, the interaction between pandemic of SARS-CoV-2 infection / COVID-19 disease and allergic diseases surely will be delineated. As a result, this book aims to provide the readers a perspective with an inclusive overview of the current state-of-the-art in allergy and allergic diseases, presenting in a format easy-to-follow and comprehensive, focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in hot topics in allergy.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-846-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-845-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-847-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"8143d42f6db2a6e7e23c330f0d54a277",bookSignature:"Dr. Öner Özdemir",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11849.jpg",keywords:"Atopy, Dermatitis, Foods, Respiratory Tract, Hyperreactivity, Nonsteroid Anti-inflammatory Drugs, Rhinitis, Allergic Salute, Allergic Shiner, Urticaria, Angioedema, Hypotension",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 9th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 8th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 27th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 26th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"21 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Head and of Pediatrics, at the Division of Allergy-Immunology of the Sakarya University, Medical Faculty, member of the Turkish National Society of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (TNSACI) and Turkish National Pediatric Society, formerly affiliated with the Istambul University, Louisiana State University, and the University of Cincinnati.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"62921",title:"Dr.",name:"Öner",middleName:null,surname:"Özdemir",slug:"oner-ozdemir",fullName:"Öner Özdemir",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62921/images/system/62921.jfif",biography:"Prof. Dr. Oner Ozdemir was born in Alaplı, Zonguldak, Turkey in 1965. He has graduated from İstanbul Medical School, İstanbul University, and become a medical doctor in 1989.\r\nDr. Ozdemir did his pediatric residency at the Department of Pediatrics in Children’s Hospital, İstanbul Medical School, İstanbul, Turkey. His clinical fellowship training was completed at Pediatric Allergy/Immunology division in Louisiana State University, Health Sciences Centre, New Orleans, LA. Some part of his clinical fellowship training was done at the Pediatric Allergy/Immunology program in Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH. Dr. Ozdemir's bench research areas are as follows: LAK-cell generation and cell-mediated cytotoxicity; human mast cell development and mast cell-mediated cytotoxicity; and apoptosis-related research. Dr. Ozdemir's clinical research areas are as follows: hereditary angioedema, chronic urticaria, biological agents. He was the first place winner of the Clemens Von Pirquet Award from ACAAI at the ACAAI meeting in 2005 for the best research on allergy/asthma/immunology by a fellow in training. Dr. Ozdemir has more than 84 international plus 76 national publications, as well as 174 international and 145 national presentations, and more than 9 chapters related to my research areas. I have been an editor of 4 books so far. 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1. Introduction
Back in the old days about 40 years ago, the number of transistors found in a chip was, even at its highest count, less than 10,000. Take, for example, the once popular Motorola 6800 microprocessor developed in the mid 1970s. Fabricated based on the 6.0‐μm feature size, the 6800 consisted of merely 4100 transistors in it. Nowadays, the number of transistors in a very large‐scale integration (VLSI) [or some refer to it as the super large‐scale integration (SLSI)] chip may possibly reach 10 billion, with a feature size smaller than 15 nm.
There is little doubt that the electronics world has experienced a significant advancement for the past 50 years or so and this, to a large extent, is due to the rapid technology improvement in the performance, power, area, cost and ‘time to market’ of an integrated circuit (IC) chip. To provide readers with an overall view of VLSI, this chapter gives a concise but complete illustration on the historical evolution, design and development of VLSI‐integrated circuit devices.
2. A brief history
When transistors were first introduced in early 1900s, they were actually made of vacuum tubes. These transistors were relatively large in size and cumbersome to be used. In December 1947, however, three physicists working in the AT&T Bell laboratory attained a remarkable breakthrough in their design, changing the perception one used to have on transistors. Dr. John Bardeen, Dr. Walter Houser Brattain and Dr. William Bradford Shockley, Jr., invented the first point‐contact semiconductor transistor using germanium. As shown in Figure 1, the point‐contact transistor comprised an n‐type germanium block and two gold contacts (i.e. the emitter and collector leads) placed in close proximity. When a small current was applied to one of the contacts, the output current at the other contacts was amplified.
Figure 1.
An early model of the point‐contact transistor.
Being much smaller in size, consuming much lower power, operating at relatively lower temperature and giving quicker response time, the semiconductor transistor is clearly more superior to its conventional vacuum tubes brethren. It was these advantages and its viability that resulted in the replacement of vacuum tubes by the solid‐state electronic devices. The rapid widespread usage of the semiconductor transistors in electronic circuits has triggered a dramatic revolution in the electronic industries, kicking off the era of semiconductor. Because of this significant contribution, Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956.
It may be worth noting that when this germanium solid‐state device was initially introduced, it was not coined the term ‘transistor’. Instead, it was generally referred to as the ‘semiconductor triode’. According to the ‘Memorandum For File’ of Bell Telephone Laboratories [1], six names had been proposed for the device, namely ‘semiconductor triode’, ‘surface states triode’, ‘crystal triode’, ‘solid triode’, ‘iotatron’ and ‘transistor’. Although the device had initially been referred to as the ‘semiconductor triode’, the word ‘transistor’ (which originates from the abbreviated combinations of the words ‘transconductance’ and ‘varistor’) had ultimately turned out to be the winner of the internal poll [1].
The first commercially available silicon transistors were manufactured by Dr. Gordon Kidd Teal in 1954. Since silicon gives much better performance than germanium transistors, the substrate material for transistors was gradually changed to silicon. In 1955, the first diffused silicon transistor made its appearance. To reduce the resistivity of the collector, the transistor with an epitaxial layer added onto it was developed in 1960. It was also in the same year the planar transistor was proposed by Dr. Jean Amedee Hoerni [2].
In 1958, Jack St. Clair Kilby who was then an engineer in Texas Instruments successfully developed the first integrated circuit. The device was just a simple 0.5‐inch germanium bar, with a transistor, a capacitor and three resistors connected together using fine platinum wires. About a year later in 1959, Dr. Robert Norton Noyce from Fairchild Camera (also one of the co‐founders of Intel Corporation) invented independently his own integrated circuit chip. The interconnection in Noyce’s 4‐inch silicon wafer was realized by means of etching the aluminium film which was first deposited onto a layer of oxide [2]. Both Kilby and Noyce shared the patent right for the invention of the integrated circuit. In 2000, Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics ‘for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit’.
Since the advent of the semiconductor transistor and the demonstration on the workability of the integrated circuit chip about some 70 years ago, the electronic industries have been prospering hitherto. Electronic devices are now closely interwoven with human’s life. They have, in many aspects, become indispensable to mankind. Indeed, one can easily find traces of electronic circuitries integrated into areas which intertwine seamlessly with the fabric of mankind’s living hood. Some of these areas include transportation, telecommunication, security, medicine and entertainment, just to name a few.
3. Moore’s law
In April 1965, one of the co‐founders of Intel Corporation, Dr. Gordon Earle Moore, predicted that the number of components (i.e. any electronic components which include not just transistors but capacitors, resistors, inductors, diodes, etc. as well) in an integrated circuit would double every year [3]. Ten years later in 1975, he revised his prediction to a doubling of every 2 years. Moore’s prediction, which is more commonly known as Moore’s law nowadays, has been widely used in the semiconductor and microelectronic industries as a tool to predict the increase of components in a chip for the coming generations [4]. To date, Moore’s law has been proven to have held valid for more than half a century. Table 1 depicts the progressive trend of the integration level for the semiconductor industry. It can be observed from the table that the number of transistors that can be fabricated in a chip has been growing continuously over the years. In fact, this growth has complied closely with Moore’s law. To distinguish the increase of transistors in every 10 years, each era is designated a name, that is, the SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI, ULSI and SLSI eras. During the VLSI era, a microprocessor was fabricated for the first time into a single integrated circuit chip. Although this era has now long passed, the VLSI term is still being widely used today. This is partly due to the absence of an obvious qualitative leap between VLSI and its subsequent ULSI and SLSI eras, and partly, it is also because IC engineers and experts working in this field have been so used to this term that they decided to continue adopting it.
