Summary table of biological effects of some FA and their implications in some pathologies.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6537",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Evolving Strategies in Peritoneal Dialysis",title:"Evolving Strategies in Peritoneal Dialysis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Evolving Strategies in Peritoneal Dialysis is intended as a concise compilation of articles designed to understand the basics of the current practice of the most cost-effective form of life support for patients with end-stage renal disease who require dialysis. Current strategies are understood best with a review of the historical development of catheter materials, solution packaging, and simplified machinery, which allow safe and effective nocturnal treatments. Quantitation of the efficacy of peritoneal dialysis is also reviewed because such calculations were also developed by the pioneers of nephrology to ensure adequacy of dialysis and daily fluid balance, which are responsible for the best chance for long-term patient survival. Comparison of methods for catheter placement is presented as well as the role that a dialysis center plays in the health and success of this form of end-stage renal disease patient care. The novel concept of assisted peritoneal dialysis for the infirm or institutionalized patients is probably the next direction needed to make available this treatment to many more patients than are currently eligible to receive it. This concept is explored in a separate chapter. Finally, professional dialysis staff must monthly assess individuals' nutritional status, bone health, and infection prevention and treatment to ensure the greatest functional status for these patients. This book concludes with a review of each of these topics to expand the mandatory monthly surveillance performed by dialysis centers for each patient who receives home peritoneal dialysis therapy.",isbn:"978-1-78923-533-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-532-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-537-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71213",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"evolving-strategies-in-peritoneal-dialysis",numberOfPages:114,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"76bb5dc2ce63f0026f7993b54f062861",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada, Jr.",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6537.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7089,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 25th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 15th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 14th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 4th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 3rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",middleName:null,surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/16344/images/system/16344.jpeg",biography:"Edward T. Zawada Jr. graduated summa cum laude from Loyola\nUniversity in 1969 and summa cum laude from Loyola-Stritch\nSchool of Medicine in 1973. He trained at the University of\nCalifornia at Los Angeles (UCLA) from 1973 to 1978. His faculty\npositions include UCLA, University of Utah, Medical College of\nVirginia, and University of South Dakota. Other positions include professor and chairman emeritus, Department of Internal\nMedicine, University of South Dakota, Sanford School of Medicine; and Bush Foundation of Minnesota Sabbatical Fellowship in Critical Care, Department of Anesthesiology at the University of Iowa in 2009. Dr. Zawada Jr. is board certified by the\nAmerican Board of Internal Medicine in Internal Medicine, Nephrology, Geriatrics, and Critical Care Medicine. Other board certifications include Nutrition and\nClinical Pharmacology. He is a Master of the American College of Physicians and\nFellow of the American College of Critical Care Medicine, the American Society of\nNephrology, the American Society of Hypertension, the American College of Chest\nPhysicians, the American College of Clinical Pharmacology, the American College\nof Nutrition, and the American Heart Association.",institutionString:"University of South Dakota",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of South Dakota",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1163",title:"Nephrology",slug:"nephrology"}],chapters:[{id:"60480",title:"Introductory Chapter: Peritoneal Dialysis, Overview and Current Concepts",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75627",slug:"introductory-chapter-peritoneal-dialysis-overview-and-current-concepts",totalDownloads:827,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Edward T. Zawada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60480",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60480",authors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],corrections:null},{id:"60974",title:"Techniques for Peritoneal Dialysis Catheter Placement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75355",slug:"techniques-for-peritoneal-dialysis-catheter-placement",totalDownloads:1217,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes the peritoneal dialysis (PD) catheter implantation techniques. It will also discuss the merits and demerits of each technique, catheter types as well as the PD catheter-related complications. Several techniques and modifications have been described for the insertion of the catheter into the abdominal cavity. We will describe the currently available catheter designs which come in a variety of shapes (straight, pigtail-curled, swan-neck), length and number of Dacron cuffs for optimal ingrowth and fixation and insertion techniques with its early and late complications. These techniques include open surgical, laparoscopic and percutaneous techniques. The strategy for an optimal catheter implantation together with the preventive and therapeutic means for complicated treatment will be discussed.",signatures:"Stephen Akau Kache, Danjuma Sale and Jerry Godfrey Makama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60974",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60974",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"60272",title:"Assisted Peritoneal Dialysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75606",slug:"assisted-peritoneal-dialysis",totalDownloads:852,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The number of patients depending on dialysis therapies increases worldwide. The home-based dialysis modalities offer some advantages especially for elderly patients. In the case of peritoneal dialysis (PD), the life quality is superior compared to in-center hemodialysis (HD), and other advantages are existent. Due to the effect that a lot of elderly PD patients are frail, a concept covering the different modalities of PD must include the assistance at home or the living environment (assisted PD) for the bag exchanges that often cannot be performed reliably by elderly and frail patients by themselves. Nowadays, we have enough data to safely offer assisted peritoneal dialysis (aPD) in a cost-saving manner. Putting all these aspects together, aPD is a safe and in some countries widely used modality. The issue of reimbursement and education of home nurse staff must be solved. However, for elderly and frail patients, aPD offers a change to use the advantages of PD for these population, and on a local level, the provider should seek ways to establish aPD programs.",signatures:"Mark Dominik Alscher",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60272",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60272",authors:[{id:"23846",title:"Prof.",name:"Dominik",surname:"Alscher",slug:"dominik-alscher",fullName:"Dominik Alscher"}],corrections:null},{id:"59311",title:"Centre Effects in Peritoneal Dialysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74167",slug:"centre-effects-in-peritoneal-dialysis",totalDownloads:794,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Peritoneal dialysis (PD)-related complications and outcomes have been shown to be influenced by both patient- and centre-level factors. There is a significant variability in outcomes across different centres, which is not explained by patient factors alone. This chapter aims to evaluate those modifiable centre-level factors that have been shown to impact PD outcomes, focussing specifically on peritonitis and technique failure, and the evidence that addressing these centre effects may lead to appreciable improvements in PD patient outcomes. Peritonitis rates have been shown to be related to a centre’s degree of automated PD (APD) use, extent of icodextrin use, performance of home visits prior to PD commencement, the presence of a specialised PD nurse and duration of PD training. Better peritonitis outcomes have been shown to be associated with larger centre size, greater share of PD patients among dialysis cohorts and treatment of peritonitis with comprehensive empiric antimicrobial therapy. PD technique failure has been shown to be related to centre size and degree of PD experience. Although there is little evidence currently available to demonstrate that prospectively modifying centre factors improves PD outcomes, an Australian continuous quality improvement initiative has been associated with progressively improved peritonitis and technique failure outcomes.",signatures:"Samantha Ng, Yeoungjee Cho, Htay Htay and David W. Johnson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59311",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59311",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"61807",title:"The Bone and Mineral Disorder in Patients Undergoing Chronic Peritoneal Dialysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75131",slug:"the-bone-and-mineral-disorder-in-patients-undergoing-chronic-peritoneal-dialysis",totalDownloads:1052,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Disorders of mineral metabolism and bone disease are common complications in CKD patients. They are very complex and involve a number of feedback loops between the kidney, bone, intestine, and the vasculature associated with an increased morbidity and mortality and decreased quality of life of the patients. The work group of the kidney disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) recommended in 2006 the use of the term chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD) to describe a systemic disorder that incorporates these abnormalities. Compared to hemodialysis (HD), patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis (PD) appear to have an increased prevalence of low turnover bone disease defined as adynamic bone disease (ABD). The most important risk factors for ABD are age, oversuppression of parathyroid hormone (PTH) with vitamin D, diabetes, circulating antagonist PTH fragments, and frequent presence of a positive calcium balance, which may result in an oversuppression of PTH. PTH levels and bone phosphatase alkaline (bALP) should be assessed among such patients as the earliest markers of abnormal mineral and bone metabolism. Treatments considered are interventions to treat hyperphosphatemia, hyperparathyroidism, and bone disease. The optimal management of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD) includes the prevention of vascular calcifications.",signatures:"Merita Rroji, Nereida Spahia, Myftar Barbullushi and Saimir Seferi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61807",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61807",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"60967",title:"Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment of Protein-Energy Wasting in Peritoneal Dialysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76180",slug:"diagnosis-prevention-and-treatment-of-protein-energy-wasting-in-peritoneal-dialysis",totalDownloads:1189,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Protein-energy wasting (PEW) is highly prevalent in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients and is associated with mortality. Reduced protein and energy intake, comorbidity conditions, endocrine disorders, increased inflammatory cytokines, uremic toxins, metabolic acidosis, oxidative stress, nutrient losses into dialysate, continuous absorption of glucose from PD solutions, abdominal fullness induced by the dialysate, and peritonitis contribute to PEW. Assessment of nutritional status for the detection and management of PEW includes the PEW definition criteria, subjective global assessment (SGA), malnutrition-inflammation score (MIS), and geriatric nutritional risk index (GNRI). Diverse factors can affect nutritional and metabolic status in these patients so multiple strategies may be required to prevent or reverse PEW. Preventive measures include continuous nutritional counseling, optimizing dietary nutrient intake, and managing comorbidities. To treat PEW, the following may be used: administration of oral, intraperitoneal, enteral, or parenteral nutritional supplementation and adjunct therapies such as anabolic agents, appetite stimulants, anti-inflammatory interventions, and exercise. Diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of PEW in PD patients may favorably impact the prognosis and course of the disease.",signatures:"Francisco Gerardo Yanowsky-Escatell, Leonardo Pazarín-Villaseñor,\nJorge Andrade-Sierra, Christian Santana-Arciniega, Eduardo de\nJesús Torres-Vázquez, Miguel Ángel Zambrano-Velarde, Francisco\nMartín Preciado-Figueroa and Rogelio Ignacio Galeno-Sánchez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60967",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60967",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"61185",title:"Peritonitis in Peritoneal Dialysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75592",slug:"peritonitis-in-peritoneal-dialysis",totalDownloads:1159,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Peritoneal dialysis (PD) involves solute and water transport across a semipermeable membrane that separates fluid compartments. Peritonitis is a serious complication of peritoneal dialysis that results in considerable morbidity and health care costs. It also significantly distorts the normal anatomy of the peritoneal membrane causing transient and long-term adverse events. Bacterial as well as fungal organisms can cause peritonitis and sometimes cultures can be negative. As much as 5–16% of deaths occur in PD even though the rate of infections has been in decline in last few years. Below we will be reviewing risk factors, host’s immune defenses, prevention, diagnosis and evidence-based treatment, types of peritonitis with a role of prophylactic antibiotics for PD peritonitis.",signatures:"Sohail Abdul Salim and Tibor Fülöp",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61185",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61185",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7935",title:"Renal Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"44715ed141cf23ebdd35ff0d772492df",slug:"renal-diseases",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr. and Sohail Abdul Salim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7935.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5314",title:"Challenges in Elder Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a1249d3819657dcd1f41ebb7dff4d17",slug:"challenges-in-elder-care",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7837",title:"Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e277d005b23536bcd9f8550046101979",slug:"geriatric-medicine-and-gerontology",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7837.