Open access peer-reviewed chapter

Chilean Endemic/Native Plant Resources as Functional and Superfoods

Written By

Patricia Velásquez and Gloria Montenegro

Submitted: 23 May 2016 Reviewed: 13 September 2016 Published: 01 March 2017

DOI: 10.5772/65749

From the Edited Volume

Superfood and Functional Food - An Overview of Their Processing and Utilization

Edited by Viduranga Waisundara and Naofumi Shiomi

Chapter metrics overview

2,694 Chapter Downloads

View Full Metrics

Abstract

The current consumer demand for foods or food supplements with "super properties" is being covered by previously under-exploited ethnic products. The endemic flora from multiple continents serve as source of plant foods such as cereals or tropical fruits. Chile, one of the top five plant biodiversity hotspots on the planet, is a promising source of functional foods with little scientific and commercial research. The aim of this chapter is to summarize the findings related to the antioxidant and antibacterial potential of native/endemic plants and plant-derived compounds from Chile. Resources of these compounds may be found in honey, bee pollen, and berry-like fruits. These products, unknown to many parts outside the country, not only have the advantage of their functional properties but also possess denomination of origin, which gives added value and allows them to be used as food additives such as natural colorants, antioxidants, antibacterials, and antifungals. In the coming years, many of these products will be more commercially known and many of these plant species will be selected and improved, as have happened with products such as tofu or blueberries.

Keywords

  • biodiversity
  • endemism
  • berries
  • honey
  • bee pollen
  • antioxidant
  • antibacterial

1. Introduction

The latest food consumer trends point beyond fulfilling the function of providing nutrients to the body. It is intended that foods provide compounds capable of reducing the likelihood of developing diseases, improving or complementing the functions of the body, and even increasing life expectancy. A search for new food sources of these “healthy compounds” is underway to meet the needs of today’s consumers. New analytical methods are being used with known foods to demonstrate properties they always had, but properties that had not been properly tested because of technological limitations; new foods or derived food compounds are also being found.

The diversity of food we know is derived from the biodiversity of plant and animal species we know. However, there are still many plant species which have not been explored or whose potential is just beginning to come to light. Many of these plants have been used by aboriginal groups around the world since ancient times. These species, which only grow in specific geographic locations (endemism), are rarely objects of scientific study or for industrial or commercial scaling.

Chile is one of the top five hotspots of plant biodiversity on the planet; here it is possible to find new food and food-derived resources of interesting compounds in the poorly explored flora. In addition, the biodiversity of plant species found in Chile have a high degree of endemism, indicating that they do not grow elsewhere. Leaves, stems, roots, or fruits can be sources of antioxidants and/or antibacterial compounds. Among the plant species with potential are the non-fruiting tree specimens such as quillay and ulmo; within fruit tree species, we may find maqui, murta, calafate, and others that are less known. All these products have high contents of polyphenolics, which have high antioxidant and antibacterial properties.

Polyphenolics are secondary metabolites from plants that have been associated with several healthy benefits such as the prevention of cancer, cardiovascular, inflammatory, and neurodegenerative diseases [13]; they are also associated with bioactive properties such as antioxidant and antibacterial properties [47].

Each phenolic/flavonoid compound has different antioxidant/antibacterial potency depending on its action mechanism. Phenolic compounds alter the permeability of bacterial cell membranes, which may result in the uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation, the inhibition of active transport, and the loss of pool metabolites due to cytoplasmic membrane damage [8, 9]. Other authors explain the antibacterial activity of phenolics by the presence of more number of hydroxyl groups that may form hydrogen bonds with enzymes, altering their metabolism and also the lipid solubility and the degree of steric hindrance [10, 11]. In the case of flavonoids, antibacterial activity has been associated with its capacity to form complex bonds with proteins through non-specific forces such as hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic effects, as well as by covalent bond formation. Thus, it may inactivate microbial adhesins, enzymes, and cell envelope transport proteins. Lipophilic flavonoids may also disrupt microbial membranes [12, 13].

Advertisement

2. Effect of endemic/native Chilean plants on the functional activity of honeybee products

Honey has been recognized for many centuries as a healthy food, because of its positive effects such as healing [14], anti-inflammatory [15], antibacterial [1620], and antioxidant [2024] properties; and prebiotic capacity [2428]. Meanwhile, the pollen has also been recognized by health claims. Scientific studies have been shown that bee pollen acts as an anti-anemic, tonic and restorative, hormonal and intestinal regulator, vasoprotector, hepatoprotective and detoxifying agent, and antioxidant and antibacterial [29, 30]. All these properties vary with the botanical and geographical origin (Table 1).