Integration level
Year
Number of transistors in a chip
Small‐scale integration (SSI)
1950
Less than 100
Medium‐scale integration (MSI)
1960
Between 100 and 1000
Large‐scale integration (LSI)
1970
Between 1000 and 10,000
Very large‐scale integration (VLSI)
1980
Between 10,000 and 100,000
Ultra large‐scale Integration (ULSI)
1990
Between 100,000 and 10,000,000
Super large‐scale integration (SLSI)
2000
More than 10,000,000
Table 1.
Integration level of an integrated circuit chip.
4. The field effect transistors
Today, the transistors fabricated in an IC device are mostly metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs). The earliest paper describing the operation principle of a MOSFET can be traced back to that reported in Julius Edgar Lilienfeld’s patent in 1933 [5]. In 1959, Dr. Dawon Kahng and Dr. Martin M. (John) Atalla at the Bell Telephone Laboratories successfully invented the MOSFET [6]. In 1963, two engineers from the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) Princeton laboratory, Dr. Steven R. Hofstein and Dr. Frederic P. Heiman, presented the theoretical description on the fundamental nature of the silicon planar MOSFET [7]. In the same year, Dr. Frank Marion Wanlass of Fairchild Semiconductor invented the first complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) logic circuit [8].
4.1. The MOSFET
The MOSFET is basically a device that operates like a switch or an amplifier in electronic circuits. Figure 2 depicts the basic structure of the MOSFET. The device consists of four terminals, namely the drain (D), source (S), gate (G) and substrate or bulk (B) terminals. Basically, the device is composed of three layers—a poly‐silicon layer (i.e. the gate terminal), an oxide layer (i.e. the gate oxide) and a single‐crystal semiconductor layer (i.e. the substrate). In the early days, the gate terminal was made of aluminium. It is from these three layers of materials that the FET device derived its name. In mid 1970s, however, the gate material was replaced with polysilicon. The high‐temperature stability of the polysilicon gate is used as a mask to form the self‐aligned source and drain terminals via ion implantation, rendering higher accuracy for the formation of these two terminals. Although the gate today is no longer made of aluminium, the term MOSFET has been so widely accepted that it stays until today.
Figure 2.
The (a) basic structure and (b) cross section of a MOSFET.
The operation principle of a MOSFET is actually quite simple. When a voltage is applied in between the drain and source terminals, a conducting channel is required to be formed between the two terminals to close the circuit (i.e. to allow current to flow). A voltage connected to the gate terminal acts like a switch. Given sufficient magnitude (and the correct polarity), the gate voltage is able to attract carriers to the gate oxide‐substrate interface, forming a channel which connects the source and drain terminals.
A MOSFET can be categorized into two types, depending on the dopants of the drain and source terminals, as well as the substrate. When both the drain and source terminals, in a p‐type substrate, are heavily doped with donator ions (such as phosphorous or arsenic), a negative channel is to be formed in between them to conduct current. On the other hand, when both terminals, in an n‐type substrate, are heavily doped with acceptor ions (such as boron), a positive channel is to be formed. The former device is therefore known as a negative‐channel MOSFET or an NMOS transistor, while the latter is known as a positive‐channel MOSFET or a PMOS transistor. Figure 3 shows the circuit symbols of both PMOS and NMOS transistors.
Figure 3.
The symbol of (a) a PMOS transistor and (b) an NMOS transistor.
The size of a MOSFET transistor is measured by the gate length, which is also commonly known as the feature size or feature length L. The feature size L has been shrinking tremendously over the years. Transistors with the size of 50 μm in the 1960s have been scaled down to less than 15 nm in 2017. The reduction of size allows a higher density of transistors to be fabricated in a single die. Overseen by the Taiwan Semiconductor Industry Association (TSIA), the United States Semiconductor Association (SIA), the European Semiconductor Industry Association (ESIA), the Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association (JEITA) and the Korean Semiconductor Industry Association (KSIA), the International Technology Roadmap of Semiconductor (ITRS) is produced to forecast how the technology is expected to evolve. The purpose of the ITRS is to ensure healthy growth of the IC industries. Table 2 lists the progressive reduction of the feature size published in ITRS 2.0 [9].
Physical gate length
Year
2015
2017
2019
2021
2024
2027
2030
High‐performance logic (nm)
24
18
14
10
10
10
10
Low‐performance logic (nm)
24
20
16
12
12
12
12
Table 2.
Forecast of gate length by ITRS.
4.2. The FinFET
As the feature size reduces to the submicron regimes, fields at the source and drain regions may become comparatively high, and this may give certain adverse effects to the charge distribution. Some of the examples of these short‐channel effects are the threshold voltage roll‐off in the linear region, drain‐induced barrier lowering (DIBL) and bulk punch‐through [10]. To suppress these effects, additional steps, such as the introduction of retrograde well, lightly doped drain, halo implantation, and so on, have been introduced to the IC fabrication process [11]. As the device continues to shrink, however, curbing the short‐channel effects turns out to be a strenuous task. When the feature size approaches the sub‐nanometre range (i.e. 90 nm and below), static leakage current due to the short‐channel effects has become a serious problem.
When the technology node reached 22 nm in 2011, Intel Corporation announced the fabrication of the tri‐gate transistor, replacing the conventional planar MOSFET. More commonly known as the FinFET, this device has a three‐dimensional transistor structure, as shown in Figure 4. From the figure, it is clear that a FinFET is named so because of the protruding source/drain terminals from its substrate surface, which closely resemble the fins of a fish. Since the gate wraps around the inversion layer, FinFETs provide higher current flow from source to drain. This feature also allows better control of the current flow—it reduces current leakage considerably when the device is at its ‘off‐state’ and minimizes short‐channel effects at its ‘on‐state’. Since the device has lower threshold voltage than the planar MOSFET, a FinFET can also operate at a lower voltage. In other words, the new device shows less leakage, faster switching and lower power consumption. However, certainly, the efficiency improvement found in the FinFET comes at the expense of increased fabrication complexity. The introduction of additional fabrication steps is inevitable in order to form the fin‐like structure.
Figure 4.
The (a) basic structure and (b) cross section of a FinFET.
5. VLSI design flow
Generally, the design process of a VLSI chip involves three stages namely the (i) behavioural, (ii) logic circuit and (iii) layout representations. At each of this stage, verification is to be performed at the end before proceeding to the next. Hence, it is common to have repetitions and iterations in the processes [12].
5.1. Behavioural representation
Behavioural representation is the first step of the entire VLSI design flow. At this stage, it is important to specify the functionalities of the device and how it is going to communicate with the exterior. The design architecture is to be drawn panned out. A hardware description language (HDL) such as Verilog HDL or VHDL is used to define the behaviour of the device.
5.2. Logic circuit representation
After the HDL codes are successfully simulated, functional blocks from standard cell libraries are used to synthesize the behavioural representation of the design into logic circuit representation. Once the design is verified, the gate level netlist is generated. The netlist is necessary in order to develop the layout of the design.
5.3. Layout representation
At the final stage, the physical layout of the design is created. The process starts with floor planning which defines the core and routing areas of the chip. In order to optimize the design, the building blocks are arranged and orientated at their best locations. This process is known as placement. Once this is completed, a routing process is performed to interconnect the building blocks.