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8594",title:"Fads and Facts about Vitamin D",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1731029867f0d79c633e3408fc03ebd2",slug:"fads-and-facts-about-vitamin-d",bookSignature:"Edward T. Zawada Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8594.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16344",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward T.",surname:"Zawada Jr.",slug:"edward-t.-zawada-jr.",fullName:"Edward T. Zawada Jr."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"353",title:"Progress in Hemodialysis",subtitle:"From Emergent Biotechnology to Clinical Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b545b95a5c70a6881b0ee0821429a92",slug:"progress-in-hemodialysis-from-emergent-biotechnology-to-clinical-practice",bookSignature:"Angelo Carpi, Carlo Donadio and Gianfranco Tramonti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/353.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58620",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelo",surname:"Carpi",slug:"angelo-carpi",fullName:"Angelo Carpi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3267",title:"Hemodialysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"960f1c2998be5bdb86d0b9412f13fb0b",slug:"hemodialysis",bookSignature:"Hiromichi Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3267.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"156403",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiromichi",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hiromichi-suzuki",fullName:"Hiromichi Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"646",title:"Chronic Kidney Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49fc40a7d5b44ec81ee90ab94907dcfa",slug:"chronic-kidney-disease",bookSignature:"Monika Göoz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/646.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65789",title:"Prof.",name:"Monika",surname:"Göőz",slug:"monika-gooz",fullName:"Monika Göőz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"790",title:"Basic Nephrology and Acute Kidney Injury",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c12b7e407cfc0727e34f51e0cb5cdbb4",slug:"basic-nephrology-and-acute-kidney-injury",bookSignature:"Manisha Sahay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/790.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65130",title:"Prof.",name:"Manisha",surname:"Sahay",slug:"manisha-sahay",fullName:"Manisha Sahay"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3257",title:"Current Issues and Future Direction in Kidney Transplantation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"32aaeaf9eae59e0b53029c221285c846",slug:"current-issues-and-future-direction-in-kidney-transplantation",bookSignature:"Thomas Rath",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3257.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67436",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Rath",slug:"thomas-rath",fullName:"Thomas Rath"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1377",title:"Technical Problems in Patients on Hemodialysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af6137ecadd693ee44dd2077bf997c05",slug:"technical-problems-in-patients-on-hemodialysis",bookSignature:"Maria Goretti Penido",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1377.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75822",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Goretti",surname:"Penido",slug:"maria-goretti-penido",fullName:"Maria Goretti Penido"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"81439",slug:"corrigendum-to-the-development-biology-authentic-learning-of-mahasarakham-university-demonstration-s",title:"Corrigendum to: The Development Biology Authentic Learning of Mahasarakham University Demonstration School (Secondary), Thailand",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81439.pdf\r\n",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81439",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81439",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81439",chapter:{id:"78086",slug:"the-development-biology-authentic-learning-of-mahasarakham-university-demonstration-school-secondary",signatures:"Wutthisak Bunnaen",dateSubmitted:"April 27th 2021",dateReviewed:"June 8th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 13th 2021",datePublished:"February 9th 2022",book:{id:"9558",title:"Active Learning",subtitle:"Theory and Practice",fullTitle:"Active Learning - Theory and Practice",slug:"active-learning-theory-and-practice",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",bookSignature:"Olena Lutsenko and Gregory Lutsenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9558.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"225667",title:"Mrs.",name:"Olena",middleName:null,surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"olena-lutsenko",fullName:"Olena Lutsenko"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"342787",title:"Dr.",name:"Wutthisak",middleName:null,surname:"Bunnaen",fullName:"Wutthisak Bunnaen",slug:"wutthisak-bunnaen",email:"wutthisakcomplete@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"78086",slug:"the-development-biology-authentic-learning-of-mahasarakham-university-demonstration-school-secondary",signatures:"Wutthisak Bunnaen",dateSubmitted:"April 27th 2021",dateReviewed:"June 8th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 13th 2021",datePublished:"February 9th 2022",book:{id:"9558",title:"Active Learning",subtitle:"Theory and Practice",fullTitle:"Active Learning - Theory and Practice",slug:"active-learning-theory-and-practice",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",bookSignature:"Olena Lutsenko and Gregory Lutsenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9558.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"225667",title:"Mrs.",name:"Olena",middleName:null,surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"olena-lutsenko",fullName:"Olena Lutsenko"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"342787",title:"Dr.",name:"Wutthisak",middleName:null,surname:"Bunnaen",fullName:"Wutthisak Bunnaen",slug:"wutthisak-bunnaen",email:"wutthisakcomplete@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"9558",title:"Active Learning",subtitle:"Theory and Practice",fullTitle:"Active Learning - Theory and Practice",slug:"active-learning-theory-and-practice",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",bookSignature:"Olena Lutsenko and Gregory Lutsenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9558.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"225667",title:"Mrs.",name:"Olena",middleName:null,surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"olena-lutsenko",fullName:"Olena Lutsenko"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"12197",leadTitle:null,title:"Music Therapy",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c4befd5c57f3a45453629bd802138062",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12197.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 28th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54169",title:"Importance of Fatty Acids in Physiopathology of Human Body",doi:"10.5772/67407",slug:"importance-of-fatty-acids-in-physiopathology-of-human-body",body:'\nFatty acids (FAs) are part of the lipid class, widespread in the nature, food and organisms, being an important constituent of the membrane cell. They have important biological functions, structural and functional roles, and they represent an important source of energy. Their metabolism produces a huge quantity of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The β-oxidation of the fatty acids is a well-known process, mostly used by the heart and the muscular tissue to obtain energy.
\nThe human body can synthesize many of these fatty acids, except some essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs): the linoleic acid (LA) and the α-linolenic acid (ALA). These two are spread especially in different vegetable oils, but their metabolites are found mainly in the fish oil. The linoleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in nature, and it is the precursor of other omega-6 fatty acids. The omega-3 fatty acids are synthesized from α-linolenic acid. The human body cannot synthesize fatty acids with odd number of carbon atoms chain; however, there were studies in which this type of fatty acids were identified in a low concentration in plasma [1].
\nOnce ingested, short chain PUFAs are converted to long-chain fatty acids. These are critical for mammalian cells in order to perform various biological functions, such as sustaining the structural integrity of cellular membranes and serving as signaling molecules. They are highly enriched in the adipose tissues, for example in the brain, where they participate in the development and maintenance of the central nervous system during both embryonic and adult stages [2].
\nThe fatty acids can be identified and quantified using various analytical methods, but the most widely used technique is the gas chromatography (GC). Its main advantages are selectivity, sensibility and efficiency. One of the disadvantages of this technique is that before the main analysis, a derivatization of fatty acids is necessary to obtain the methyl esters and this way to increase their volatility. Other analytical techniques used for the detection of fatty acids mentioned in the literature were the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or the capillary electrophoresis (CE) [3, 4].
\nThe aim of this chapter was to present some of the alterations in plasma and other biological fluids fatty acid profile in different diseases, some potential biomarkers in each case and to highlight the fatty acids importance in the proper functioning of the human organism.
\nFatty acids are widely spread through the whole human organism, and they can be found under different forms: free circulating fatty acids or esterified, taking form of:
triacylglycerols (or triglycerides), when esterified with glycerol,
phospholipids, when esterified with phosphoric acid,
glycolipids, when combined with glucose or other saccharides,
sphingolipids, etc.
The great importance of fatty acids resides in the fact that they are main constituents of the human cell. The type of fatty acid, saturated or unsaturated, long-chained or short-chained can influence the physiology of the cell, as it will be described below.
\nEvery human cell is formed by a membrane, the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The membrane, the barrier which not only protects the cell from the outside world but also which has the role in transporting nutrients inside and outside of the cell, is formed of a bilayer of lipids with role in the passive transport and proteins with role in the active transport (Figure 1) [5].
\nDifferent fluidity of cell membranes depending on the saturation of fatty acids: saturated fatty acids forming viscous membrane (up), unsaturated
This double layer of lipids, which assures the main structure of the cell membrane, is formed of two layers of phospholipids. In this case, the phosphoric acid is esterified with a diacylglycerol (R1, R2), which can contain the same or different fatty acid residues, and another residue (R3) directly connected on phosphoric acid is another type of molecule (Figure 2). The phospholipid molecule gets, in this way, an amphiphilic character, which means it is in the same time hydrophilic, due to its phosphoric “head”, and hydrophobic, due to the fatty acid “tails”. In the cell membrane, the phospholipids are oriented in the bilayer with the hydrophilic head toward the outside of the layer, whereas hydrophobic tails remain on the inside of the bilayer, as seen in Figure 1.
\nGeneral structure of a phospholipid.
The type of fatty acids found in the structure of the cell membrane can affect its fluidity, its stability and its functions. First, the saturation [6] of fatty acids influences the fluidity of membranes. Thus, if the membrane is composed mostly of saturated fatty acids, which have a straight rigid chain, the phospholipids will form a more rigid bilayer, whereas a membrane formed by many
One might think that a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in cell membranes could expose them to oxidative stress and, consequently, to lipid oxidation and peroxidation [7], but Clinics A [8] has revealed the theory of “triple cell membrane synergy”, which states that fatty acids in phospholipids in membranes are surrounded by protective antioxidants. It seems that this hyperfluidity of membranes is obtained in bilayers rich in docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) [6] and is necessary in cells with high and rapid activity, such as rhodopsin disks or axons. In case of rhodopsin disks, the high fluidity of the membrane (~50% DHA) seems to contribute to the fast transport of rhodopsin on the two sides of the membrane, facilitating the initiation of the visual cascade. In case of axons, keeping the hyperfluidity theory of highly rich DHA membranes, this helps increase their permeability and avoid forming gel-phase islands, which could happen in case of lesser unsaturated fatty acids or even saturated and which would lead to a drastic change of the electrochemical behavior of the axon. In the same time, the DHA-rich membrane assures the differentials in Na+ (outside of the cell) and K+ (inside of the cell) necessary for signal transmission.
\nMoreover, studies have revealed [9] that the docosahexaenoic acid found in the structure of the membrane bilayer can influence the activity of the Na+-K+-ATPase pump in the same membrane; the DHA content was significantly correlated with the pump activity in heart and kidney tissues, but not in brain tissues. However, in brain tissues, both DHA concentrations and Na+-K+-ATPase were found to be the highest, indicating that DHA content increases in tissues with high energy needs. The authors [10] have mentioned other ionic transport proteins, which are modulated by DHA concentrations, such as voltage-gated K+-channels, voltage-sensitive-Na+ channels in myocardial cells or L-type Ca2+ channels.
\nIn the same time, membrane protein activity can be affected by external fatty acids released by other cells activity or by exogenous source (diet) [11]. Studies have shown that syntaxin-3 activity is dependent on the presence of omega-6 arachidonic acid. Syntaxin-3, a cell membrane protein responsible for neurite outgrowth, is activated by forming a complex with the synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP25). (SNAP25). The formation of this complex has been found to be dependant on the presence of arachidonic acid, at a half-maximal effective concentration of ~100 μM. Other omega-3, such as docosahexaenoic and linoleic acid, omega-6 and linolenic acid have shown the same capacity to activate membrane syntaxin-3. This can explain the specific relevance of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in good functioning of brain activity, neuronal regeneration, neurite outgrowth and their beneficial effects in degenerative neurological diseases. DHA content seems to be connected with its anti-cancer effect, influencing the activity of sphingomyelinase. The activity of protein kinase C (PKC) has been reported to be increased at high levels of DHA in membranes, where DHA is incorporated in complexes with phosphatidylethanolamine and lesser with phosphatidylcholine [10]. Other proteins influenced by DHA presence and/or concentrations reported are phospholipases A2 and C, cytochrome P450SCC or the insulin receptor.