Honey Phenolic compound References
Heather Benzoic acid, phenyl acetic acid [31, 32]
Heather Mandelic acid, B-phenyllactic acid [32]
Honeydew Protocatechuic acid [32]
Rape Hydrocinnamic acid [32]
Buckwheet 4-hydroxybenzoic acid [32]
Honeydew Protocatechuic acid [33]
Chestnut Ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid [33]
Chestnut 4-hydroxibenzoic acid, 4-hydroxyphenyllactic acid, phenylacetic acid [34]
Heather B-phenyllactic acid, benzoic acid, phenyl acetic acid [34]
Sunflower p-coumaric acid, phenyllactic acid, caffeic acid [34]
Lime 3-hydroxybenzoic acid [34]
Lavander Caffeic acid, gallic acid [34]
Strawberry Homogentisic acid [35]
Heather Ellagic acid,abscisic acid [36, 37]
Eucaliptus Abscisic acid, ellagic acid [38]
Citrus Hesperetin [39]
Rosemary Kaempferol [40]
Sunflower Quercentin [36, 37]
Eucaliptus Myricetin, tricetin, luteolin, quercentin [38, 41]
Manuka Methylglyoxal [42]
Heather p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, chlorogenic, caffeic, syringic. p-coumaric, ferulic,
m-coumaric, o-coumaric, ellagic, cinnamic acids
[43]
Lavander Gallic, vanillic, chlorogenic, p-coumaric, ferulic, m-coumaric, cinnamic acids [43]
Black locust  p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, p-coumaric, ferulic, trans-cinnamic acids.
Vanillin, pinobanksin, apigenin, kaempherol, pinocembrin, crysina, acacetin
[44]
Acacia Abscisic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, p-coumaric, Ferulic, trans-cinnamic acids. Vanillin, pinobanksin, apigenin, kaempherol, pinocembrin, crysina, acacetin [44]
Rosemary Pinobanksin, quercetin, luteolin, 8-methoxykaempferol, kaempferol,
apigenin, isohamnetin. quercetin 3,3′-dimethyl ether, pinocembrin, quercetin 7,3′-dimethyl ether, quercetin 3,7-dimethylether, chrysin, galangin, tectochrysin
[40]
Eucalyptus Quercentin, luteolin, myricetin [45]
Lotus Quercentin, luteolin, myricetin [45]
Buckwheat 3-hydroxybenzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid,
vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, ferrulic acid, p-coumaric acid, rosmarinic acid,
ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, chrysin, galangin
[45]
Sage Myricetin, quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, isorhamnetin,
chrysin, galangin, abscisic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid
[46]
Robinia Myricetin, quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, chrysin, galangin [47]
Eucalyptus Myricetin, tricetin, quercertin, luteolin, quercertin-3-methyl ether,
kaempferol, pinobanksin, chrysin, pinocembrin
[41]
Quillay Chlorogenic, caffeic, coumaric, syringic, p-coumaric,
vanillic and salicylic acids. Naringenin, quercetin, kaempferol
[48]
Ulmo p-coumaric, ferulic, chlorogenic, caffeic, sinapic, syringic and salicylic acid
Kaempferol luteolin
[49]

Table 1.

Different polyphenolic compounds found in honeys with several botanical origins.

2.1. Honeys

Chilean honey has shown biological activity against bacteria and fungi. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Vibrio cholerae have been inhibited by hydroalcoholic extracts derived from honey [49, 50]. Meanwhile, Candida albicans has also shown sensitivity to Chilean honey. Chilean honey even has higher antimicrobial activity than Manuka honey, which has a standard antioxidant and antimicrobial activity potential [51]. The antimicrobial activity of honey is probably the result of the total number of active compounds and not the presence of any one of them (i.e., phenolics and flavonoids). This activity may be the result of synergism between flavonoids and phenolic compounds or between phenolic compounds and terpenes. Some phenolic compounds and flavonoids are present only in certain unifloral honeys. These results have allowed for the identification and certification of these honeys. References [48, 52, 53] identified chlorogenic, caffeic, coumaric, syringic, p-coumaric, vanillic and salicylic acids, naringenin, quercetin and kaempferol in the unifloral honey of Quillay (Quillaja saponaria). In the same report, [52] found p-coumaric, ferulic, and salicylic acids in the endemic unifloral honey of Ulmo (Eucryphia cordifolia). Pinobanksin and kaempferol are typically identified in Chilean honeys.

Other more recent Chilean honeys currently being studied are Avellano honey (Gevuina avellana Molina), Tiaca honey (Caldcluvia paniculata (Cav.) D. Don), and Corontillo honey (Escallonia pulverulenta), which have shown antibacterial and antioxidant properties [50].

2.2. Bee pollen

Bee pollen provides important ingredients to the human diet, such as carbohydrates, protein, fat, and other components in lesser amount such as minerals. Carbohydrates are mainly polysaccharides such as starch and sugars and represent between 13 and 55 g per 100 g of sample. With regard to protein content, bee pollen provides all essential amino acids to the human diet and their percentages vary between 10 and 40% of the test sample [5563]. Referring to fats, a study reveals that 3% of the total lipids are free fatty acids and about half of them are omega-3 unsaturated oleic, linoleic (omega-6), and linolenic acids (omega-3) [55]. With reference to the mineral content, bee pollen contains potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, and selenium in amounts that satisfy the daily recommended intake per person [64].