6. IC fabrication
To fabricate the chip, the layout is sent to a fab or a foundry. In a fab, a single‐crystal semiconductor ingot is first grown. Wafers are then sliced from the ingot. The layout is printed onto the dice in each wafer. In the initial step of chip fabrication, the active regions or wells for the NMOS and PMOS transistors are first formed at the substrate. In order to separate the transistors, an oxide layer is subsequently deposited in between each neighbouring well. Transistors are then built at each active region. The primary processes to form a transistor include the growth of the gate oxide layer, the deposition of the poly‐gate, and the doping of the source and drain regions. In the final fabrication step, the transistors are interconnected in accordance to the layout of the design. In a nutshell, the process of chip fabrication can be broadly separated into four stages: (i) well formation, (ii) device isolation, (iii) transistor making and (iv) interconnection [13]. Although the walkthrough may appear straight forward, it is, in practical, complicated and laborious. To fabricate a VLSI chip, the die has to undergo repetitive thermal processes (such as oxidation, diffusion, annealing, etc.), lithography, ion implantation, etch, dielectric film deposition (such as chemical vapour deposition or CVD), chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) and metallization [13].
7. IC packaging
To protect the chip from harsh external environment (e.g. being exposed to UV light or moisture or being scratched), it is essential to encapsulate the chip in a package. The three most commonly used techniques for packaging are (i) wirebonding, (ii) flip‐chip and (iii) tape‐automated bonding (TAB) [4]. Once the chip is carefully packaged, it is then ready to be released to the market.
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Tunku Abdul Rahman University, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Barat, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
Tunku Abdul Rahman University, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Barat, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
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1. Introduction
Solar energy is one of the primary sources in the field of green and pure energy that points to the power predicament and climate change task. Solar energy consumption is an ecological reconciliation, and then, the chemical change in solar is presence exhaustive, considered throughout global [1, 2]. In general, solar energy is renewed into a wide range of developments, such as degradation of organic pollutants as photocatalysis, splitting of water molecules for producing clean energy, and reduction of CO2 gas [3, 4]. Consuming a similar perception, metal-oxide photocatalysis has also been widely examined for possible exertions in ecological restitution as well as the photodegradation and elimination of organic toxins in the aquatic system [5, 6], decrease of bacterial inactivation [7, 8, 9], and heavy metal ions [10, 11, 12]. Throughout the earlier few years, excellent applications have been dedicated to evolving well-organized, less expensive, and substantial photocatalysts, particularly those that can become active under visible light such as NaLaTiO6, Ag3PO4/BaTiO3, Pt/SrTiO3, SrTiO3-TiN, noble-metal-SrTiO3 composites, GdCoO3, orthorhombic perovskites LnVO3 and Ln1−xTixVO3 (Ln = Ce, Pr, and Nd), Ca0.6Ho0.4MnO3, Ce-doped BaTiO3, fluorinated Bi2WO6, graphitic carbon nitride-Bi2WO6, BaZrO3−δ, CaCu3Ti4O12, [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24], graphene-doped perovskite materials, and nonmetal-doped perovskites [25]. Furthermore, directed to years extended exhaustive investigation exertions on the pursuit of innovative photocatalytic systems, particularly that can produce the overall spectrum of visible-light. Out of a vast assemblage of photocatalysts, perovskite or layered-type perovskite systems and its analogs include a better candidate for capable semiconductor-based photocatalysts due to their framework easiness and versatility, excellent photostability, and systematic photocatalytic nature. In general, the ideal perovskite structure is cubic, and the formula is ABO3. Where A is different metal cations having charge +1 or +2 or +3 nature and B site occupies with tri or tetra and pentavalent nature, which covers the whole family of perovskite oxide materials by sensibly various metal ions at A and B locations [26], aside from a perfect cubic perovskite system, basic alteration perhaps persuaded by several cations exchange. Such framework alteration could undoubtedly vary the photophysical, optical, and photocatalytic activities of primary oxides.
Moreover, a sequence of layered-type perovskite materials contains many 2D blocks of the ABO3 framework, which are parted by fixed blocks. The scope of formulating multicomponent perovskite systems by whichever fractional change of cations in A and B or both positions or injecting perovskite oxides into a layered-type framework agrees scientists investigate and control the framework of crystals and the correlated electronic and photocatalytic activities of the perovskites. So far, hundreds of various types of perovskite or perovskite-based catalysts have been published, and more outstandingly, some ABO3-related materials became renowned with “referred” accomplishment for catalytic activities. Thus, these systems (perovskite materials) have exposed highly capable of upcoming applications on the source of applying more attempts to them. While several outstanding reviews mean that explained that perovskites performed as photocatalyst for degradation of organic pollutants [27, 28, 29, 30], only an insufficient of them content consideration to inorganic perovskite (mostly ABO3-related) photocatalysts [31, 32, 33]. A wide range of tagging and complete attention of perovskite materials, for example, layered-type perovskite acting as photocatalysts, is relatively deficient. The purpose of this book chapter is to precise the current progress of perovskite-based photocatalysts for ecological reparation, deliberate current results, and development on perovskite oxides as catalysts, and allow a view on the upcoming investigation of perovskite materials. After a short outline on the wide-ranging structure of perovskite oxides, it was stated that perovskites act as a photocatalyst that are incorporated, arranged and explored based on preparation methods [29, 34], photophysical properties based on bandgap energies, morphology-based framework and the photocatalytic activities depends on either UV or visible light energy of the semiconducting materials. Finally, this chapter is based on the current advancement and expansion of perovskite photocatalytic applications under solar energy consumption. The potential utilization, new tasks, and the research pathway will be accounted for the final part of the chapter [35].
2. Results and discussion
2.1 Details of perovskite oxide materials
2.1.1 Perovskite frameworks
The standard system of perovskite-based materials could be designated as ABO3, where the A and B are cations with 12-fold coordinated and 6-fold coordinated to concerning oxygen anions. Figure 1a describes the typically coordinated basic of the ABO3 system, which consists of a 3D system, BO6 octahedra as located at corner, and at the center, A cation are occupied. Within the ABO3 system, the A cation usually is group I and II or a lanthanide metal, whereas the B is commonly a transition metal ion. The tolerance factor (t) = 1 calculated by using an equation t = (rA + rO)/ √ 2 (rB + rO), where rO, rA, and rB are the radii of respective ions A and B and oxygen elements for a cubic crystal structure ABO3 perovskite system [36].
Figure 1.
Both crystal and layered type perovskite oxides (blue small balls: A-site element; dark blue squares: BO6 octahedra with green and red balls are oxygen).
For constituting a stable perovskite, it is typically the range of t value present in between 0.75 and 1.0. The lower value of t builds a somewhat slanted perovskite framework with rhombohedral or orthorhombic symmetry. In the case of t, it is approximately 1; then, perovskite structure is an ideal cubic system at high temperatures. Even though the value of t, obtained by the size of metal ion, is a significant guide for the permanency of perovskite systems, the factor of octahedral (u) u = rB/rO and the role of the metal ions composition of A and B atoms and the coordination number of respective metals are considered [37]. Given the account of those manipulating factors and the electro-neutrality, the ABO3 perovskite can hold a broad variety of sets of A and B by equal or dissimilar oxidation states and ionic radii. Moreover, the replacement of A or B as well as both the cations could be partly by the doping of various elements, to range the ABO3 perovskite into a wide-ranging family of Am1A1−m1B1nB1−n1 O3±δ [38]. The replacement of several cations into the either A or B positions could modify the structure of the original system and therefore improve the photocatalytic activities [23]. After various metal ions in perovskite oxide are doped, the optical and electronic band positions, which influence the high impact on the photocatalytic process, are modified [24].