\nThe omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids with the first double bond located at the third, respectively, the sixth carbon atom related to the methyl end, having a
For their metabolism, both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids use the same pathway, including the same enzymes. Linoleic acid is converted into arachidonic acid through the steps presented in Figure 3. This fatty acid is the most important omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid. The arachidonic acid (AA) can be also released from cell membranes through the action of phospholipase A2 and serves as precursor for the synthesis of the biologically active eicosanoids. These eicosanoids are the prostaglandins (PG), thromboxanes and leukotrienes. There are three types of PG: PG1, PG2 and PG3. The first one has many beneficial effects, it reduces inflammation and helps the body to recover from injury by reducing swelling and redness. PG2 has the exact opposite effect of PG1. This increases inflammation, vasoconstriction and blood clotting. PG3 has a mixture of functions in the body, from which the most important one is represented by the property to reduce inflammation caused by PG2. Dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), an intermediate metabolite of the omega-6 pathway, can be converted to either the anti-inflammatory PG1 or into the arachidonic acid, a precursor of PG2. This transformation requires the enzyme ∆5-desaturase, whose activity can be limited. Also, the activity of the ∆6-desaturase can be compromised during inflammatory conditions. Both of these enzyme activities are influenced by diet and environmental factors. In diets high in omega-3 fatty acids, most of the enzyme ∆5-desaturase will be used in the omega-3 pathway, so DGLA will be converted into an anti-inflammatory PG1. Contrariwise, a diet low in omega-3 fatty acids will convert DGLA into AA, and this way the inflammation will increase. A balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid is therefore essential for a proper health [13].
\nThe omega-3 and omega-6 metabolism pathways.
Competition between the omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids occurs in prostaglandin formation. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) competes with arachidonic acid for prostaglandin and leukotriene synthesis at the cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase level. Metabolism of the arachidonic acid by the cyclooxygenase enzyme gives rise to the 2-series prostaglandins and thromboxanes and by the 5-lipooxygenase (LOX) pathway hydroxy, hydroperoxy derivatives and the 4-series of leukotrienes are formed (Figure 4) [13].
\nPro- and anti-inflammatory metabolites of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
The inflammatory process appears when the human body tries to fight infection and/or to repair damaged tissue. Most of the time this process is protective, but sometimes it can be transformed into chronic inflammation, which can lead to the development or progression of some chronic diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, coronary vascular disease, cancer and neurological diseases [14]. Fatty acids from diet can influence people’s health condition, and they can deteriorate or ameliorate the evolution of some diseases. Scientists try to identify biomarkers for different diseases in order to be able to observe their evolution, to distinguish the ones with similar symptoms and be able to give a precise diagnose. According to Biomarkers Definitions Working Group, 2001 [15], these biomarkers are defined as “Measurable characteristics that reflect biological function or dysfunction, response to a therapeutic measure, or indication of the natural progression of a disease.” They are not only useful for disease risk determination but are also extremely useful in establishing a diagnosis. An ideal diagnostic biomarker would reliably reflect
It became well known over the years that the omega-3 fatty acids have a high impact on health and play an important role in cardiovascular disease prevention. According to the American Heart Association, heart and blood vessel diseases are related to a process called atherosclerosis, which can cause a heart attack or stroke. The role of inflammation in the atherosclerosis process is well known, as well as the fact that omega-3 fatty acids can modify inflammatory cascades favorably, which may be an important factor in their protective role. Their beneficial effects regarding the cardiovascular diseases are mediated by their anti-arrhythmic, lipid lowering, anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory properties.
\nBased on large randomized control trials and
Based on clinical trials, it has been observed that omega-3 fatty acids can reduce the hepatic triglyceride synthesis and increase the clearance of circulating ones [17]. According to this, they can have an important role in the management of the type III hyperlipidemia.
\nBesides these roles, the omega-3 fatty acids have an important anti-arrhythmic effect because they stabilize the partially depolarized ischemic myocytes by shortening the action potential duration and by slowing down the impulse conduction [17]. Due to their length and their increased number of double bonds, they can influence the function of different membrane proteins and can modulate the sodium channel function in cardiomyocytes, leading to antiarrhythmic effect. EPA and DHA also modulate the activity of L-type calcium channels, leading to a reduction in free cytosolic calcium ion, which stabilizes myocyte electrical excitability [16].
\nHowever, the best studied effect of the omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is the inflammatory one. The anti-inflammatory properties of omega-3 PUFAs have been conventionally attributed to their capability to interact with the main inflammatory signaling pathways and to their suppressive effect on inflammatory cytokine production [18]. The fatty acid metabolites are represented by different types of mediators with both inflammatory and anti-inflammatory properties. There are two types of prostaglandins, one derived from arachidonic acid, with inflammatory, platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction effect, and another one derived from EPA with the exact opposite effect. Besides this, EPA and DHA are the precursors of lipoxins, resolvins and protectins, which also regulate vascular tone and blood pressure [17]. Resolvin E-series are synthesized from EPA through the conversion of 18-hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acid (18-HEPE), and protectins, resolvin D-series and maresins are DHA-derived mediators (Figure 5) [16]. An increased level of omega-3 PUFA was associated with a decreased circulating concentration of inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin IL-1β and IL-6.
\nNew lipid mediators: resolvins and lipoxins synthesis.
EPA and DHA downregulate the expression of inflammation-related genes through the nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPARα/γ) [16]. This nuclear receptor has been linked to
Besides all of these mechanisms, omega-3 fatty acids increase the endothelial nitric oxide production, which result in a vasodilatory response [17]. A summary of all these cardiovascular effects of the omega-3 fatty acids is presented in Figure 6.
\nThe cardiovascular effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Many studies have shown the importance of the omega-3 index. This was developed by Harris and von Schacky and it is defined as the percentage of EPA+DHA content in the red blood cell membranes. An omega-3 index of less than 4% indicates a low cardioprotection. A low omega-3 index is also associated with an increased risk of ventricular fibrillation during acute ischemic phase of myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death [17], whereas levels higher than 8% confer cardioprotection. Smoking, a major risk factor for the development of the cardiovascular diseases, and higher body weight were associated with lower EPA+DHA levels. Also an inverse association was found between the levels of triglycerides and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and the omega 3-index.
\nContrary to the beneficial effects of the omega-3 fatty acids, consuming large amounts of omega-6 FAs increases the plasma concentrations of eicosanoids derived from AA metabolism, specifically prostaglandins, thromboxane, leukotrienes, hydroxylated FAs and lipoxins. These bioactive products have an important inflammatory, thrombosis and atherosclerosis properties and contribute to the development of allergic and inflammatory disorders and excessive cell proliferation [19]. Some studies highlight the importance of omega-6 PUFA/omega-3 PUFA ratio, because a high ratio promotes the pathogenesis of many diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, but not only. It is also associated with inflammatory markers, including C-reactive protein and IL-6. A low omega-6/omega-3 ratio has beneficial effect on patients with asthma and suppresses inflammation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis.
\nRheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that causes chronic inflammation of the joints and progressive joint destruction. The exact mechanism why the body’s immune system attacks the joints is still unclear, but many studies have shown that beside the immunologic etiology there are alterations of different metabolic pathways. The plasma metabolic changes can clarify the pathological mechanism [20]. Several studies have shown an association between synovial inflammation and increased free fatty acid concentration in plasma, which demonstrates that the fat metabolism is accelerated in rheumatoid arthritis [21]. Many of these are related to inflammation and might be considered a marker of arthritic inflammation in different stages [20]. One of these fatty acids, stearic acid, was found in higher levels in patients with established rheumatoid arthritis than in patients in early stages [22].
\nAll of these metabolic changes can be evidenced using a GC-MS method. Fatty acids are extracted from different biological samples using an organic solvent or a solid phase extraction. This step is followed by a derivatization process, when the fatty acid methyl esters are obtained. The main analysis of these compounds can be performed using both polar and non-polar capillary phases, a gradient temperature and helium as a carrier gas. The identification and separation of free fatty acids can also be done with a HPLC system, using different mobile phases in isocratic/gradient elution.
\nThe protective effect of docosahexaenoic acid, an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, is recognized in many types of chronic inflammatory conditions, because this fatty acid can be metabolized into bioactive lipid mediators with anti-inflammatory activities, as described above. A high concentration of omega-3 PUFA is correlated with a reduced number of morning stiffness, swollen joints, pain or disease activity. It has also been shown that these fatty acids can reduce the incidence and severity of collagen-induced arthritis. In addition to their anti-inflammatory properties, they inhibit the formation of reactive oxygen species and the AA-mediated induction of tumor necrosis factor receptor type I (TNFRI). They have immune modulatory effect and can affect both T cell function and B cell function [21]. Not only PUFAs but also some monounsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic acid, have a benefic effect, due to their anti-inflammatory properties [20]. RA patients, with an elevated inflammation have a decreased level of all these fatty acids: oleic, palmitic, EPA, DHA acid, compared to healthy controls. Differences were unrelated to age, gender or body mass index (BMI) [22]. Besides their anti-inflammatory activity, omega-3 PUFAs incorporated into phospholipids can result into other lipid mediators (resolvins, protectins) with an increased anti-inflammatory activity and an altered cytokine gene expression [14]. However, the high levels of the omega-6 fatty acids, mainly the arachidonic acid, were positively correlated with synovitis. This happened because AA is the main substrate for the synthesis of the pro-inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines and eicosanoids.
\nThe phosphatidylcholine/lysophosphatidylcholine ratio was lower in serum of RA patients compared to healthy individuals, which can result in higher levels of free fatty acids. Other lipid mediators, such as oxylipins, were also detected in plasma. The most prominent eicosanoid of the LOX pathway found in plasma was 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) [21]. Another biomarker in inflammation can be considered the omega-3 index. The inflammatory mediators, C-reactive protein, monocytes and neutrophils, are inversely correlated to DHA, omega-3 index and total omega-3 PUFA [14].
\nDiscovering new biomarkers in the field of psychiatry has a huge importance, because they could clarify the etiology of psychiatric problems, confirm the diagnosis of disorders with similar symptoms and predict the course of the disorder and determine how to treat it [15]. Neurodegenerative diseases are caused by several factors, including genetic mutation, membrane damage, mitochondrial dysfunction and a protein or lipid metabolism alteration.
\nPUFAs are selectively concentrated in synaptic neuronal membranes and regulate vascular and immune functions that affect the central nervous system. Moreover, they have important functions in neurotransmitter signaling. The brain is the most lipid-enriched organ, containing several major lipid classes, including fatty acids. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids constitute 30–35% of total brain fatty acids and have beneficial effects on cognitive function. During brain development, especially in the embryonic stage, polyunsaturated fatty acids are critical for cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation, and their deprivation results in apoptosis. Deregulation of fatty acids is also involved in the pathogenesis of numerous brain disorders, such as neurodegenerative diseases, mental retardation, stroke and trauma [2].