Bee pollen
classification
Total
phenolics
FRAP DPPH β-Carotene Licopene Total
flavonoids
References
Pollen
multiflora
17.05–489.20
μg/g
[63]
Pollen
multiflora
1–20
mg/100 g
1293–8243
mg/100 g
[23]
Pollen
multiflora
530–3258
mg/100 g
[71]
Pollen
multiflora
0.25–5.35
mM Fe2+/g
0.27–2.8
mmol
Trolox/g
[55]
Pollen
multiflora
4.4–16.4
mg
GAE/g
0.255–5.355
mM Fe2+/g
0.274–2.814
mmol
Trolox/g
2.8–13.6
mg eq
quercetin/g
[74]
Pollen
multiflora
817,33-
138367
mg
tannin/kg
- 47,97-86,25 %
of inhibition
- - - [75]
Quillaja saponaria 18.15
mg
GAE/g
34.48
mM Fe2+/g
2.97 mg
ascorbic
acid/g
0
μg/g
0 μg/g [54, 76]
Azara petiolaris 16.43
mg
GAE/g
14.58
mM Fe2+/g
2.86 mg
ascorbic
acid/g
13.60
μg/g
60.40 μg/g
Puya chilensis 11.83
mg
GAE/g
28.24
mM Fe2+/g
2.87 mg
ascorbic
acid/g
4.60
μg/g
14.70 μg/g
Cryptocarya alba 11.74
mg
GAE/g
28.32
mM Fe2+/g
3.06 mg
ascorbic
acid/g
0
μg/g
0 μg/g
Colliguaja odorifera 11.50
mg
GAE/g
46.39
mM Fe2+/g
2.87 mg
ascorbic
acid/g
7.10
μg/g
7.30 μg/g
Schinus polygamus 7.12
mg
GAE/g
24.85
mM Fe2+/g
2.93 mg
ascorbic
acid/g
25.40
μg/g
28.80 μg/g

Table 2.

Main antioxidant parameters and pigments presented in bee pollen from different resources.

Several reports demonstrate the health benefits of bee pollen. Scientific studies have shown that bee pollen acts as an anti-anemic, tonic and restorative, hormone regulator, intestinal regulator, vasoprotector, and hepatoprotective, detoxifying, and antioxidant agent [28, 29, 65]. However, very few studies have identified the phenolic compounds of Chilean bee pollen. The information on bee pollen production for food applications and some reports concerning their antimicrobial and antioxidant activity [54, 66, 67].

Phenolic acids, flavonoids, and pigments such as β-carotene are mainly responsible for the healthy properties such as antioxidant and antibacterial properties exhibited by bee pollen [6870]. The phenolic acids and flavonoid glycosides are present in the nectar of flowers visited by bees, which are hydrolyzed and transferred to bee pollen. The number and variety of phenolic acids and flavonoids are highly variable, since beekeepers mix bee pollen with different botanical origins from different plant species [22, 71]. A major flavonoid found in bee pollen is rutin [72]. The main group of pigments that compose bee pollen are carotenoids, especially β-carotene, whose concentration also depends on the botanical origin of the sample [63]. The β-carotene content is about 17% of total carotenoids. In some cases, it may contain 20 times less carotenoids that some foods [73]. In Chilean bee pollen, the carotenoid content varies with the botanical origin (Table 2).

The type and concentration of the polyphenolic compound influence the antibacterial and antioxidant activity exhibited by bee pollen. The most important polyphenolic compounds related to these activities are vanillic acid, protocatechuic acid, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, hesperidin, rutin, kaempferol, apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, and isorhamnetin [70]. Bee pollen rich in these compounds has shown activity against specific pathogens such as S. aureus, which causes skin infections; E. coli, which causes diarrhea [67, 77], Streptococcus pyogenes, which causes acute bacterial pharyngitis [78], P. aeruginosa, which produces tissue damage and affects the immune system [79] and S. pyogenes, which causes skin wounds [16]. Another important study demonstrated the inhibition activity against Salmonella spp., as shown Figure 1 [66].

Figure 1.

Antibacterial activity of Chilean multiflora bee pollen hydrophilic extracts evaluated by inhibition zone diameter against Salmonella typhimurium and Salmonella enteriditis. Tetracycline (T), ampicillin (A) and chloramphenicol (Cl) were used as controls.