2.1.2 Layered perovskite-related systems
Moreover, to the overall ABO3 system, further characteristic polymorphs of the perovskite system are Brownmillerite (BM) (A2B2O5) framework [39]. BM is a type of oxygen-deficient perovskite, in which the unit cell is a system of well-organized BO4 and BO6 units. The coordination number of cations occupied by A-site was decreased to eight because of the oxygen deficiency. Perovskite (ABO3) oxides have three dissimilar ionic groups, construction for varied and possibly useful imperfection chemistry. Moreover, the partial replacement of A and B ions is permitted even though conserving the perovskite system and shortages of cations at the A-site or of oxygen anions are common [40]. The Ion-exchange method is used for the replacement of existing metal ions with similar sized or dissimilar oxidation states; then, imperfections can be announced into the system. The imperfection concentrations of perovskites could be led by doping of different cations [24]. Oxygen ion interstitials or vacancies could be formed by the replacement of B-position cations with higher or lower valence, respectively, fabricating new compounds of AB(1−m)BmIO3−δ [41]. A typical oxygen-deficient perovskite system is Brownmillerite (A2B2O5), in which one part of six oxygen atoms is eliminated. Moreover, the replacement of exciting a site cation to new cation with higher oxidation state metal ions then the formed new materials with new framework with different stoichiometry is A1−mAmIBO3 [41]. In the case of the replacement of A-site ions with smaller oxidation state cations, consequences in oxygen-deficient materials with new framework such as A1−mAmIBO3−x are developed. Thermodynamically, the replacement of B-position vacancies in perovskite systems is not preferable due to the compact size and the high charge of B cations [42]. A-position vacancies are more detected due to the BO3 range in perovskite system forms a stable network [43]; the 12 coordinated sites can be partly absent due to bigger-size A cations. Lately, presenting suitable imperfections on top of the surface of perovskite oxides has been thoroughly examined as a means of varying the bands’ position and optical properties of the starting materials. For this reason, perovskite materials afford a tremendous objective for imperfection originating to vary the photocatalytic activity of perovskite material-based photocatalysts [44].
The typical formula for the furthermost recognized layered perovskite materials is designated as An+1BnO3n+1 or A2IAn−1BnO3n+1 (Ruddlesden-Popper (RP) phase), AI[An−1BnO3n+1] (Dion-Jacobson (DJ) phase) for {100} series, (AnBnO3n+2) for {110} series and (An+1BnO3n+3) for {111}, and (Bi2O2)(An−1BnO3n+1) (Aurivillius phase) series. In these systems, n represents the number of BO6 octahedra that duration a layer, which describes the width of the layer. Typical samples of these layered systems are revealed in Figure 1c–g. For RP phases, their frameworks consist of AIO as the spacing layer for the intergrowth ABO3 system. These materials hold fascinating properties such as ferroelectricity, superconductivity, magnetoresistance, and photocatalytic activity. Sr2SnO4 and Li2CaTa2O7 systems are materials of simple RP kind photocatalysts. A common formula for DJ phase is AI[An−1BnO3n+1] (n > 1), where AI splits the perovskite-type slabs and is characteristically a monovalent alkali cation. The typical DJ kind photocatalysts are RbLnTa2O7 (n = 2) and KCa2Nb3O10 (n = 3). Associates of the AnBnO3n+2 and An+1BnO3n+3 structural sequences with dissimilar layered alignments have also been recognized in some photocatalysts like Sr2Ta2O7 and Sr5Ta4O15 (n = 4). For Aurivillius phases, their frameworks are constructed by one after another fluctuating layers of [Bi2O2]2+ and virtual perovskite blocks. Bi2WO6 and BiMoO6 (n = 1), found as the primary ferroelectric nature for Aurivillius materials, lately have been extensively investigated as visible light photocatalysts.
2.2 Perovskite systems for photocatalysis
A broad array of perovskite photocatalysts have been advanced for organic pollutant degradation in the presence of ultraviolet or visible-light-driven through the last two decades [45]. These typical examples and brief investigational consequences on perovskites are concise giving to their systems, then perovskite materials categorized into six groups. Precisely, ABO3-type perovskites, AAIBO3, AIABO3, ABBIO3 and AB(ON)3-type perovskites, and AAIBBIIO3-type perovskites are listed in Table 1.
NaTaO3 has been a standard perovskite material for a well-organized UV-light photocatalyst for degradation of organic pollutants and production of H2 and O2 through water splitting [46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. It can be prepared by various methods such as solid-state [46, 47, 48, 53, 56], hydrothermal [49, 52, 54, 55], molten salt [57] and sol-gel [50, 51] and with wide bandgap of 4.0 eV. In order to enhance the surface area of NaTaO3 bulk material, many investigators tried to use further synthetic ways to make nanosized particles as an additional study on the NaTaO3 photocatalyst for degradation of organic pollutants. Kondo et al. prepared a colloidal range of NaTaO3 nanoparticles consuming three-dimensional mesoporous carbon as a pattern, which was pretend by the colloidal arrangement of silica nanospheres. After calcining the mesoporous carbon matrix, a colloidal arrangement of NaTaO3 nanoparticles with a range of 20 nm and a surface area of 34 m2 g−1 was attained. C-doped NaTaO3 material was tested for degradation of NOx under UV light [36]. Several titanates such as BaTiO3 [58, 59, 60], Rh or Fe-doped BaTiO3 [61, 62], CaTiO3 [63, 64] and Cu [65], Rh [66], Ag and La-doped CaTiO3 [67], and PbTiO3 [68, 69] were also described as UV or visible light photocatalysts. Magnetic BiFeO3, recognized as the one of the multi-ferric perovskite materials in magnetoelectric properties, was also examined as a visible light photocatalyst for photodegradation of organic pollutants because of small bandgap energy (2.2 eV) [70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79]. In a previous account, BiFeO3 with a bandgap of around 2.18 eV produced by a citric acid-supported sol-gel technique has revealed its visible-light-driven photocatalytic study by the disintegration of methyl orange dye [70]. The subsequent investigations on BiFeO3 are primarily concentrated on the synthesis of new framework BiFeO3 with various morphologies. For instance, Lin and Nan et al. prepared BiFeO3 unvarying microspheres and microcubes by a using hydrothermal technique as revealed in Figure 2 [73].