\nThe Alzheimer disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease, which usually affects the elderly people and causes dementia. The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events, but difficulty in speech, disorganized thinking and memory loss is also common. Different morphological modifications of the brain were observed, such as the extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) depositions and the tau protein abnormalities, the neurofibrillary tangles formation inside the nerve cell bodies. Currently accepted biomarkers of AD include levels of brain chemicals related to amyloid or tau protein and imaging-derived estimates of the size and metabolic activity of specific brain regions. Besides these modifications of the protein metabolism, the lipid metabolism is altered as well, characterized by a decreased level of the omega-3 fatty acids.
\nMolecular alterations of the fatty acids that persist from preclinical stages through the dementia phase may serve as biomarkers that could aid the early diagnosis of AD. Different stages of AD may have a different gene expression for fatty acid synthesis [2]. In this disease, scientists have revealed alterations in lipid metabolism pathways and in lipid carrier proteins, such as ApoE. Alterations of the lipid metabolism were observed not only in case of patients diagnosed with Alzheimer but also in case of those with other cognitive alterations. In each case, the biggest difference reported between the healthy volunteers and the patients was represented by the level of docosahexaenoic acid. However, other fatty acids presented an altered profile as well. In different studies, a low concentration of palmitic acid (C16:0), oleic acid (C18:1n-9) and some omega-3 fatty acids has been shown, such as α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n-3) and docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5n-3) [23].
\nThe monounsaturated fatty acids, mainly the oleic acid, inhibit the production of Aβ and amyloid plaque formation both
The docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6) is indispensable for the neuronal myelination, and it is an important precursor for the very long chain fatty acid synthesis (C24:6, C26:6, C28:6, C30:6, C32:6, C34:6), found in the brain. It is also involved in neurogenesis, neurotransmission and protects the brain from the oxidative stress. It has an important role in maintaining the integrity of the basal membrane and as a phospholipid ester maintains the flexibility of the cellular membrane, helping the synaptic transmission, and it can also adjust the speed of the signal transmission. DHA can influence the brain development because it can regulate the gene expression, monoaminergic neurotransmission or protection against apoptotic cell death [24]. During pregnancy, DHA accumulates in human neonatal brain tissue at an accelerated rate during the third trimester in association with rapid changes in cortical structural maturation. A deficit of this fatty acid in the stage of the brain development can lead to the cognitive performance alterations [24].
\nThe polyunsaturated fatty acids, besides their role of maintaining the integrity of the neuronal cell membrane, are involved in the synthesis of eicosapentaenoic acid from which the synthesis of the 3-series prostaglandin and 5-leukotriene begins. EPA has neuroprotective, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [24].
\nThis fatty acid inhibits the synthesis of prostaglandins derived from the omega-3 fatty acids, such as PGE2 and PGF2α, which confers an anti-inflammatory property. In case of deficiency of DHA and EPA, the cell permeability modifies and mitochondrial dysfunctions and inflammation appear, and along with the oxidative stress, it plays an important role in the progression of the disease. DHA and EPA can play a role in alleviating oxidative stress and reducing the risk of neurodegenerative diseases [25]. The novel series of lipid mediators (resolvins, protectins and maresins) have revealed their protective and beneficial effect in neurological diseases, due to their anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving properties.
\nA simultaneous deficiency of LA and ALA creates serious problems in fatty acid composition of the brain. ALA deficiency alters the course of brain development and perturbed the composition of brain cell membranes, neurons, oligodendrocytes and astrocytes as well as subcellular components such as myelin, nerve endings and mitochondria.
\nAging is characterized by a diminution in PPARα expression in various tissues, representing a key target in the prevention of diseases associated with old age. A decrease in the activity of PPARα-regulated genes involved in β-oxidation is accompanied by changes in the composition of FAs in brain. This leads to an increased level of the very long chain saturated fatty acids (SFAs) (C20:0, C22:0, C24:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) (C16:1, C18:1, C20:1, C22:1, C24:1), and decreasing the LC-PUFAs AA and DHA, which are related to the progression of brain aging. It was suggested that PPARα and their endogenous ligands have a role in neuroprotection against oxidative stress, which is key in neurodegenerative diseases, contributing to a normal brain aging. These considerations suggest that endogenous and exogenous PPARα agonists could be useful as a prevention measure for neurodegenerative diseases and ischemic injury, especially in the elderly and/or in patients with high cardiovascular risk [19].
\nSeveral other neurological disorders present altered neuronal and plasma fatty acid composition, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
\nDepression is accompanied by activation of the inflammatory response system indicated by an increased production of inflammatory cytokines and oxidative biomarker. Cytokine production is accompanied by increased oxidative stress leading to elevated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) or decreased anti-oxidant defense, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase. Epidemiological studies also showed that low intake and blood levels of omega-3 PUFAs are associated with an increased risk for being diagnosed with major depressive disorder. Erythrocyte levels of C16:0, C18:0, EPA and the omega-3 index were significantly lower in the case of patients diagnosed with major depression than in the controls, whereas erythrocyte levels of C16:1, C18:3n6, C18:3n3, C18:1t and C18:2t were significantly higher [26]. Different studies suggest that omega-3 fatty acid status influences the development of central serotonin systems. A deficit of the omega-3 fatty acids leads to impaired serotonin release and behavioral signs of depression and aggression. Patients with major depressive disorder present a DHA deficiency compared to healthy controls [27]. The plasma and erythrocyte phospholipid levels of these people showed significant and positive correlation between the ratio of AA/EPA and severity of depression and suicidal behavior.
\nThe patients diagnosed with bipolar disorder presented higher plasma concentrations of all saturated fatty acids than the controls. Lignoceric acid was over 50% higher in the patient group than in the healthy volunteers. In this disorder too, the most important differences between the two groups were represented by the significant decreases in DHA levels and strong increases in levels of EPA and ALA [28].
\nThe presently available data of the literature suggest that the metabolism of PUFAs is altered in patients with schizophrenia, both in the acute and chronic stages of the disease. Altered neuronal membrane structure and metabolism might contribute to some of the symptoms of schizophrenia. A change in membrane lipid composition in neuronal cells can affect neurotransmission and this way can affect the behavior in schizophrenia. Studies showed no difference between the schizophrenia patients and control subjects in the contribution of omega-3 fatty acids to the lipid composition of the phospholipid fraction. However, the values of total omega-6 PUFAs and docosapentaenoic acid are shown to be significantly lower in case of patients with schizophrenia than in case of the control subjects. Membrane lipids seem to fluctuate in different disease phases. This may be related to changes in neuroinflammatory and oxidative processes, which are reported to contribute to disease progression and underlie symptom severity. The healthy group presents stable PUFA levels compared to the patients group. PUFAs are not only important components of neuronal cell membranes but also play an important role in regulation of inflammation through the formation of eicosanoids. Inflammation and oxidative stress may play a role in disease progression through lipid peroxidation and cholesterol oxidation, leading to neuronal cell death [29]. PUFA deficiency will also impair dopaminergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission, which are linked to negative symptoms.
\nBased on evidence that erythrocyte EPA+DHA composition of total fatty acid lower than 4% increases risk for sudden cardiac death, and evidence that the majority of patients with psychiatric disorders present an omega-3 index lower than 4%, major recurrent psychiatric disorders may increase risk of cardiovascular disease, a principle cause of excess premature mortality in patients with mood and psychotic disorders [27].
\nInflammation plays a role in the etiology of many types of cancer. It was reported that high concentration of serum long-chain omega-3 fatty acid phospholipids, EPA and DHA, in particular, was associated with the increased risk of high-grade prostate cancer. However, high concentrations of
Obesity is a metabolic disease, and it increases the risk to develop diabetes, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease or other cardiovascular diseases. Compared to healthy volunteers, plasma levels of fatty acids are increased in the obese patients. The biomarker identified in this disease is the increased level of the unsaturated fatty acids, especially the palmitoleic acid (C16:1) and dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (C20:3) [33]. Studies show that 40% of the people diagnosed with diabetes will develop a kidney or a cardiovascular disease. A high level of omega-3/omega-6 ratio is associated with a low risk to develop a kidney failure. Besides obesity, the polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) can lead to insulin resistance. In this case, two biomarkers were identified: nervonic acid (C24:1) for the presence of PCOS and dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid for insulin resistance [4]. The fatty acid lipolysis in the fatty tissue is increased as well, but the β-oxidation of the fatty acids is decreased. This way the cell permeability and the inflammatory cell infiltration are increased. This may explain why arachidonic acid is considered a biomarker in the plasma of diabetic patients, with or without different stages of nephropathy.
\nThe fatty acid profile is modified in case of an infectious disease, too. In the incipient stage of the dengue fever, a decreased level of C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C20:4-n6 and C22:6-n3 was observed [4].
\nDue to the pro-inflammatory and immunoactive properties of the arachidonic acid, a high concentration of this fatty acid and a high level of the AA/EPA ratio are associated with the sickle cell disease and cystic fibrosis. The last one is a genetic disease in which the fatty acid profile is altered. The LA and DHA concentration decreases and increases the concentration of palmitoleic acid and Δ5,8,11-eicosatrienoic acid. In case of cystic fibrosis, the AA concentration increases only at the highest LNA:ALA ratio [4].
\nThe pathobiology of sickle cell disease is initiated by episodic vascular occlusion in which the adherence of circulating blood cells to vascular endothelium is modulated by polyunsaturated fatty acids. Patients diagnosed with this disease have altered red cell and PUFA composition. This is characterized by an increased AA, decreased DHA and EPA levels, and this may play a role in abnormal blood-endothelial cell interactions [34].
\nLong chain fatty acids are found in a low concentration in plasma, being difficult to identify them. They are synthesized from the short chain fatty acids with the elongase enzyme and are degraded in peroxisome by the β-oxidase enzyme. In the peroxisomal disorders, such as the Zellweger or the adrenoleukodystrophy, the very long chain fatty acids accumulate in the plasma, which leads to the intracellular calcium accumulation and decreases the mitochondrial respiration, which leads to the cellular death of the oligodendrocyte and astrocytes. Important biomarkers in this disease are C26:0, C26:1 and C26:2 [35].
\nThe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which the airways narrow and swell and produce extra mucus. This can make breathing difficult and trigger coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath. Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Once it is installed, the inflammation starts and involves various cell types and mediators. Smoking is one of the major risk factors for the development of COPD, although other risk factors, such as air pollution and genetic factors, exist. In both smokers and COPD patients, a decreased level of omega-3 PUFAs was reported. The C20:5 and the C22:6 were the most significantly decreased, whereas the monounsaturated fatty acid, C16:1, was increased in COPD compared to non-smokers [36]. Many epidemiological studies showed the protective role of DHA in allergic diseases because it suppresses airway eosinophilic inflammation. A new monoglyceride DHA derivative and EPA derivative showed their protective effects on airway inflammation and inflammatory cytokine production. Patients with severe asthma present a selective dysregulation of the 15-lypooxigenase pathway, the reason why a 5-lipoxygenase-dependent metabolite of arachidonic acid, 5-HETE, was similar in patients and healthy subjects [37]. Table 1 summarizes the biological effects of the most important fatty acids.