Advertisement

3. Endemic/native berries

Chile is the main exporter of berries in the Southern Hemisphere and the fifth berry exporter worldwide because of its comparative advantages: geographic isolation of the country (desert in the north, the Pacific Ocean, the Andes mountains, and the Patagonian ice), which makes it an island from the health point of view, decreasing the incidence of pests and diseases; the Mediterranean climate is beneficial to obtain optimal raw material and production and in a counter-season and phased production [80, 81]. Maqui, murta, and others recently explored are included in the list of actual and future production (Figures 2 and 3).

Figure 2.

Luma apiculata or “arrayán” fruits. These berry-like fruits have higher antioxidant activity than blueberries. Many unknown Chilean endemic/native fruits are potential functional foods.

Figure 3.

Myrceugenia obtusa or “Rarán” fruits. These berrys have antioxidant and antibacterial activities (Orellana et al., 2017).

3.1. “Maqui” (Aristotelia chilensis)

Maqui is a berry with antioxidant and antihemolytic properties [82, 83], and it limits adipogenesis and inflammatory pathways in vitro [84, 85], protects against oxidative stress by reducing lipid peroxidation [86], inhibits LDL oxidation in vitro and protects human endothelial cells against oxidative stress [87] and has cardioprotective [88] and gastroprotective properties [89]. These healthy effects are produced by anthocyanins and many other bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, coumarins, phenolic acid (i.e. gallic, gentisic, sinapic, hydroxybenzoic, vanillic acids, makonine, 8-oxo-9 dehydrohobartine and 8-oxo-9 dehydromakomakine [9093] present in the fruits. Recently, Maqui has been used to design new functional foods such as drinks and cakes with antioxidant properties for in vivo and clinical trials [9496].

3.2. “Murta” or “murtilla” (Ugni molinae)

Murta fruits are berries which have a rich chemical composition of bioactive compounds associated with health properties [97]. They have shown analgesic in vitro activity [98], protective capacity against oxidative damage of human erythrocytes [99], antimicrobial activity [100], antioxidant activity [101, 102], and α-glucosidase/α-amylase inhibition [102] as the main beneficial effects.

3.3. Other berries and berry-like fruits

“Calafate” (taxonomically described as Berberis buxifolia and also Berberis microphylla) fruits are berries that are scarcely studied. However, the available information is very interesting and indicates its potential as an antioxidant, which may be related to its high anthocyanin and hydroxycinnamic acid levels [103, 104]. Most recently, exploratory studies have revealed new native/endemic berry-like fruits such as Luma apiculata, Ribes punctatum, Ribes magellanicum, Ribes cucullatum and Ribes tribolum [105, 106]. Ribes spp., Rubus spp., Gaultheria spp., and Berberis spp., among others, as promising crops of functional foods or food additives/supplements such as natural colorants (Table 3). Some other non-scientific studies have been related with functional properties of several non-fruiting plants with anticoagulant, antithrombin, and analgesic properties and related health effects [107].