The bandgap energies of BiFeO3 compounds were found to be about 1.82 eV for BiFeO3 microspheres and 2.12–2.27 eV for microcubes. This indicated that the absorption edge was moved toward the longer wavelength that is influenced by the crystal-field strength, particle size, and morphology. The microcube material showed the maximum photocatalytic degradation performance of congo red dye under visible-light irradiation due to the quite low bandgap energy. Further, a simplistic aerosol-spraying method was established for the synthesis of mesoporous BiFeO3 hollow spheres with improved activity for the photodegradation of RhB dye and 4-chlorophenol, because of improved light absorbance ensuing from various light reflections in a hollow chamber and a very high surface area [71]. Moreover, a unusually improved water oxidation property on Au nanoparticle-filled BiFeO3 nanowires under visible-light-driven was described [77]. The Au-BiFeO3 hybrid system was encouraged by the electrostatic contact of negatively charged Au nanoparticles and positively charged BiFeO3 nanowires at pH 6.0 giving to their various isoelectric points. An improved absorbance between 500 and 600 nm was found for Au/BiFeO3 systems because of the characteristic Au surface plasmon band existing visible light region then which greater influenced in the photodegradation of organic pollutants. Also, the study of photoluminescence supported improvement of the photocatalytic property due to the effective charge transfer from BiFeO3 to Au. Even though Ba, Ca, Mn, and Gd-doped BiFeO3 nanomaterials have exhibited noticeable photocatalytic property for the degradation of dyes [80, 81, 82, 83, 84], several nano-based LaFeO3 with various morphologies such as nanoparticles, nanorods, nanotubes, nanosheets, and nanospheres have also been synthesized for visible light photocatalysts for degradation of organic dyes [85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93]. Sodium bismuth titanate (Bi0.5Na0.5TiO3) has been extensively used for ferroelectric and piezoelectric devices. It was also investigated as a UV-light photocatalyst with a bandgap energy of 3.0 eV [94, 95, 96, 97]. Hierarchical micro/nanostructured Bi0.5Na0.5TiO3 was produced by in situ self-assembly of Bi0.5Na0.5TiO3 nanocrystals under precise hydrothermal conditions, through the evolution mechanism was examined in aspect means that during which the growth mechanism was studied [95]. It was anticipated that the hierarchical nanostructure was assembled through a method of nucleation and growth and accumulation of nanoparticles and following in situ dissolution-recrystallization of the microsphere type nanoparticles with extended heating period and enhanced temperature or basic settings. The 3D hierarchical Bi0.5Na0.5TiO3 showed very high photocatalytic activity for the decomposition of methyl orange dye because of the adsorption of dye molecules and bigger surface area. The properties of Bi0.5Na0.5TiO3 were also assessed by photocatalytic degradation of nitric oxide in the gas phase [95]. La0.7Sr0.3MnO3, acting as a photocatalyst, was examined for solar light-based photocatalytic decomposition of methyl orange [96, 97, 98]. In addition, La0.5Ca0.5NiO3 [99], La0.5Ca0.5CoO3−δ [100], and Sr1−xBaxSnO3 (x = 0–1) [101] nanoparticles were synthesized for revealing improved photocatalytic degradation of dyes. A-site strontium-based perovskites such as SrTi1−xFexO3−δ, SrTi0.1Fe0.9O3−δ, SrNb0.5Fe0.5O3, and SrCo0.5Fe0.5O3−δ compounds were prepared through solid-state reaction and sol-gel approaches, and were examined for the degradation of organic pollutants under visible light irradiation [102, 103, 104, 105]. Also, some other researchers modified A-site with lanthanum-based perovskites such as LaNi1−xCuxO3 and LaFe0.5Ti0.5O3 were confirmed as effective visible light photocatalysts for the photodegradation of p-chlorophenol [91, 106, 107]. The other ABBIO3 kind photocatalysts with Ca(TiZr)O3 [108], Ba(ZrSn)O3 [109], Na(BiTa)O3 [110], Na(TiCu)O3 [111], Bi(MgFeTi)O3 [112], and Ag(TaNb)O3 [113] have also been studied. Related to AAIBO3-type perovskites, the ABBIO3 kind system means that BI-site substitution by a different cation is another option for tuning the physicochemical or photocatalytic properties of perovskites materials as photocatalyst, due to typically the B-position cations in ABO3 mostly regulate the position of the conduction band, moreover to construct the structure of perovskite system with oxygen atoms. The band positions of photocatalyst can be magnificently modified by sensibly coalescing dual or ternary metal cations at the B-position, or changing the ratio of several cations, which has been fine verified by the various materials as mentioned above. More studies on ABBIO3 kind of photocatalysts are projected to show their new exhilarating photocatalytic efficiency.
The mesoporous nature of LaTiO2N of photocatalyst attended due to thermal ammonolysis process of La2Ti2O7 precursor from polymer complex obtained from the solid-state reaction. The oxynitride analysis revealed that the pore size and shape, lattice defects and local defects, and oxidation states’ local analysis related between morphology and photocatalytic activity were reported by Pokrant et al. [114]. Due to the high capability of accommodating an extensive array of cations and valences at both A- and B-sites, ABO3-kind perovskite materials are capable materials for fabricating solid-solution photocatalysts. On the other hand, equally the A and B cations can be changed by corresponding cations subsequent in a perovskite with the formula of (ABO3)x(AIBIO3)1−x. Additional solid solution examples with CaZrO3–CaTaO2N [115], SrTiO3–LaTiO2N [116], La0.8Ba0.2Fe0.9Mn0.1O3−x [117], Na1−xLaxFe1−xTaxO3 [118], Na0.5La0.5TiO3–LaCrO3 [119], Cu-(Sr1−yNay)-(Ti1−xMox)O3 [120], Na1−xLaxTa1−xCrxO3 [121], BiFeO3–(Na0.5Bi0.5)TiO3 [122], and Sr1−xBixTi1−xCrxO3 [123] have been used as photocatalysts for splitting of water molecules under visible light.
2.4 Photocatalytic activity of layered perovskite materials
In the general formula of the RP phase, An−1A2IBnO3n+1, A and AI are alkali, alkaline earth, or rare earth metals, respectively, while B states to transition metals. A and AI cations are placed in the perovskite layer and boundary with 12-fold cuboctahedral and 9-fold coordination to the anions, respectively, whereas B cations are sited inside the perovskite system with anionic squares, octahedra, and pyramids. The tantalum-based RP phase materials have been examined as photocatalysts for degradation of organic pollutants under UV light irradiation conditions; such materials are K2Sr1.5Ta3O10 [124], Li2CaTa2O7 [125], H1.81Sr0.81Bi0.19Ta2O7 [126], and N-alkyl chain inserted H2CaTa2O7 [127]. A series of various metals and N-doped perovskite materials were synthesized, such as Sn, Cr, Zn, V, Fe, Ni, W, and N-doped K2La2Ti3O10, for photocatalysis studies under UV and visible light irradiation [128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133]. Still, only Sn-doping efficiently decreased the bandgap energy of K2La2Ti3O10 from 3.6 eV to 2.7 eV. The bandgap energy of N-doped K2La2Ti3O10 was measured to be around 3.4 eV. Additional RP phase kind titanates like Sr2SnO4 [134], Sr3Ti2O7 [135], Cr-doped Sr2TiO4 [136], Sr4Ti3O10 [137], Na2Ca2Nb4O13 [138], and Rh- and Ln-doped Ca3Ti2O7 [139] have also been examined. Bi2WO6 (2.8 eV) shows very high oxygen evolution efficacy than Bi2MoO6 (3.0 eV) from aqueous AgNO3 solution under visible-light-driven. Because of the appropriate bandgap energy, comparatively elevated photocatalytic performance, and good constancy, Bi2MO6 materials have been thoroughly examined as the Aurivillius phase kind that acts as photocatalysts under visible light. In this connection, hundreds of publications associated to the Bi2MoO6 and Bi2WO6 act as photocatalysts so far reported. Most of the investigations in the reports are concentrated on the synthesis of various nanostructured Bi2MoO6 and Bi2WO6 as well as nanofibers, nanosheets, ordered arrays, hollow spheres, hierarchical architectures, inverse opals, and nanoplates, etc., by various synthesis techniques like solvothermal, hydrothermal, electrospinning, molten salt, thermal evaporation deposition, and microwave. All these methods of hydrothermal process have been frequently working for the controlled sizes, shapes, and morphologies of the particles. The photocatalytic properties of these perovskite materials are mostly examined by the photodegradation of organic pollutants. Moreover, the investigations on the simple Bi2MoO6 and Bi2WO6, doped with various metals and nonmetals such as Zn, Er, Mo, Zr, Gd, W, F, and N, into Bi2MoO6 and Bi2WO6 was studied for increasing the photocatalytic performance under visible light. Therefore, these Bi2MO6-based photocatalysts is not specified here, due to further full deliberations that can be shown in many reviews [140, 141, 142].