\nSCFA | Propionic acid | Immunosuppressive effect, improves tissue insulin sensitivity | Prevention of obesity and diabetes type 2 |
Butyric acid | Inhibits angiogenesis, antimicrobial effects | Prevention of colorectal cancer, irritable bowel syndrome | |
MCFA | Thermogenesis, anti-steatosis, weight control | Treating hyperlipidemias, prevention of obesity | |
LCFA | Oleic acid | Anti-inflammatory effect, inhibit the production of Aβ and amyloid plaque formation | Benefic in rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer disease |
α-Linolenic acid (omega-3) | Anti-steatosis, anti-inflammatory | Benefic in Alzheimer disease, CVD prevention, increases prostate cancer risk | |
EPA+DHA (omega-3) | Anti-inflammatory, anti-arrhythmic, anti-atherosclerotic | Prevention of obesity, CVDs, beneficial effect in Alzheimer disease, brain development, rheumatoid arthritis, type 2 diabetes | |
Arachidonic acid (omega-6) | Inflammatory, platelet aggregation, vasoconstriction, immuno-active properties | Promotes synovitis, Alzheimer disease, diabetes, sickle-cell disease, cystic fibrosis |
Summary table of biological effects of some FA and their implications in some pathologies.
A significant consumption of omega-3 PUFAs results in a decreased level of arachidonic acid in the membranes of inflammatory cells. This will lead to a decreased level of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. There is a large amount of literature based on studies investigating the effects of omega-3 PUFAs on inflammation and immune function. The most studies are investigating the fish oil effect on human health. The omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids ratio from modern diets is ranged from 15:1 to 17:1 although it should be 1:1 [8]. The cardioprotective effect of the omega-3 fatty acid was well studied, that is why The American Heart Association recommends 3 g/day EPA+DHA for reducing elevated triglyceride levels [38]. Many studies have been published on the effect of omega-3 PUFAs on brain structure and function. Most of them indicate an increased functional activation in children, although not all of them found any effect of omega-3 fatty acids on cognition [24].
\nIn conclusion, this chapter demonstrates the importance of fatty acids in human health, both regarding on the physiology of human body, but also influencing the appearance and/or evolution of different diseases, which are seemingly not related. In this way, especially omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids become a common point to these pathologies, such as cardiovascular, neurologic, oncologic or endocrinologic diseases, due to their mechanism of action at a cellular level. We have proved the protective effect of DHA and EPA on different types of tissues; however, other types of fatty acids are not to be ignored.
\nThe authors of this chapter gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the University of Medicine and Pharmacy “I. Hațieganu”, through the internal grant no. 1300/45/13.01.2017.
\nSnake envenomation or exposure to the toxin from snakebite is a common worldwide occurrence and especially greatest in tropical and subtropical regions. It has a devastating impact on human health as well as the economy through treatment expenditure and loss of productivity [1, 2]. The incidence of snakebite is mostly associated with the warm regions where economic activities of the inhabitants are predominantly agriculture [3].
The incidence of snakebite is sometimes under-documented. Chippaux [4] reported that annually the total number of snake-bites might exceed 5 million with snake-bite mortality of 1,25,000 in the world. It has been reported that the highest burden of snakebite incidence is seen in the rural poor communities of tropical countries in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa with an estimate of over 3,14,000 bites, 7300 deaths and nearly 6000 amputations occurring from snakebites annually in Sub-Saharan Africa [5].
In Nigeria the majority of snake species that are of medical importance belong to three families viz., Viperidae (Vipers and Adder),
The purposive sampling technique was used in sampling respondents in areas that have a history of snakebite incidence, which served as a key informant, courtesy calls was made to the chiefs of the snake charmers association with an introductory letter explaining the purpose of the study and how they can be of help. An interview was conducted comprising 18 professional snake charmers with good knowledge of snakes from various local governments in the North eastern States. Based on the outcome of the interview, ten (10) professional snake charmers were recruited to participate in the study for effective snake capture. Endemic areas were sampled as a study sites and primary data were collected through the administration of questionnaires (Figure 1).
Map of the Snake endemic areas.
The quantitative part of the study was conducted in the community whereby the households were randomly selected in all three areas. Primary data were collected through a structured questionnaire. Purposive sampling was used to select the sample size in each village. To avoid the repetition of data, one questionnaire was administered to one participant from each household. Only individuals older than 18 years with a minimum of 3 years continuous stay in the village were interviewed. Gender was considered in order to accommodate 50% of women respondents. Participation was on a voluntary basis and oral consent.
The questionnaire comprises of closed-ended questions, this technique provided valuable information on circumstances where humans encountered snakes in their daily life. The following main issues were addressed in the questionnaire: (a) frequency of encounters with snakes (b) frequency of snakebites (c) knowledge that people have on snakes and (d) views and conceptions that people have on snakes. The response after snake encounters was also investigated. Different social and economic activities that expose human beings to snakebite, as well as correlation with seasonal variation with high snakes encounters, were also studied. Applying the protocol of Kipanyula and Kimaro [10] required information is generated from the data collected.
Data on snakebites were collected at the Kaltungo General Hospital within the period of 1 year i.e. 2018. The hospital is one of the major snakebite treatment center and serves as a referral for the neighboring States as well. Furthermore, snake anti-venom is free at this center as a result of which there is huge influx of people to the center. Information was retrieved on snakebites such as the number of snakebite cases managed by the clinic, the age of the victims, as well as the type of treatment and antivenom used, etc. Snakebite victims often came with death snakes to the hospital for identification purposes and as such specimens were preserved in 4% formalin fixative medium in order to keep the snake intact with minimum artifacts. This method has been proved to be a highly efficient way of gathering large numbers of specimens.
All specimens collected from both field investigations and treatment centers were examined. Some morphometric variables such as color pattern of the snake were assessed. The quantitative phospholipidosis variable such as scale pattern, number of dorsal scale rows, ventral and sub-caudal scales were noted. These entire variables were assessed for an accurate and efficient identification purpose [11].
Specimens were identified using a key provided by Meirte [12] and the identification crosschecked with Spawls and Branch [13] and also Chippaux [3]. Common and local names were also noted. Keys that could be used to identify up to the species level from the book entitled “Snakes of Western and Central Africa” level were also referred to in the study (https://www.whitman.edu/snakekey).
In total, 10 snake species were encountered within the span of 6 months from July to December 2018 (see Table 1). About 45 dead snakes were retrieved from snakebite victims while they were being treated in the hospital. The rest were captured by snake charmers/catchers during field surveys. Morphological characteristics were assessed for accurate identification purposes. The following snake species were identified as shown in Table 1 (Figures 2–9). The most abundant snake species is the
Family | Specie | Local Names | English | Frequency of encounter | Venomous/non venomous |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Viperidae | Kububuwa/gobeda nisa | Carpet viper | 28(46) | Venomous | |
Viperidae Viperidae | Kasa — | Puff adder Night adder | 13(21) 7(11) | Venomous Venomous | |
Elapidae | Kumurci | Black spitting cobra | 4(6.5) | Venomous | |
Elapidae | — | Malian cobra | 2(3.2) | Venomous | |
Elapidae | — | Cape cobra | 1(1.6) | Venomous | |
Elapidae | — | Green cobra | 1(1.6) | Venomous | |
Elapidae Elapidae Colubridae | Damatsiri/micinzinmata Gansheka - | Black mamba Egyptian cobra Bloomslang Rock python | 2(3.2) 1(1.6) 1(1.6) 1(1.6) 1(1.6) 61 | Venomous Venomous Venomous Venomous Non venomous |
A list of snake species of the Alkaleri, Kaltungo and Karim Lamido North-Eastern Nigeria.
Bitis
The number of human snakebites cases reported at the Kaltungo snakebite treatment center in Gombe is presented in Table 2. It serves as a major free referral center for all the neighboring victims of snakebite, About 2945 snakebite cases was recorded within the year 2018, the highest snake envenoming were observed in October with 16.7%frequency while January has the least snakebite cases of 1.7%.
Months | Number of snakebite | Percentage frequency (%) |
---|---|---|
January | 53 | 1.7 |
February | 137 | 4.6 |
March | 138 | 4.6 |
April | 229 | 7.7 |
May | 230 | 7.8 |
June | 257 | 8.7 |
July | 356 | 12 |
August | 347 | 11.7 |
September | 345 | 11.7 |
October | 485 | 16.5 |
November | 311 | 10.5 |
December | 57 | 1.9 |
Total | 2945 | 100 |
The number of snakebite cases reported At the Kaltungo general hospital over the period of one year 2018.
January happened to be the month with least incident of snake bites, while highest incident was recorded within the month of July to November. However, from July to November, the snake bites incident peaked because it is the wet season which encourages the snakes to come out from their habitats and roam because the environment and the weather is convenient for them.
The age group distribution of the reported snakebite cases is presented in the (Table 3) below and it indicated that most snakebite victims are between the age group of 0–20 (n = 1306) and 21–40 (n = 931) while the least are reported in the elderly.
Age group(years) | Number of snakebite | Percentage frequency (%) |
---|---|---|
1–20 | 1306 | 44 |
21–40 | 931 | 31 |
41–60 | 635 | 21 |
61 ≥ | 73 | 2.5 |
Age group distributions of snakebite cases reported At Kaltungo general hospital.
The Gender distributions of snakebite cases reported at Kaltungo General Hospital is showed in (Table 4), with 78% frequency of snakebite in males while 22%were reported in females.
649 | 22 | |
2296 | 78 | |
2, 945 | 100 |
Gender distributions of snakebite cases reported at Kaltungo General Hospital.
The result in Table 5 shows highest distribution of 36 was obtained among 21–30 years age group while the least was 2 among the oldest age groups 51–60 and 61-above years. Subject distribution according to sex was higher among male subjects (61 out of 100).Farmers happened to have higher frequency when compared with cattle rearers (44).
Variable | Kaltungo (%) | Alkaleri (%) | Karim Lamido% | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age group(yrs) | ||||
18–20 | 14(15.5) | 5(5.5) | 7(7.7) | 26 |
21–30 | 8(8.8) | 15(15.5) | 11(12.2) | 33 |
31–40 | 5(5.5) | 7(7.7) | 8(8.8) | 20 |
41–50 | 2(2.2) | 2(2.2) | 1(1.1) | 5 |
51–61 | 0 | 1(1.10) | 1(1.1) | 4 |
61 above | 1(1.1) | 1(1.1) | 0 | 2 |
Total | 30 | 30 | 30 | 100 |
Sex | ||||
Male | 24(26.6) | 20(22.2) | 27(30) | 78.6 |
Female | 6(6.5) | 10(11.1) | 3(3.3) | 20.9 |
Total | 30 | 30 | 30 | 100 |
Occupation | ||||
Farming | 16(18) | 21(23) | 14(15) | 56 |
Cattle rearers | 14(15) | 9(10) | 16(17) | 42 |
Total | 30 | 30 | 30 | 100 |
Socio-demographic characteristics of respondent from Gombe (Kaltungo), Bauchi (Alkalarie) and Taraba (Karim Lamido).
Table 6 describes incident of snake bite and frequency of snake encounter by the subjects. Most of the subjects had encounter with snakes less than 10 times per month (77/100).