Common name Scientific
name
Attributed
properties
Description References
Chaura Gaultheria pumila Antioxidant
(antocyanin
content)
The fruit is a berry, white or
pink. ovoid shaped, 6 mm to 12 mm
in diameter
[108]
Chaura Gaultheria mucronata Antioxidant The fruit is a berry, between 6 and
9 mm in diameter, plum-shaped,
passing from white to pink and
finally to dark purple when ripe
[104, 109]
Chaura Gaultheria antarctica Antioxidant The fruit is a berry, white
or pink, ovoid shaped, 6 mm to 10
mm in diameter
[110]
Uva de cordillera, calafatillo Berberis empetrifolia Antioxidant The fruit is a globose, blue-black,about
7 mm in diameter
[109, 110]
Calafate, chelia Berberis ilicifolia Antioxidant Fruits are blue-black berries about
1 cm long, with four to six seeds, 5–6 mm in diameter
[110]
Calafate Berberis microphylla Antioxidant,
antibacterial
The fruit is a spherical blue-
black berry, about 1 cm. in
diameter, and contains six angular
seeds
[110113]
Calafate Berberis buxifolia Antioxidant
(anthocyanin
content)
The fruit is a globose, blue-
black, about 7–10 mm in
diameter
[109, 114, 115]
Michay, mechay Berberis darwinii In vitro evidence
for Alzheimer's
disease
therapy
The fruit is a globose, blue-
black, about 7–10 mm in
diameter
[116]
Copihue, Chilean bell national
flower
Lapageria rosae Antioxidant The fruits are red berries,
ovoid, between 3 and 6 cm long,
with a thick skin containing
numerous seeds
[117, 118]
Chilco, Chilca,
Palo blanco
Fuchsia magellanica Hypotensive and diuretic effect, antioxidant
activity, significant
inhibitory activity against
B-glucuronidase
enzyme
Fruit is a black berry, about
8–10 mm diameter
[104, 119122]
Peumo Cryptocarya alba Significant inhibitory activity against B-glucuronidase
enzyme, free radical
scavenging activity, antibacterial
activity
Red fruit with one large seed [119, 123125]
Daudapo,
Huarapo,
Zarapito,
Té de la turba, naurapo, mirteola
Myrteola nummularia Antioxidant (higher antioxidant content
than blueberries), it
may reduce colon
cancer risk, source of
natural colorant
as anthocyanin
The fruit is up to 1 cm in
diameter, it has a soft juicy
flesh and a delicious slightly
aromatic flavor
[104, 109, 126128]
Copihuelo,
Copihue chilote, Copihuelo, Coicopiu,
Philesia buxifolia, Philesia magellanica Antioxidant The fruit is a yellowish green ovoid berry, size up to 13 mm long [121, 129]
Queule, keule, Gomortega nítida,
Gomortega keule
Antioxidant The fruit is a drupe, yellow,
about 34–45 mm (1.3–1.8 in) in
diameter, usually with 1–2
seeds
[130]
Cauchao (from Luma or red
luma tree)
Amomyrtus luma Antioxidant, inhibit
platelet aggregation (anticoagulant effect), antibacterial
The fruit is a black to purplish-black berry when ripe, with about 1–1.5 cm in diameter, generally with 3 seeds, about 3–4.5 mm [121, 131, 132]
Cauchao (from
Meli or White
Luma tree)
Amomyrtus meli Antioxidant,
antibacterial
The fruit is a black or purplish black Berry, 5–8 mm in diameter, generally with 3 seeds, about 3–4.5 mm [112, 113, 132]
Chequén,
Arrayán blanco,
Luma chequen Antioxidant The berry-like fruit (drupe) is a dark purple, about 1 cm in diameter [112, 113, 133]
Arrayán Luma apiculata Antioxidant,
antibacterial, inhibit platelet aggregation  (anticoagulant effect)
Berry rounded black fruit, about
1.3–1.5 cm. diameter, containing three seeds
[105, 112, 125, 131, 133]
Chilean strawberry,  wild strawberry Fragaria chiloensis Antioxidant, free
radical scavenging activity, anticancer cell Proliferation properties (human lung epithelial cancer cells
The fruit is whitish or pale pink [134139]
Chañar, chañal Geoffroea decorticans Antioxidant,
antinoceptive, anti-inflammatory activities; antitussive
and expectorant
significant effect, antibacterial
The berry-like fruit is a drupe, ovoid, red-brown when ripe, about 1.7–3.5 cm to 1.5 cm. The pulp is white-yellowish and has 1 or 2 seeds [140142]
Maqui Aristotelia chilensis Inhibidor de la enzima xantina oxidasa (sintomatología de
la gota); antimicrobial activity (wound
treatment); in vitro
and in vivo antidiabetic effects, antibacterial activity, cardioprotective effects, antioxidant
The fruit is a small fleshy edible berry (green when unripe and purple black when ripe), about 5 mm,
with 2–4 seeds
[82, 83, 86, 88, 90, 103, 143146]
Murtilla de Magallanes,
brecillo, uvilla
Empetrum rubrum Antioxidant Globose and fleshy fruit, about
–8 mm in diameter, dark red
[109]
Murta, murtilla, Murta blanca, Tautau Ugni molinae Antioxidant,
vasodilator activity, antibacterial
The fruit is a bright red berry,
around 5–15 mm in diameter
[83, 99, 103, 112, 113, 147149]
Zarzaparrilla, parrilla, uvilla, mulul, milul, Chilean currant Ribes punctatum,
Ribes cucullatum,
Ribes magellanicum,
Antioxidant,
cytoprotective effect in human gastric cells
Fruits are red, black, or green [104, 106]
Zarzaparrilla, parrilla, Chilean currant Ribes trilobum Antioxidant,
cytoprotective effect in human gastric cells
The fruit is initially green and becomes glossy black when ripe [106]
Zarzaparrilla, parrilla, Chilean currant Ribes valdivianum Antioxidant Purple-black berry-like fruit [150]
Zarzaparrilla,
Miñe-miñe, strawberry of Magallanes, wild raspberry
Rubus geoides Antioxidant,
cytoprotective effect
in human gastric
cells
Berry-like fruit [111, 151]

Table 3.

Main functional properties of native/endemic berries and berry-like fruits.

Advertisement

4. Conclusions and future trends

In spite of the endemism, there are promising bee hive–derived products obtained from Chilean plants, as well as Chilean plant products in general. We are convinced that the main exponents of functional foods and super foods are in nature, which is where we have to explore to find them. However, they should be used and exploited in a sustainable way.

Advertisement

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Regional Innovation Fund for Competitiveness, ID 30126395-0 Región del Libertador Bernardo O’Higgins; UC-VRI interdisciplinary project N°13, 2014; to CONICYT Fellowship National Doctoral - Operating expenses N° 21110822; to Program Attraction and Integration of Advanced Human Capital (PAI-CONICYT) Doctoral Thesis in Business N° 781412002.