ABi2Nb2O9 where A is Ca, Sr, Ba and Pb is other type of the AL-like layered perovskite material [143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150]. The bandgap energy of PbBi2Nb2O9 is 2.88 eV and originally described as an undoped with single-phase layered-type perovskite material used as photocatalyst employed under visible light irradiation [144]. Bi5FeTi3O15 is also Aurivillius (AL) type multi-layered nanostructured perovskite material with a low bandgap energy (2.1 eV) and also shows photocatalytic activity under visible light [151, 152]. Mostly, these materials were synthesized using the hydrothermal method that has been frequently working for the controlled shapes such as flower-like hierarchical morphology, nanoplate-based, and the complete advance process from nanonet-based to nanoplate-based micro-flowers was shown. The photocatalytic activity of Bi5FeTi3O15 was studied by the degradation of rhodamine B and acetaldehyde under visible light [151]. The La substituted Bi5−xLaxTi3FeO15 (x = 1, 2) Al-type layered materials were synthesized through hydrothermal method and these materials were used for photodegradation of rhodamine B under solar-light irradiation [153]. Among all AL-type perovskite materials, only PbBi2Nb2O9, Bi2MO6 (M = W or Mo), and Bi5Ti3FeO15 are very high photocatalytic active under visible-light-driven due to low bandgap energy and photostability. Another type of layered perovskite material is Dion-Jacobson phase (DJ), a simple example is CsBa2M3O10 (M = Ta, Nb) and oxynitride crystals used for degradation of caffeine from wastewater under UVA- and visible-light-driven [154]. Similarly, another DJ phase material such means Dion–Jacobsen (DJ) as CsM2Nb3O10 (M = Ba and Sr) and also doped with nitrogen used for photocatalysts for degradation of methylene blue [155]. Zhu et al. prepared tantalum-based {111}-layered type of perovskite material such as Ba5Ta4O15 from hydrothermal method, which has been frequently employed for the controlled shape like hexagonal structure with nanosheets and used as photocatalyst for photodegradation of rhodamine B and gaseous formaldehyde [156]. Pola et al. synthesized a layered-type perovskite material constructed on AIAIITi2O6 (AI = Na or Ag or Cu and AII = La) structure for the photodegradation of several organic pollutants and industrial wastewater under visible-light-driven [157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162].
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to thank DST-FIST schemes and CSIR, New Delhi. One of us (Ramesh Gade) thanks Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi, for the award of Junior Research Fellowship.
Thanks
I am thankful to Department of Chemistry, University College of Science, Osmania University, for their continuous attention in this study and useful discussions, and to Prof. B. Manohar for her support in working on the chapter.
\n',keywords:"layered-type perovskite materials, photocatalysis, photodegradation, organic pollutants",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71650.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71650.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71650",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71650",totalDownloads:927,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 30th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 3rd 2020",datePublished:"January 27th 2021",dateFinished:"April 3rd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The advancement and the use of visible energy in ecological reparation and photodegradation of organic pollutants are being extensively investigated worldwide. Through the last two decades, great exertions have been dedicated to emerging innocuous, economical, well-organized and photostable photocatalysts for ecofriendly reparation. So far, many photocatalysts mostly based on ternary metal oxides and doped with nonmetals and metals with various systems and structures have been described. Among them, perovskite materials and their analogs (layer-type perovskites) include an emerged as semiconductor-based photocatalysts due to their flexibility and simple synthesis processes. This book chapter precisely concentrates on the overall of related perovskite materials and their associated systems; precisely on the current progress of perovskites that acts as photocatalysts and ecofriendly reparation; explores the synthesis methods and morphologies of perovskite materials; and reveals the significant tasks and outlooks on the investigation of perovskite photocatalytic applications.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71650",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71650",signatures:"Someshwar Pola and Ramesh Gade",book:{id:"9881",type:"book",title:"Perovskite and Piezoelectric Materials",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Perovskite and Piezoelectric Materials",slug:"perovskite-and-piezoelectric-materials",publishedDate:"January 27th 2021",bookSignature:"Someshwar Pola, Neeraj Panwar and Indrani Coondoo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9881.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-666-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-665-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-678-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"177037",title:"Dr.",name:"Someshwar",middleName:null,surname:"Pola",slug:"someshwar-pola",fullName:"Someshwar Pola"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"177037",title:"Dr.",name:"Someshwar",middleName:null,surname:"Pola",fullName:"Someshwar Pola",slug:"someshwar-pola",email:"somesh.pola@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177037/images/system/177037.jpg",institution:{name:"Osmania University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Details of perovskite oxide materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Perovskite frameworks",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Layered perovskite-related systems",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2 Perovskite systems for photocatalysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.3 Photocatalytic properties perovskite oxides",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.4 Photocatalytic activity of layered perovskite materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Thanks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Barbara DA, Jared JS, Tyson AB, William WA. Insights from placing photosynthetic light harvesting into context. Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 2014;5:2880-2889'},{id:"B2",body:'von Erika S, Paul SM, James DA, Lori B, Piers F, David F, et al. Chemistry and the linkages between air quality and climate change. 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New Journal of Chemistry. 2016;40:8614-8624'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Someshwar Pola",address:"somesh.pola@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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Department of Chemistry, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. 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Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"55521",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68958",title:"The Impact of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes on Agriculture and Methods of Control",slug:"the-impact-of-plant-parasitic-nematodes-on-agriculture-and-methods-of-control",totalDownloads:6128,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:72,abstract:"Plant-parasitic nematodes are costly burdens of crop production. Ubiquitous in nature, phytoparasitic nematodes are associated with nearly every important agricultural crop and represent a significant constraint on global food security. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) cyst nematodes (Heterodera and Globodera spp.) and lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) rank at the top of list of the most economically and scientifically important species due to their intricate relationship with the host plants, wide host range, and the level of damage ensued by infection. Limitations on the use of chemical pesticides have brought increasing interest in studies on alternative methods of nematode control. Among these strategies of nonchemical nematode management is the identification and implementation of host resistance. In addition, nematode genes involved in parasitism represent key targets for the development of control through gene silencing methods such as RNA interference. Recently, transcriptome profiling analyses has been used to distinguish nematode resistant and susceptible genotypes and identify the specific molecular components and pathways triggered during the plant immune response to nematode invasion. This summary highlights the importance of plant-parasitic nematodes in agriculture and the molecular events involved in plant-nematode interactions.",book:{id:"6019",slug:"nematology-concepts-diagnosis-and-control",title:"Nematology",fullTitle:"Nematology - Concepts, Diagnosis and Control"},signatures:"Gregory C. Bernard, Marceline Egnin and Conrad Bonsi",authors:[{id:"203575",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Bernard",slug:"gregory-bernard",fullName:"Gregory Bernard"}]},{id:"55761",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69403",title:"Methods and Tools Currently Used for the Identification of Plant Parasitic Nematodes",slug:"methods-and-tools-currently-used-for-the-identification-of-plant-parasitic-nematodes",totalDownloads:3785,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Plant parasitic nematodes are one of the limiting factors for production of major crops worldwide. Overall, they cause an estimated annual crop loss of $78 billion worldwide and an average 10–15% crop yield losses. This imposes a challenge to sustainable production of food worldwide. Unsustainable