Variable | Kaltungo % | Alkaleri % | Karim Lamido% | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Snake encountered | Few | |||
Highly | 30(33) | 30(33) | 25(27.7) | |
Moderately | 0 | 0 | 5(5.5) | |
Monthly encounter | <10 20–30 >30 | 19(21) 10(11.1) 1(1.1) | 25(27.7) 5(5.5) 0 | 29(32) 1(1.1) 0 |
Most snake spp. encountered | 28(31.1) | 20(22.2) | 18(20) | |
1(1.1) 0 | 2(2.2) 1(1.1) | 7(7.7) 1(1.1) | ||
1(1.1) | 4(4.4) | 3(3.3) | ||
0 | 1(1.1) | 1(1.1) | ||
0 | 0 | 0 | ||
0 | 1(1.1) 1(1.1) | 0 0 | ||
Time of the year Circumstance of Bite Site of bite Time of bite Snakebite treatment center Limiting snake | Rainy season Dry season Walking Working Hand Leg Eye Morning Evening Night Yes No Rearing pig killing planting trees | 0 0 0 22(24.6) 8 8 22(24.6) 4(4.4) 26(28.8) 0 5(5.5) 22(24.6) 2(2.2) 30(33.3) 0 25(27.7) 5(5.5) 0 | 0 0 0 20(22.2) 10(11.1) 14 16 7(7.7) 22(24.6) 1 3(3.3) 27(30) 0 30(33.3) 0 23(25.5) 6(6.6) 1(1.1) | 0 0 0 25(27.70 5(5.5) 5 25(27.7) 6(6.6) 23 1(1.1) 18(20) 12(13.3) 1(1.1) 0 30(33.3) 28(31.1) 2(2.2) 0 |
Incidence of snakebite and encounter.
In this study 10 venomous snake species were recorded in the North Eastern State of Gombe, Taraba and Bauchi which are snake endemic communities in Nigeria. The climatic condition of the region provides an ideal environment for such savannah dwelling faunas. Similar species were also reported by previous researchers based on hospital survey records [14]. It also correlates with other studies [15] where 14 venomous snakes were reported in Nigeria [16] with
The most abundant snake species obtained from the study (Table 6) is the
During the course of this study a total number of 2945 snakebite cases have been recorded within the year 2018 only. The Kaltungo General Hospital in Gombe has been and is still a major snakebite treatment center in the Northeast and served as a major referral center for all neighboring victims of snakebite. The anti-snake venom in this hospital is totally free this could be the reason behind the increased influx of snakebite victims to the Hospital. This correlates with several studies in this region that reported an average lethality of 100–150 in hospitals and an overall mortality of 15.6 daily in Kaltungo [7, 18, 19, 20].
The highest snakebite envenoming in (Table 2) was reported between the months of August to October (rainy season) with the frequency of 11.5–16%, reason might be as a result of rainy season which coincided with the peak agricultural and pastoralist activities of the people. January happened to be the month with least incident of snake bites, while highest incident was recorded within the month of July to November. This discrepancy could be due to the fact that January is a Harmattan season (a very cold and dry season) which forces all cold-blooded animals (including snakes) to hide in the caves or burrows. However, from July to November, the snake bites incident peaked because it is the wet season which encourages the snakes to come out from their habitats and roam because the environment and the weather is convenient for them. Also, most of the snakes breed in this season thereby increasing their population and thus higher contact with humans. These findings are accordance with Chippaux in 2017 that reported about 74% of hospital beds have been occupied by snakebite victims, it contradicts the study [21, 22] in forest regions bites occurs almost throughout the year.
Males are bitten more often than females as shown in (Table 3) with reported 61 male snakebite victims and 39 females. This wide gap could be a result of males being considered as breadwinners of their homes and they are mostly engaged in farming which is considered a major source of employment. The similar results have been obtained [23]. Similarly, bites are most common in children and adolescents as having the highest snake envenomation of 1306 (44%) this is as a result of they often play with their bare hands in burrows in search of small vertebrates to supplement their diet.
Based on the outcome of the questionnaire in (Table 6) 100% of the respondent from Kaltungo, Alkalarie and Bambur have encountered snakes in their life to some extent and they consider their areas to harbor the highest number of snake species. The most medically important snake species in those areas are
The majority of snakebites as shown in (Table 6) occur either in the late afternoon or early evening, times it might occur at night while the people are sleeping. In such cases, the snakes are mostly searching for food inside houses. Interestingly according to Chippaux [4] and Habib [15] reported that some species especially
Over 77 out of 100 of the bites are located on the lower limb, especially below the knee. This is because most of the bites occur during agricultural work, hunting, or movement related to work. Bites to the hand or eye are uncommon to rare, but not exceptional, especially among farmers who work with traditional tools with short handles or in children who dig or play with their bare hands in burrows in search of small vertebrates to supplement their diet. All these increases their chances of exposure to such snakes this is also in accordance with earlier workers [4, 24, 26].
Snake envenomation is increasingly recognized as a serious, worldwide public health concern and a neglected tropical disease of global importance, especially in North Eastern Nigeria. In this study, 10 venomous snake species were reported in Gombe, Taraba and Bauchi States (Figure 1).
The findings of this study will be very significant in a future studies on various applied aspects.
Content alerts
",metaTitle:"Content alerts",metaDescription:"Content alerts",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/content-alerts",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Content alerts
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Content alerts
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6655},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5946},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12678},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17699}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133952},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"16,19,25"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11027",title:"Basics of Hypoglycemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"98ebc1e36d02be82c204b8fd5d24f97a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alok Raghav",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11027.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"334465",title:"Dr.",name:"Alok",surname:"Raghav",slug:"alok-raghav",fullName:"Alok Raghav"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11596",title:"Liver Cancer - Genesis, Progression and Metastasis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e3cb7992178195f360d05f905f7f33d4",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mark Feitelson and Dr. Alla Arzumanyan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11596.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"252092",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",surname:"Feitelson",slug:"mark-feitelson",fullName:"Mark Feitelson"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11576",title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5a01644fb0b4ce24c2f947913d154abe",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Pier Paolo Piccaluga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"76041",title:"Prof.",name:"Pier Paolo",surname:"Piccaluga",slug:"pier-paolo-piccaluga",fullName:"Pier Paolo Piccaluga"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11594",title:"Melanoma - Standard of Care, Challenges, and Updates in Clinical Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ed8a0af96af7b311ef7f9bbbde152d0f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sonia Maciá",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11594.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"281982",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Maciá",slug:"sonia-macia",fullName:"Sonia Maciá"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11731",title:"Nephrolithiasis - From Bench to Bedside",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2ea5ea58b6f360fd378153fe35413100",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. M Hammad Ather",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11731.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"88868",title:"Prof.",name:"M Hammad",surname:"Ather",slug:"m-hammad-ather",fullName:"M Hammad Ather"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11709",title:"Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cc0e61f864a2a8a9595f4975ce301f70",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Shilpa Mehta and Dr. Resmy Palliyil Gopi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11709.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"342545",title:"Dr.",name:"Shilpa",surname:"Mehta",slug:"shilpa-mehta",fullName:"Shilpa Mehta"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11703",title:"Fluorescence Imaging - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"728ff3bfc75ad2c9a39c338b52ae1893",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Raffaello Papadakis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11703.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"251885",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaello",surname:"Papadakis",slug:"raffaello-papadakis",fullName:"Raffaello Papadakis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11577",title:"Tick-Borne Diseases - A Review and an Update of Knowledge on Infections in Human and Animal Population",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3d72ae651ee2a04b2368bf798a3183ca",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Elisa Pieragostini",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11577.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"51521",title:"Prof.",name:"Elisa",surname:"Pieragostini",slug:"elisa-pieragostini",fullName:"Elisa Pieragostini"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11729",title:"Circumcision - Advances and New Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d4761c03b5694edec9f7fc48092549ce",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ahmad Zaghal and Dr. Ali El Safadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11729.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"240621",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Zaghal",slug:"ahmad-zaghal",fullName:"Ahmad Zaghal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11710",title:"Lifestyle-Related Diseases and Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c556d78df6bb93e8e3973ce0a9547ea8",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11710.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11702",title:"Eye Diseases - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Therapeutic Options",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"228ecdcbf2ffae4e8cfeedfc7e0fa922",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Salvatore Di Lauro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11702.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11881",title:"Ventricular Assist Devices - Advances and Applications in Heart Failure",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4c5136113dda974a93f03ba12724b31b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Enkhsaikhan Purevjav, Dr. Hugo R. Martinez, Dr. Mohammed Absi, Dr. Jeffrey Allen Towbin and Dr. Umar Boston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11881.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"231585",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Enkhsaikhan",surname:"Purevjav",slug:"enkhsaikhan-purevjav",fullName:"Enkhsaikhan Purevjav"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:40},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:66},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:124},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:137},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",subtitle:"Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc00a66513e51003e5dbbc0294e0fc3d",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-challenges-and-opportunities-of-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg",editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",slug:"hydrolases",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10193",title:"Multidisciplinary Experiences in Renal Replacement Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4738671bb3e815744d1e04df7ba879",slug:"multidisciplinary-experiences-in-renal-replacement-therapy",bookSignature:"Ane C.F. Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10193.jpg",editors:[{id:"55270",title:"Prof.",name:"Ane",middleName:null,surname:"Claudia Fernandes Nunes",slug:"ane-claudia-fernandes-nunes",fullName:"Ane Claudia Fernandes Nunes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10983",title:"Conifers",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3e524d29fc3f95c3389efbd41463dab6",slug:"conifers-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves and Teresa Fonseca",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10983.jpg",editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10539",title:"Ginseng",subtitle:"Modern Aspects of the Famed Traditional Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f388543a066b617d2c52bd4c027c272",slug:"ginseng-modern-aspects-of-the-famed-traditional-medicine",bookSignature:"Christophe Hano and Jen-Tsung Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10539.jpg",editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10881",title:"Drug Repurposing",subtitle:"Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca3f2d5ca97b457d38a2442b36d3ac7",slug:"drug-repurposing-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10881.jpg",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4423},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2204,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1182,editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",subtitle:"Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc00a66513e51003e5dbbc0294e0fc3d",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-challenges-and-opportunities-of-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1006,editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",slug:"hydrolases",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:863,editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:793,editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10193",title:"Multidisciplinary Experiences in Renal Replacement Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4738671bb3e815744d1e04df7ba879",slug:"multidisciplinary-experiences-in-renal-replacement-therapy",bookSignature:"Ane C.F. Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10193.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:730,editors:[{id:"55270",title:"Prof.",name:"Ane",middleName:null,surname:"Claudia Fernandes Nunes",slug:"ane-claudia-fernandes-nunes",fullName:"Ane Claudia Fernandes Nunes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2167,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10983",title:"Conifers",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3e524d29fc3f95c3389efbd41463dab6",slug:"conifers-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves and Teresa Fonseca",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10983.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:600,editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10539",title:"Ginseng",subtitle:"Modern Aspects of the Famed Traditional Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f388543a066b617d2c52bd4c027c272",slug:"ginseng-modern-aspects-of-the-famed-traditional-medicine",bookSignature:"Christophe Hano and Jen-Tsung Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10539.