References

  1. 1. Huang, W.Y., Cai, Y.Z., Zhang, Y. Natural phenolic compounds from medicinal herbs and dietary plants: potential use for cancer prevention. Nutrition and Cancer. 2009;62(1):1–20.
  2. 2. Aboul-Enein, Y., Berczynski, P., Kruk, I. Phenolic compounds: the role of redox regulation in neurodegenerative. Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. 2013;13(3):385–398.
  3. 3. Rodríguez-Morató, J., Xicota, L., Fitó, M., Farré, M., Dierssen, M., De La Torre, R. Potential role of olive oil phenolic compounds in the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases. Molecules. 2015;20(3):4655–4680.
  4. 4. Heleno, S.A., Martins, A., Queiroz, M.J.R., Ferreira, I.C. Bioactivity of phenolic acids: metabolites versus parent compounds: a review. Food Chemistry. 2015;173(1):501–513.
  5. 5. Xu, Y., Burton, S., Kim, C., Sismour, E. Phenolic compounds, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties of pomace extracts from four Virginia‐grown grape. Food Science and Nutrition. 2016;4(1):125–133. DOI: http://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.264
  6. 6. Heim, K.E., Tagliaferro, A.R., Bobilya, D.J. Flavonoid antioxidants: chemistry, metabolism and structure-activity relationships. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry. 2002;13(10):572–584.
  7. 7. Pietta P.G. Flavonoids as antioxidants. Journal of Natural Products. 2000;63(7):1035–1042.
  8. 8. Shan, B., Cai, Y.Z., Brooks, J.D., Corke, H. Antibacterial properties and major bioactive components of cinnamon stick (Cinnamomum burmannii): activity against foodborne pathogenic bacteria. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2007;55(14):5484–5490.
  9. 9. Maillard, J.Y. Bacterial target sites for biocide action. Journal of applied microbiology. 2002;92(S1):16s–27s.
  10. 10. Salawu, S.O., Ogundare, A.O., Ola-Salawu, B.B., Akindahunsi, A.A. Antimicrobial activities of phenolic containing extracts of some tropical vegetables. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2011;5(4):486–492.
  11. 11. Ceylan, E., Fung, D.Y. Antimicrobial activity of spices. Journal of Rapid Methods and Automation in Microbiology. 2004;12(1):1–55.
  12. 12. Kumar, S., Pandey, A.K. Chemistry and biological activities of flavonoids: an overview. The Scientific World Journal. 2013;2013(1):Article ID 162750. DOI: doi:10.1155/2013/162750
  13. 13. Cushnie, T.P.T., Hamilton, V.E.S., Chapman, D.G., Taylor, P.W., Lamb, A.J. Aggregation of Staphylococcus aureus following treatment with the antibacterial flavonol galangin. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2007;103(5):1562–1567.
  14. 14. Molan, P.C. The evidence supporting the use of honey as a wound. The International Journal of Lower Extremity Wounds. 2006;5(1):40–54.
  15. 15. Taormina P.J., Niemira B.A., Beuchat L.R. Inhibitory activity of honey against foodborne pathogens as influenced by the presence of hydrogen peroxide and level of antioxidant power. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2001;69(1):217–225.
  16. 16. Basualdo C., Sgroy V., Finola M.S., Marioli J.M. Comparison of the antibacterial activity of honey from different. Veterinary Microbiology. 2007;124(1):375–381.
  17. 17. Weston R.J. The contribution of catalase and other natural products to the antibacterial activity of honey: a review. Food Chemistry. 2000;71(1):235–239.
  18. 18. Basim E., Basim H., Ozcan M. Antibacterial activities of Turkish pollen and propolis extracts against plant bacterial pathogens. Journal of Food Engineering. 2006;77(1):992–996.
  19. 19. Carpes, S.T., Begnini, R., de Alencar, S.M., Masson, M.L. Study of preparations of bee pollen extracts, antioxidant and antibacterial activity. Ciência e Agrotecnologia. 2007;31(6):1818–1825.
  20. 20. Rauha, J.P., Remes, S., Heinonen, M., Hopia, A., Kähkönen, M., Kujala, T., Vuorela P. Antimicrobial effects of Finnish plant extracts containing flavonoids and other phenolic compounds. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2000;56(1):3–12.
  21. 21. Frankel, S., Robinson, G.E., Berenbaum, M.R. Antioxidant capacity and correlated characteristics of 14 unifloral honeys. Journal of Apicultural Research. 1998;37(1):27–31.
  22. 22. Campos, M.G., Webby, R.F., Markham, K.R., Mitchell, K.A., Da Cunha, A.P. Age-induced diminution of free radical scavenging capacity in bee pollens and the contribution of constituent flavonoids. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003;51(1):742–745.