cropping production with monocultures, intensive planting, and expansion of crops to newly opened areas has increased problems associated with nematodes. Thus, finding sustainable methods to control these pathogens is in current need. The correct diagnosis of nematode species is essential for choosing proper control methods and meaningful research. Morphology-based nematode taxonomy has been challenging due to intraspecific variation in characters. Alternatively, tools and methods based on biochemical and molecular markers have allowed successful diagnosis for a wide number of nematode species. Although these new methods have been useful due to their practical, fast, accuracy, and cost effective, the use of integrative diagnose, combining morphology, biochemical and molecular data is more appropriate when necessary to strength diagnose, define species boundaries, and to have a more suitable molecular database for nematode species. Here, we report a review on current methods and tools used to identify plant parasitic nematodes.",book:{id:"6019",slug:"nematology-concepts-diagnosis-and-control",title:"Nematology",fullTitle:"Nematology - Concepts, Diagnosis and Control"},signatures:"Regina Maria Dechechi Gomes Carneiro, Fábia Silva de Oliveira\nLima and Valdir Ribeiro Correia",authors:[{id:"191564",title:"Dr.",name:"Fábia",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"fabia-lima",fullName:"Fábia Lima"},{id:"191758",title:"Dr.",name:"Valdir",middleName:null,surname:"Correa",slug:"valdir-correa",fullName:"Valdir Correa"}]},{id:"55770",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69164",title:"Harnessing Useful Rhizosphere Microorganisms for Nematode Control",slug:"harnessing-useful-rhizosphere-microorganisms-for-nematode-control",totalDownloads:2158,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Nematodes are very diverse and parasitize various plants including vegetables, and their management is of concern. Biological control of nematodes provides an environmentally friendly management option and there are various micro‐soil‐borne organisms which can be considered for this purpose. The primary goal of this chapter is to provide a review on the progress made so far, in application of biological control agents in nematode management in vegetables, cereals, and root and tuber crops. This chapter will be divided into five (5) sections: (1) herbivore‐induced plant volatiles, (2) root exudates and nematode control, (3) inhibitory metabolites in bacteria for nematode management, (4) fungi and symbiotic reprogramming in host cells, and (5) fungi antagonists of nematodes.",book:{id:"6019",slug:"nematology-concepts-diagnosis-and-control",title:"Nematology",fullTitle:"Nematology - Concepts, Diagnosis and Control"},signatures:"Seloame Tatu Nyaku, Antoine Affokpon, Agyemang Danquah and\nFrancis Collison Brentu",authors:[{id:"182528",title:"Dr.",name:"Seloame Tatu",middleName:null,surname:"Nyaku",slug:"seloame-tatu-nyaku",fullName:"Seloame Tatu Nyaku"},{id:"204222",title:"Dr.",name:"Antoine",middleName:null,surname:"Affokpon",slug:"antoine-affokpon",fullName:"Antoine Affokpon"},{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"204224",title:"Dr.",name:"Collison",middleName:null,surname:"Brentu",slug:"collison-brentu",fullName:"Collison Brentu"}]},{id:"55809",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69512",title:"Assessing the Viability and Degeneration of the Medically Important Filarial Nematodes",slug:"assessing-the-viability-and-degeneration-of-the-medically-important-filarial-nematodes",totalDownloads:1397,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The assessment of nematodes as they generate and die is not a simple thing to do due in part to the complexity of the organism, and the fact that still relatively little is known about their physiology and internal biology. Indeed, the pathological changes in the internal organs of the worms are still only recognized in general terms. Obviously dead worms are easily recognized (when fractured, or calcified, etc.) but the lesser obvious changes can be difficult to detect and interpret. The point at which a worm can be defined as dead is not a simple matter; cessation of motility is currently the most commonly used parameter for this but it is not always a robust indicator and better indicators are needed. Various methods can be used to assess the presence, viability, and functionality of nematodes but these must be used with an understanding of the situation at hand and the specific questions being addressed. Careful use of appropriate statistics is essential given the complex nature of the target organism and the variability in the changes that can be seen within even one anatomical component of these worms. Histological assessment of the parasites present in both parasitized host tissues and isolated worms used in in vitro experiments can provide information that gives a more detailed understanding of the changes in nematodes as they degenerate and die. Understanding of the pathways nematodes follows as they degenerate naturally or under various external pressures, such as chemotherapy, remains a fascinating and potentially productive goal for investigation. Likewise, a complete understanding and definition of specific indicators that reflect parasite load, parasite viability, and damage, or reduced fecundity, will greatly help the fight against those nematode infections that currently cause significant burdens of disease in humans and animals.",book:{id:"6019",slug:"nematology-concepts-diagnosis-and-control",title:"Nematology",fullTitle:"Nematology - Concepts, Diagnosis and Control"},signatures:"Charles D. Mackenzie, Ashley Behan‐Braman, Joe Hauptman and\nTimothy Geary",authors:[{id:"201692",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Mackenzie",slug:"charles-mackenzie",fullName:"Charles Mackenzie"},{id:"204538",title:"MSc.",name:"Ashley",middleName:null,surname:"Braman",slug:"ashley-braman",fullName:"Ashley Braman"},{id:"204539",title:"Dr.",name:"Roger",middleName:null,surname:"Hauptman",slug:"roger-hauptman",fullName:"Roger Hauptman"},{id:"204540",title:"Prof.",name:"Timothy",middleName:null,surname:"Geary",slug:"timothy-geary",fullName:"Timothy Geary"}]},{id:"56369",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69861",title:"Searching for Better Methodologies for Successful Control of Termites Using Entomopathogenic Nematodes",slug:"searching-for-better-methodologies-for-successful-control-of-termites-using-entomopathogenic-nematod",totalDownloads:2154,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Termites are social insects reported from many countries of the world. Some species of them are known to be beneficial to man, whereas some others cause substantial losses (billions of US dollars annually) of properties and amenities. Various preventive and remedial methods are used to control undesirable termite species. The current review paper gives an overview of beneficial and detrimental activities of termites. Methods of control of undesirable species of termites are given and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. We emphasized on the use of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) as effective, environmentally safe and sustainable biological control method against termites. Species of EPNs recovered in Africa are documented. Some techniques used to collect termites and to maintain them for experiments and also to propagate, to formulate, to store, and to check for the quality of EPNs for application in the laboratory and in the field are also discussed. The environmental factors affecting the potential of EPNs to control termites are discussed. The information provided in this chapter will help researchers to enhance their skills of the use of EPNs against termites by selecting from the methodologies described here the best ones to adapt to particular experimental conditions, especially in African soil conditions.",book:{id:"6019",slug:"nematology-concepts-diagnosis-and-control",title:"Nematology",fullTitle:"Nematology - Concepts, Diagnosis and Control"},signatures:"Hugues Baïmey, Lionel Zadji, Léonard Afouda, André Fanou, Régina\nKotchofa and Wilfrieda Decraemer",authors:[{id:"201690",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugues",middleName:null,surname:"Kossi Baimey",slug:"hugues-kossi-baimey",fullName:"Hugues Kossi Baimey"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55521",title:"The Impact of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes on Agriculture and Methods of Control",slug:"the-impact-of-plant-parasitic-nematodes-on-agriculture-and-methods-of-control",totalDownloads:6131,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:72,abstract:"Plant-parasitic nematodes are costly burdens of crop production. Ubiquitous in nature, phytoparasitic nematodes are associated with nearly every important agricultural crop and represent a significant constraint on global food security. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) cyst nematodes (Heterodera and Globodera spp.) and lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) rank at the top of list of the most economically and scientifically important species due to their intricate relationship with the host plants, wide host range, and the level of damage ensued by infection. Limitations on the use of chemical pesticides have brought increasing interest in studies on alternative methods of nematode control. Among these strategies of nonchemical nematode management is the identification and implementation of host resistance. In addition, nematode genes involved in parasitism represent key targets for the development of control through gene silencing methods such as RNA interference. Recently, transcriptome profiling analyses has been used to distinguish nematode resistant and susceptible genotypes and identify the specific molecular components and pathways triggered during the plant immune response to nematode invasion. This summary highlights the importance of plant-parasitic nematodes in agriculture and the molecular events involved in plant-nematode interactions.",book:{id:"6019",slug:"nematology-concepts-diagnosis-and-control",title:"Nematology",fullTitle:"Nematology - Concepts, Diagnosis and Control"},signatures:"Gregory C. Bernard, Marceline Egnin and Conrad Bonsi",authors:[{id:"203575",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Bernard",slug:"gregory-bernard",fullName:"Gregory Bernard"}]},{id:"55032",title:"Introductory Chapter: Nematodes - A Lesser Known Group of Organisms",slug:"introductory-chapter-nematodes-a-lesser-known-group-of-organisms",totalDownloads:2667,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"6019",slug:"nematology-concepts-diagnosis-and-control",title:"Nematology",fullTitle:"Nematology - Concepts, Diagnosis and Control"},signatures:"Mohammad Manjur Shah and Mohammad Mahamood",authors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"},{id:"202894",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mahamood",slug:"mohammad-mahamood",fullName:"Mohammad Mahamood"}]},{id:"77474",title:"Nematodes Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables Crops in India",slug:"nematodes-diseases-of-fruits-and-vegetables-crops-in-india",totalDownloads:294,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Nematodes are the most plentiful animals on earth, commonly found in soil or water, including oceans. Some species of nematodes are parasites of plants and animals. Plant-parasitic nematodes are non-segmented microscopic, eel-like round worms, obligate parasite possess stylets that live in soil causing damage to plants by feeding on roots or plant tissues. Plant-parasitic nematodes feed on roots, either within the root, some nematodes feed leaves. These nematodes cause breakdown of resistance to fungal diseases in fruit crops. Plant-parasitic nematodes living host tissue to feed on to grow and reproduce. Nematode life cycle consists of an egg, 4 pre-adult stages (juveniles) and an adult, life cycle depending on the species and the temperature. Nematodes do not move long distances (less than 6 inches per year). They are usually transported over long distances on machinery, in nursery stock, transplants, seeds, or by animals, moves soil, water and wind. They acquire nutrients from plant tissues by needle-like feeding structure (stylet/spear). Nematodes can be classified into three groups depending on feed on the plants such as ectoparasitic nematodes are always remaining outside the plant root tissues. Migratory endoparasitic nematodes move through root tissues sedentary endoparasitic nematodes penetrate young roots at or near the growing tip. They steal nutrients, disrupt water and mineral transport, and provide excellent sites for secondary pathogens (fungus and bactria) to invade the roots and decay. Several nematode species that cause problems in fruit orchards that are major limiting factors in fruit crop production cause extensive root necrosis resulting in serious economic losses. The root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.), burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis) and citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipentrans) are the major nematode pests that infect fruit crops. Parasitic nematodes that can damage tree fruit roots. Many kinds of nematodes have been reported in and around the roots of various fruit crops, only few are cause serious damage, including Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), Lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus species), Ring nematodes (Mesocriconema spp) are cigar-shaped that are strictly ectoparasitic, Dagger nematodes (Xiphinema spp) are relatively large ectoparasites that feed near root tips, Sting nematodes (Belonolaimus species) are ectoparasitic, Citrus nematodes (Tylenchulus semipenetrans) are sedentary semi-endoparasites. Nematodes reduce yield without the production of any noticeable above ground symptoms. Typical above ground symptoms of nematode infections stunting, yellowing and wilting. Major nematodes associated in large number of vegetables crops in India such as root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.), cyst nematodes (Heterodera spp.), lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus sp.), reniform nematodes (Rotylenchulus sp.) lance nematodes (Hoplolaimus spp.), stem and bulb nematode (Ditylenchus spp.) etc. Root-knot nematodes are important pests of vegetables belonging to solanaceous (brinjal, tomato, chili), cucurbitaceous (biter ground, cucumber, pumpkin, bottle gourd) leguminous (cowpea, bean, pea), cruciferous cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, brussels, sprout), okra and several other root and bulb crops (onion, garlic, lettuce, celery, carrot, radish). Four species (M. incognita, M. javanica, M. arenaria and M. hapla) are more than 95% of the root-knot nematode population worldwide distribution. Stem and Bulb nematode (Ditylenchus spp.) commonly attacks onion, garlic, potato, pea and carrot etc. The nematodes spread from one area to another mainly through infested planting materials, water drains from infested areas into irrigation system, soil that adheres to implements, tyres of motor vehicles and shoes of plantation workers. Management recommendation through bio-pesticides, cultural practices, enrichment of FYM, Neem cake and other organic amendments.",book:{id:"10745",slug:"nematodes-recent-advances-management-and-new-perspectives",title:"Nematodes",fullTitle:"Nematodes - Recent Advances, Management and New Perspectives"},signatures:"Amar Bahadur",authors:[{id:"353289",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Amar",middleName:null,surname:"Bahadur",slug:"amar-bahadur",fullName:"Amar Bahadur"}]},{id:"55761",title:"Methods and Tools Currently Used for the Identification of Plant Parasitic Nematodes",slug:"methods-and-tools-currently-used-for-the-identification-of-plant-parasitic-nematodes",totalDownloads:3788,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Plant parasitic nematodes are one of the limiting factors for production of major crops worldwide. Overall, they cause an estimated annual crop loss of $78 billion worldwide and an average 10–15% crop yield losses. This imposes a challenge to sustainable production of food worldwide. Unsustainable cropping production with monocultures, intensive planting, and expansion of crops to newly opened areas has increased problems associated with nematodes. Thus, finding sustainable methods to control these pathogens is in current need. The correct diagnosis of nematode species is essential for choosing proper control methods and meaningful research. Morphology-based nematode taxonomy has been challenging due to intraspecific variation in characters. Alternatively, tools and methods based on biochemical and molecular markers have allowed successful diagnosis for a wide number of nematode species. Although these new methods have been useful due to their practical, fast, accuracy, and cost effective, the use of integrative diagnose, combining morphology, biochemical and molecular data is more appropriate when necessary to strength diagnose, define species boundaries, and to have a more suitable molecular database for nematode species. Here, we report a review on current methods and tools used to identify plant parasitic nematodes.",book:{id:"6019",slug:"nematology-concepts-diagnosis-and-control",title:"Nematology",fullTitle:"Nematology - Concepts, Diagnosis and Control"},signatures:"Regina Maria Dechechi Gomes Carneiro, Fábia Silva de Oliveira\nLima and Valdir Ribeiro Correia",authors:[{id:"191564",title:"Dr.",name:"Fábia",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"fabia-lima",fullName:"Fábia Lima"},{id:"191758",title:"Dr.",name:"Valdir",middleName:null,surname:"Correa",slug:"valdir-correa",fullName:"Valdir Correa"}]},{id:"80094",title:"Plant Parasitic Nematodes: A Major Constraint in Fruit Production",slug:"plant-parasitic-nematodes-a-major-constraint-in-fruit-production",totalDownloads:106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The plant parasitic nematodes are one of the major limiting factors in fruit trees specially in citrus, banana, papaya, jackfruit, guava etc. The root knot nematodes are the major problem amongst all those nematodes infecting on these trees. Besides, directly causing a huge losses, they are also inviting the secondary plant pathogens, like fungi, bacteria, viruses etc. amongst which, the wilt fungus, Fusarium species increase the severity of the diseases. This complex disease is becoming much severe in banana and guava recent years. In citrus also, the citrus nematodes, Tylenchulus semipenetrans, is causing havoc by slow decline disease and it is becoming a major problem in horticultural nurseries because these nurseries are a hot spot of citrus nematodes. So, unknowingly these nematodes get spread to different places. The management of these nematodes by simple, cheap and eco friendly methods, is very important as it will decrease the monetary pressure on cultivators as well as it helps in improving environmental pollution.",book:{id:"10745",slug:"nematodes-recent-advances-management-and-new-perspectives",title:"Nematodes",fullTitle:"Nematodes - Recent Advances, Management and New Perspectives"},signatures:"Nishi Keshari and Gurram Mallikarjun",authors:[{id:"357008",title:"Dr.",name:"Nishi",middleName:null,surname:"Keshari",slug:"nishi-keshari",fullName:"Nishi Keshari"},{id:"439770",title:"Mr.",name:"Gurram",middleName:null,surname:"Mallikarjun",slug:"gurram-mallikarjun",fullName:"Gurram Mallikarjun"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"422",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"40",type:"subseries",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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