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:583,editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10881",title:"Drug Repurposing",subtitle:"Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca3f2d5ca97b457d38a2442b36d3ac7",slug:"drug-repurposing-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10881.jpg",publishedDate:"June 1st 2022",numberOfDownloads:2231,editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:"protein-detection",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1392",title:"Classical Mechanics",slug:"classical-mechanics",parent:{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:14,numberOfWosCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfDimensionsCitations:36,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1392",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7794",title:"Kinematics",subtitle:"Analysis and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"635ed08afa8375b1476982ff8f1b2847",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",bookSignature:"Joseph Mizrahi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"60744",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Mizrahi",slug:"joseph-mizrahi",fullName:"Joseph Mizrahi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6229",title:"Kinetic Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"789a1f7f0e0f9f4717d6fef84d47f013",slug:"kinetic-theory",bookSignature:"George Z. Kyzas and Athanasios C. Mitropoulos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6229.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56964",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70748",title:"Discrete Boltzmann Modeling of Compressible Flows",slug:"discrete-boltzmann-modeling-of-compressible-flows",totalDownloads:1335,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Mathematically, the typical difference of discrete Boltzmann model (DBM) from the traditional hydrodynamic one is that the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations are replaced by a discrete Boltzmann equation. But physically, this replacement has a significant gain: a DBM is roughly equivalent to a hydrodynamic model supplemented by a coarse-grained model of the thermodynamic non-equilibrium (TNE) effects, where the hydrodynamic model can be and can also be beyond the NS. Via the DBM, it is convenient to perform simulations on systems with flexible Knudsen number. The observations on TNE are being obtaining more applications with time.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Aiguo Xu, Guangcai Zhang and Yudong Zhang",authors:[{id:"42273",title:"Prof.",name:"Aiguo",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"aiguo-xu",fullName:"Aiguo Xu"},{id:"110958",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangcai",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"guangcai-zhang",fullName:"Guangcai Zhang"},{id:"209189",title:"Dr.",name:"Yudong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yudong-zhang",fullName:"Yudong Zhang"}]},{id:"66493",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85224",title:"Modeling and Design of Flexure Hinge-Based Compliant Mechanisms",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-flexure-hinge-based-compliant-mechanisms",totalDownloads:3578,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"A compliant mechanism gains its mobility fully or partially from the compliance of its elastically deformable parts rather than from conventional joints. Due to many advantages, in particular the smooth and repeatable motion, monolithic mechanisms with notch flexure hinges are state of the art in numerous precision engineering applications with required positioning accuracies in the low micrometer range. However, the deformation and especially motion behavior are complex and depend on the notch geometry. This complicates both the accurate modeling and purposeful design. Therefore, the chapter provides a survey of different methods for the general and simplified modeling of the elasto-kinematic properties of flexure hinges and compliant mechanisms for four hinge contours. Based on nonlinear analytical calculations and FEM simulations, several guidelines like design graphs, design equations, design tools, or a geometric scaling approach are presented. The obtained results are analytically and simulatively verified and show a good correlation. Using the example of a path-generating mechanism, it will be demonstrated that the suggested angle-based method for synthesizing a compliant mechanism with individually shaped hinges can be used to design high-precise and large-stroke compliant mechanisms. The approaches can be used for the accelerated synthesis of planar and spatial flexure hinge-based compliant mechanisms.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Sebastian Linß, Stefan Henning and Lena Zentner",authors:null},{id:"57137",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70768",title:"Kinetic Theory of Creep and Long-Term Strength of Metals",slug:"kinetic-theory-of-creep-and-long-term-strength-of-metals",totalDownloads:1194,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter deals with the simulation of the creep process and the effect of long-term strength of metals, notably, in both uniaxial and complex stress states. A description of a creep experiment and the simplest creep models are presented, that is, the theory of steady creep, the theory of ageing, the theory of flow and the theory of hardening. In creep process simulation, a kinetic theory based on the introduction of structural parameters characterising the state of the metal at a given time is widely used. Among such parameters, metal damage in the creep process, work of stresses on creep deformations (energy version) and concentration of an aggressive medium in the metal were studied. The coupled problem of creep and long tensile strength is also considered taking into account the mutual influence of damage accumulation and one-dimensional diffusion of the aggressive medium. The times to fracture are determined both in the presence of an aggressive medium and in the absence of one. A significant contribution of Soviet (Russian), European, American and Japanese scientists to the development of continuum damage mechanics is highlighted.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Alexander Lokoshchenko and Leonid Fomin",authors:[{id:"215612",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid",middleName:null,surname:"Fomin",slug:"leonid-fomin",fullName:"Leonid Fomin"},{id:"215613",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Lokoshchenko",slug:"alexander-lokoshchenko",fullName:"Alexander Lokoshchenko"}]},{id:"67535",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86682",title:"The General Kinematic Pair of a Cam Mechanism",slug:"the-general-kinematic-pair-of-a-cam-mechanism",totalDownloads:1271,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"At present, there are still increasing demands on the performance parameters of machinery equipment as well as cam mechanisms that belong to it. For this reason, the operating speeds and hence inertial effects of moving bodies, which limit the utilizable working frequency of machines, are increasing. These facts are the cause of higher wear and a decrease of the overall lifetime and reliability of machines. The force ratios in the general kinematic pair created by contact between the cam and the follower cause the contact stress. The generated stresses are transient and have a pulse shape. Fatigue damage of the cam working surface or the follower working surface may occur after exceeding a certain limit value of these stresses during the cam mechanisms running. This damage is in the form of cavities (pitting), which develop from cracks on the working surface. The chapter aim is to outline the issues of the dynamic stress of a general kinematic pair of a cam mechanism. One of the possible methods of the complex solution of the stress of the general kinematic pair is to use the possibilities of the finite element method in combination with the knowledge and conclusions of the contact mechanics.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Jiří Ondrášek",authors:null},{id:"57376",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70843",title:"Plasma Kinetic Theory",slug:"plasma-kinetic-theory",totalDownloads:1746,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The description of plasma using fluid model is mostly insufficient and requires the consideration of velocity distribution which leads to kinetic theory. Kinetic theory of plasma describes and predicts the condition of plasma from microscopic interactions and motions of its constituents. It provides an essential basis for an introductory course on plasma physics as well as for advanced kinetic theory. Plasma kinetics deals with the relationship between velocity and forces and the study of continua in velocity space. Plasma kinetics mathematical equations provide aid to the readers in understanding simple tools to determine the plasma dynamics and kinetics as described in this chapter. Kinetic theory provides the basics and essential introduction to plasma physics and subsequently advanced kinetic theory. Plasma waves, oscillations, frequencies, and applications are the subjects of kinetic theory. In this chapter, mathematical formulations essential for exploring plasma kinetics are compiled and described simplistically along with a precise discussion on basic plasma parameters in simple language with illustrations in some cases.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Auwal Mustapha Imam, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi\nand Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57376",title:"Plasma Kinetic Theory",slug:"plasma-kinetic-theory",totalDownloads:1746,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The description of plasma using fluid model is mostly insufficient and requires the consideration of velocity distribution which leads to kinetic theory. Kinetic theory of plasma describes and predicts the condition of plasma from microscopic interactions and motions of its constituents. It provides an essential basis for an introductory course on plasma physics as well as for advanced kinetic theory. Plasma kinetics deals with the relationship between velocity and forces and the study of continua in velocity space. Plasma kinetics mathematical equations provide aid to the readers in understanding simple tools to determine the plasma dynamics and kinetics as described in this chapter. Kinetic theory provides the basics and essential introduction to plasma physics and subsequently advanced kinetic theory. Plasma waves, oscillations, frequencies, and applications are the subjects of kinetic theory. In this chapter, mathematical formulations essential for exploring plasma kinetics are compiled and described simplistically along with a precise discussion on basic plasma parameters in simple language with illustrations in some cases.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Auwal Mustapha Imam, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi\nand Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"}]},{id:"66493",title:"Modeling and Design of Flexure Hinge-Based Compliant Mechanisms",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-flexure-hinge-based-compliant-mechanisms",totalDownloads:3578,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"A compliant mechanism gains its mobility fully or partially from the compliance of its elastically deformable parts rather than from conventional joints. Due to many advantages, in particular the smooth and repeatable motion, monolithic mechanisms with notch flexure hinges are state of the art in numerous precision engineering applications with required positioning accuracies in the low micrometer range. However, the deformation and especially motion behavior are complex and depend on the notch geometry. This complicates both the accurate modeling and purposeful design. Therefore, the chapter provides a survey of different methods for the general and simplified modeling of the elasto-kinematic properties of flexure hinges and compliant mechanisms for four hinge contours. Based on nonlinear analytical calculations and FEM simulations, several guidelines like design graphs, design equations, design tools, or a geometric scaling approach are presented. The obtained results are analytically and simulatively verified and show a good correlation. Using the example of a path-generating mechanism, it will be demonstrated that the suggested angle-based method for synthesizing a compliant mechanism with individually shaped hinges can be used to design high-precise and large-stroke compliant mechanisms. The approaches can be used for the accelerated synthesis of planar and spatial flexure hinge-based compliant mechanisms.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Sebastian Linß, Stefan Henning and Lena Zentner",authors:null},{id:"67535",title:"The General Kinematic Pair of a Cam Mechanism",slug:"the-general-kinematic-pair-of-a-cam-mechanism",totalDownloads:1271,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"At present, there are still increasing demands on the performance parameters of machinery equipment as well as cam mechanisms that belong to it. For this reason, the operating speeds and hence inertial effects of moving bodies, which limit the utilizable working frequency of machines, are increasing. These facts are the cause of higher wear and a decrease of the overall lifetime and reliability of machines. The force ratios in the general kinematic pair created by contact between the cam and the follower cause the contact stress. The generated stresses are transient and have a pulse shape. Fatigue damage of the cam working surface or the follower working surface may occur after exceeding a certain limit value of these stresses during the cam mechanisms running. This damage is in the form of cavities (pitting), which develop from cracks on the working surface. The chapter aim is to outline the issues of the dynamic stress of a general kinematic pair of a cam mechanism. One of the possible methods of the complex solution of the stress of the general kinematic pair is to use the possibilities of the finite element method in combination with the knowledge and conclusions of the contact mechanics.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Jiří Ondrášek",authors:null},{id:"66017",title:"Kinetostatic Nonlinear Stiffness Characteristic Generation Using the Kinematic Singularity of Planar Linkages",slug:"kinetostatic-nonlinear-stiffness-characteristic-generation-using-the-kinematic-singularity-of-planar",totalDownloads:848,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The theory of nonlinear stiffness characteristic by employing the kinematic limb-singularity of planar mechanisms with attached springs is proposed. After constructing the position formula with closed-loop form of the mechanism, the kinematic limb-singularity can be identified. The kinetostatic model can be obtained based on the principle of virtual work. The influences of spring stiffness on the force-displacement or torque-angle curve are analysed. Different spring stiffness results in one of four types of stiffness characteristic, which can be used to design an expected stiffness characteristic. After replacing corresponding joints with flexures, the pseudo-rigid-body model of the linkage with springs is obtained. The compliant mechanisms with nonlinear stiffness characteristic can further be synthesised based on the pseudo-rigid-body model.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Baokun Li and Guangbo Hao",authors:null},{id:"67222",title:"Kinematic Absolute Positioning with Quad-Constellation GNSS",slug:"kinematic-absolute-positioning-with-quad-constellation-gnss",totalDownloads:1026,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The absolute positioning technique is based on a point positioning mode with a single Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver, which has been widely used in many fields such as vehicle navigation and kinematic surveying. For a long period, this positioning technique mainly relies on a single GPS system. With the revitalization of Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) constellation and two newly emerging constellations of BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and Galileo, it is now feasible to carry out the absolute positioning with quad-constellation of GPS, GLONASS, BDS, and Galileo. A combination of multi-constellation observations can offer improved reliability, availability, and accuracy for position solutions. In this chapter, combined GPS/GLONASS/BDS/Galileo point positioning models for both traditional single point positioning (SPP) and precise point positioning (PPP) are presented, including their functional and stochastic components. The traditional SPP technique has a positioning accuracy at a meter level, whereas the PPP technique can reach an accuracy of a centimeter level. However, the later relies on the availability of precise ephemeris and needs a long convergence time. Experiments were carried out to assess the kinematic positioning performance in the two different modes. The positioning results are compared among different constellation combinations to demonstrate the advantages of quad-constellation GNSS.