  23. 23. LeBlanc B.W., Davis O.K., Boue S., DeLucca A., Deeby T. Antioxidant activity of Sonoran Desert bee pollen. Food Chemistry. 2009;115(1):1299–1305.
  24. 24. Ajibola, A., Chamunorwa, J.P., Erlwanger, K.H. Nutraceutical values of natural honey and its contribution to human. Nutrition and Metabolism. 2012;9(61):1.
  25. 25. Aachary A.A., Prapulla S.G. Xylooligosaccharides (XOS) as an emerging prebiotic: microbial synthesis, utilization. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2011;10(1):6–16.
  26. 26. Shin, H.S., Ustunol, Z. Carbohydrate composition of honey from different floral sources and their influence on growth of selected intestinal bacteria: an in vitro comparison . Food Research International. 2005;38(6):721–728.
  27. 27. Riazi, A., Ziar, H. Effect of honey and starter culture on growth, acidification, sensory properties and bifidobacteria cell counts in fermented skimmed milk. African Journal of Microbiology Research. 2012;6(3):486–498.
  28. 28. Yıldız, O., Can, Z., Saral, Ö. Yuluğ, E., Öztürk, F., Aliyazıcıoğlu, R., Kolaylı, S. Hepatoprotective potential of chestnut bee pollen on carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatic damages in rats. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2013;2013(1):Article ID 461478. DOI: 10.1155/2013/461478
  29. 29. Negri, G., Teixeira, E.W., Florêncio Alves, M.L., Moreti, A.C., Otsuk, I.P., Borguini, R.G., Salatino, A. Hydroxycinnamic acid amide derivatives, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities of extracts of pollen samples from southeast Brazil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2011;59(10):5516–5522.
  30. 30. Steeg, E., Montag A. Quantitative Bestimmung aromatischer carbon sauren in Honig fur Lebensmitteluntersuchung und-forschung. Zeitschrift. 1988;187(1):115–120.
  31. 31. Andrade, P., Ferreres, F., Gil, M.I., Tomás-Barberán, F.A. Determination of phenolic compounds in honeys with different floral origin by capillary zone electrophoresis. Food Chemistry. 1997;60(1):79–84.
  32. 32. Joerg, E., Sontag, G. Multichannel coulometric detection coupled with liquid chromatography for determination of phenolic esters in honey. Journal of Chromatography A. 1993;635(1):137–142.
  33. 33. Dimitrova, B., Gevrenova, R., Anklam, E. Analysis of phenolic acids in honeys of different floral origin by solid‐pase extraction and high‐performance liquid chromatography. Phytochemical Analysis. 2007;18(1):24–32.
  34. 34. Soler C.,Gil M.I.,García-Viguera C.,Tomás-Barberán F.A. Flavonoid patterns of French honeys with different floral origin. Apidologie. 1995;26(1):53–60.
  35. 35. Cabras, P., Angioni, A., Tuberoso, C., Floris, I., Reniero, F., Guillou, C., Ghelli, S. Homogentisic acid: a phenolic acid as a marker of strawberry-tree (Arbutus unedo) honey. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1999;47(10):4064–4067.
  36. 36. Ferreres F., Andrade P., Gil M.I., Tomas-Barberan F.A. Floral nectar phenolics as biochemical markers for the botanical origin of heather honey. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 1996;200(1):40–44.
  37. 37. Yao, L., Datta, N., Tomás-Barberán, F., Ferreres, F., Martos, I., Singanusong, R. Flavonoids, phenolic acids and abscisic acid in Australian and New Zealand Leptospermum honeys. Food Chemistry. 2003;81(1):159–168.
  38. 38. Ferreres F., García-Viguera C., Tomás-Lorente F., Tomás-Barberán F.A. Hesperetin: A marker of the floral origin of citrus honey. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 1993;61(1):121–123.
  39. 39. Gil M.I., Ferreres F., Ortiz A., Subra E., Tomás-Barberán F.A. Plant phenolic metabolites and floral origin of rosemary honey. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 1995;43(1):2833–2838.
  40. 40. Martos I., Ferreres F., Tomás-Barberán F.A. Identification of flavonoid markers for the botanical origin of eucalyptus honey. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2000;48(1):1498–1502.
  41. 41. Andrade, P., Ferreres, F., Amaral, M.T. Analysis of honey phenolic acids by HPLC, its application to honey botanical characterization. Journal of Liquid Chromatography and Related Technologies. 1997;20(14):2281–2288.
  42. 42. Adams, C.J., Manley-Harris, M., Molan, P.C. The origin of methylglyoxal in New Zealand manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) honey. Carbohydrate Research. 2009;344(8):1050–1053.
  43. 43. Pyrzynska, K., Biesaga, M. Analysis of phenolic acids and flavonoids in honey. Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2009;28(7):893–902.