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Lin Pan, Changsheng Cai, Jianjun Zhu and Xianqiang Cui",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1392",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 10th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",slug:"cecilia-cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"gil-goncalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",slug:"johann-f.-osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",slug:"mani-t.-valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",slug:"marco-chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. Surana, Ritesh B. Pawar, Ritesh A. Khairnar and Sunil K. Mahajan",slug:"protein-prenylation-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Modifications of Biomolecules",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11098.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:31,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"11576",title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",hash:"5a01644fb0b4ce24c2f947913d154abe",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"April 26th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"76041",title:"Prof.",name:"Pier Paolo",surname:"Piccaluga",slug:"pier-paolo-piccaluga",fullName:"Pier Paolo Piccaluga"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11577",title:"Tick-Borne Diseases - A Review and an Update of Knowledge on Infections in Human and Animal Population",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11577.jpg",hash:"3d72ae651ee2a04b2368bf798a3183ca",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"April 29th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"51521",title:"Prof.",name:"Elisa",surname:"Pieragostini",slug:"elisa-pieragostini",fullName:"Elisa Pieragostini"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11570",title:"Influenza - New Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11570.jpg",hash:"157b379b9d7a4bf5e2cc7a742f155a44",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 10th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11569",title:"Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Infections - New Findings, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11569.jpg",hash:"069d6142ecb0d46d14920102d48c0e9d",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 31st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"189561",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela Laura",surname:"Vica",slug:"mihaela-laura-vica",fullName:"Mihaela Laura Vica"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11568",title:"Staphylococcal Infections - Recent Advances and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11568.jpg",hash:"92c881664d1921c7f2d0fee34b78cd08",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Bustos-Martínez",slug:"jaime-bustos-martinez",fullName:"Jaime Bustos-Martínez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. Soogun, Ayesha B.M. Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82193",title:"Enterococcal Infections: Recent Nomenclature and emerging trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104792",signatures:"Kavita Raja",slug:"enterococcal-infections-recent-nomenclature-and-emerging-trends",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82013",title:"Streamlining Laboratory Tests for HIV Detection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105096",signatures:"Ramakrishna Prakash and Mysore Krishnamurthy Yashaswini",slug:"streamlining-laboratory-tests-for-hiv-detection",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81972",title:"The Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa; Current Understanding of the Host Immune System and New Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105086",signatures:"Kwame Kumi Asare",slug:"the-submicroscopic-plasmodium-falciparum-malaria-in-sub-saharan-africa-current-understanding-of-the-",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81821",title:"Pneumococcal Carriage in Jordanian Children and the Importance of Vaccination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104999",signatures:"Adnan Al-Lahham",slug:"pneumococcal-carriage-in-jordanian-children-and-the-importance-of-vaccination",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81813",title:"Schistosomiasis: Discovery of New Molecules for Disease Treatment and Vaccine Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104738",signatures:"Andressa Barban do Patrocinio",slug:"schistosomiasis-discovery-of-new-molecules-for-disease-treatment-and-vaccine-development",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:62,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:2,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:3,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:4,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9493",title:"Periodontology",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Clinical Features",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9493.jpg",slug:"periodontology-fundamentals-and-clinical-features",publishedDate:"February 16th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Petra Surlin",hash:"dfe986c764d6c82ae820c2df5843a866",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Periodontology - Fundamentals and Clinical Features",editors:[{id:"171921",title:"Prof.",name:"Petra",middleName:null,surname:"Surlin",slug:"petra-surlin",fullName:"Petra Surlin",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:"University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova",institution:{name:"University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9588",title:"Clinical Concepts and Practical Management Techniques in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9588.jpg",slug:"clinical-concepts-and-practical-management-techniques-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Aneesa Moolla",hash:"42deab8d3bcf3edf64d1d9028d42efd1",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Clinical Concepts and Practical Management Techniques in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8202",title:"Periodontal Disease",subtitle:"Diagnostic and Adjunctive Non-surgical Considerations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8202.jpg",slug:"periodontal-disease-diagnostic-and-adjunctive-non-surgical-considerations",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif",hash:"0aee9799da7db2c732be44dd8fed16d8",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Periodontal Disease - Diagnostic and Adjunctive Non-surgical Considerations",editors:[{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8837",title:"Human Teeth",subtitle:"Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8837.jpg",slug:"human-teeth-key-skills-and-clinical-illustrations",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan and Farid Bourzgui",hash:"ac055c5801032970123e0a196c2e1d32",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Human Teeth - Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"52177",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",middleName:null,surname:"Bourzgui",slug:"farid-bourzgui",fullName:"Farid Bourzgui",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52177/images/system/52177.png",biography:"Prof. Farid Bourzgui obtained his DMD and his DNSO option in Orthodontics at the School of Dental Medicine, Casablanca Hassan II University, Morocco, in 1995 and 2000, respectively. Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). He is the author of several scientific articles, book chapters, and books.",institutionString:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7060",title:"Gingival Disease",subtitle:"A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7060.jpg",slug:"gingival-disease-a-professional-approach-for-treatment-and-prevention",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",hash:"b81d39988cba3a3cf746c1616912cf41",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Gingival Disease - A Professional Approach for Treatment and Prevention",editors:[{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",value:2,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Oral Health",value:1,count:6}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"429683",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"bilal-khalid",fullName:"Bilal Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429683/images/system/429683.png",biography:"Dr. Bilal Khalid received a Ph.D. in Industrial Business Administration from KMITL Business School, Bangkok, in 2021, and a master’s in International Business Management from Stamford International University, Bangkok, in 2017. Dr. Khalid\\'s research interests include leadership and negotiations, digital transformations, gamification, eLearning, blockchain, Big Data, and management of information technology. Dr. Bilal Khalid also serves as an academic editor at Education Research International and a reviewer for international journals.",institutionString:"KMITL Business School",institution:{name:"King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin is an Associate Professor of International Business at Laval University, Canada. He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. He is also co-managing editor of Transnational Corporations Review and a guest editor for Electronic Commerce Research and Journal of Internet Technology.",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"189147",title:"Dr.",name:"Hailan",middleName:null,surname:"Salamun",slug:"hailan-salamun",fullName:"Hailan Salamun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189147/images/19274_n.jpeg",biography:"Hailan Salamun, (Dr.) was born in Selangor, Malaysia and graduated from Tunku Ampuan Jamaah Religious High School at Shah Alam. Obtained a degree from the International Islamic University (UIA), Gombak in the field of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage. Next, I furthered my studies to the professional level to obtain a Diploma in Education at UIA. After serving for several years in school, I furthered my studies to the Master of Dakwah and Leadership at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi. I graduated with a Doctor of Philosophy in Principalship Leadership from the University of Malaya (UM) in 2010. I am currently a senior lecturer in the Department of Nationalism and Civilization, Center for Basic and Continuing Education, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu. Prior to that, I had served in several educational institutions such as schools, the Institute of Teacher Education (IPG), and also the University of Malaya. I am also actively involved in paper presentation, writing and publishing. My research interests are focused on leadership, education, society and Islamic civilization. This area of research requires a detailed understanding of Islamic studies and research studies in leadership. Another research interest that I have explored recently is the politics of the Malay community and also the leadership of the mosque.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"442081",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrey",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"audrey-addy",fullName:"Audrey Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"437993",title:"Mr.",name:"Job",middleName:null,surname:"Jackson",slug:"job-jackson",fullName:"Job Jackson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Management College of Southern Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"428495",title:"Prof.",name:"Asyraf",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Rahman",slug:"asyraf-ab-rahman",fullName:"Asyraf Ab Rahman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"429650",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacqueline",middleName:null,surname:"Kareem",slug:"jacqueline-kareem",fullName:"Jacqueline Kareem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Christ University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421041",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Ramdas",slug:"sunil-kumar-ramdas",fullName:"Sunil Kumar Ramdas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jain University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421833",title:"Mr.",name:"Eugene",middleName:null,surname:"Owusu-Acheampong",slug:"eugene-owusu-acheampong",fullName:"Eugene Owusu-Acheampong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"239876",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Mourão",slug:"luciana-mourao",fullName:"Luciana Mourão",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Salgado de Oliveira",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"421735",title:"Dr.",name:"elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"addy",slug:"elizabeth-addy",fullName:"elizabeth addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442083",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"james-addy",fullName:"James Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437991",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque",slug:"muhammad-hoque",fullName:"Muhammad Hoque",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421006",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Uster",slug:"anna-uster",fullName:"Anna Uster",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470243",title:"Dr.",name:"Md Samim",middleName:null,surname:"Al Azad",slug:"md-samim-al-azad",fullName:"Md Samim Al Azad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470244",title:"Dr.",name:"Slimane",middleName:null,surname:"Ed-dafali",slug:"slimane-ed-dafali",fullName:"Slimane Ed-dafali",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421011",title:"Dr.",name:"Afatakpa",middleName:null,surname:"Fortune",slug:"afatakpa-fortune",fullName:"Afatakpa Fortune",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"446057",title:"Mr.",name:"Okedare",middleName:null,surname:"David Olubukunmi",slug:"okedare-david-olubukunmi",fullName:"Okedare David Olubukunmi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421778",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatimah",middleName:"Saeed",surname:"AlAhmari",slug:"fatimah-alahmari",fullName:"Fatimah AlAhmari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421024",title:"Prof.",name:"Harold Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Patrick",slug:"harold-andrew-patrick",fullName:"Harold Andrew Patrick",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421065",title:"Ms.",name:"Euzália",middleName:null,surname:"do Rosário Botelho Tomé",slug:"euzalia-do-rosario-botelho-tome",fullName:"Euzália do Rosário Botelho Tomé",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kalala Ndalamba",slug:"ken-kalala-ndalamba",fullName:"Ken Kalala Ndalamba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421826",title:"Dr.",name:"Inusah",middleName:null,surname:"Salifu",slug:"inusah-salifu",fullName:"Inusah Salifu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"420823",title:"Prof.",name:"Gardênia da Silva",middleName:null,surname:"Abbad",slug:"gardenia-da-silva-abbad",fullName:"Gardênia da Silva Abbad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437613",title:"MSc.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Legentil",slug:"juliana-legentil",fullName:"Juliana Legentil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"86",type:"subseries",title:"Business and Management",keywords:"Demographic shifts, Innovation, Technology, Next-gen leaders, Worldwide environmental issues and clean technology, Uncertainty and political risks, Radical adjacency, Emergence of new business ecosystem type, Emergence of different leader and leader values types, Universal connector, Elastic enterprise, Business platform, Supply chain complexity",scope:"