  44. 44. Iurlina, M.O., Saiz, A.I., Fritz, R., Manrique, G.D. Major flavonoids of Argentinean honeys. Optimisation of the extraction method and analysis of their content in relationship to the geographical source of honeys. Food Chemistry. 2009;115(3):1141–1149.
  45. 45. Jasicka-Misiak, I., Poliwoda, A., Dereń, M., Kafarski, P. Phenolic compounds and abscisic acid as potential markers for the floral origin of two Polish unifloral honeys. Food Chemistry. 2012;131(4):1149–1156.
  46. 46. Kenjerić, D., Mandić, M.L., Primorac, L., Čačić, F. Flavonoid pattern of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) unifloral honey. Food Chemistry. 2008;110(1):187–192.
  47. 47. Kenjerić, D., Mandić, M.L., Primorac, L., Bubalo, D., Perl, A. Flavonoid profile of Robinia honeys produced in Croatia. Food Chemistry. 2007;102(3):683–690.
  48. 48. Montenegro G., Gómez M., Casaubon G., Belancic A., Mujica A.M., Peña R.C. Analysis of volatile compounds in three unifloral native Chilean honeys. Phyton. 2009;78(1):61–65.
  49. 49. Velásquez P., Retamal M., Giordano A., Valenzuela L, Montenegro G. Chemical composition and in vitro antibacterial activity of Chilean bee-pollen and honey blend-extracts. ICEF12 - 12th International Congress on Engineering and Food. 14-18 June 2015, Québec, Canada.
  50. 50. Montenegro G., Santander F., Jara C., Nuñez G., Fredes C. Antioxidant and microbial activity of unifloral honeys of plants native to Chile. Boletín Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas. 2013;12(1):257–268.
  51. 51. Sherlock O., Dolan A., Athman R., Power A., Gethin G., Cowman S., Humphreys H. Comparison of the antimicrobial activity of Ulmo honey from Chile and Manuka honey against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2010;10(1):1–47.
  52. 52. Muñoz O., Copaja S., Speisky H., Peña R.C., Montenegro G. Content of flavonoids and phenolic compounds in Chilean honeys. Química Nova 2007;30(1):848–851.
  53. 53. Montenegro, G., Salas, F., Pena, R.C., Pizarro, R. Antibacterial and antifungic activity of the unifloral honeys of Quillaja saponaria, an endemic Chilean species. Phyton. 2009;78(1):141–146.
  54. 54. Montenegro, G., Pizarro, R., Mejías, E., Rodríguez, S. Biological evaluation of bee pollen from native Chilean plants. Phyton. 2013;82(1):7–14.
  55. 55. Bogdanov S. Pollen: Nutrition, Functional Properties, Health: A Review [Internet]. 2011. Available from: http://www.beehexagon.net/ [Accessed: October, 2015]
  56. 56. Modro, A.F., Silva I.C., Luz C.F., Message D. Analysis of pollen load based on color, physicochemical composition and botanical source. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 2009;81(2):281–285.
  57. 57. Sommerville D.C. Nutritional value of bee collected pollens, Report DAN 134A. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC). NSW Agriculture. Publication No. 01/047; 2001.
  58. 58. Andrada, A.C., Tellería, M.C. Pollen collected by honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) from south of Caldén district (Argentina): floral origin and protein content. Grana. 2005;44(2):115–122.
  59. 59. De Arruda, V.A., Santos Pereira, A.A., Estevinho, L.M., De Almeida-Muradian, L.B. Presence and stability of B complex vitamins in bee pollen using different storage conditions. Food Chemistry and Toxicology. 2013;51(1):143–148.
  60. 60. De Arruda, V.A.S., Pereira, A.A.S., De Freitas, A.S., Barth, O.M., De Almeida-Muradian, L.B. Dried bee pollen: B complex vitamins, physicochemical and botanical composition. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2013;29(2):100–105.
  61. 61. Carpes, S.T., Mourao, G.B., Masson, M.L. Chemical composition and free radical scavenging activity of Apis mellifera bee pollen from Southern Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology. 2009;12(3):220–229.
  62. 62. Human, H., Nicolson, S.W. Nutritional content of fresh, bee-collected and stored pollen of Aloe greatheadii var. davyana (Asphodelaceae). Phytochemistry. 2006;67(14):1486–1492.
  63. 63. Almeida-Muradian, L.B., Pamplona, L.C., Coimbra, S., Barth, O.M. Chemical composition and botanical evaluation. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2005;18(1):105–111.
  64. 64. Stanciu, O.G., Mărghitaş, L.A., Dezmirean, D., Campos, M.G. A comparison between the mineral content of flower and honeybee collected pollen of selected plant origin (Helianthus annuus L. and Salix sp.). Romanian Biotechnological Letters. 2011;16(4):6291–6296.
  65. 65. Cheng, N., Wang, Y., Gao, H., Yuan, J., Feng, F., Cao, W., Zheng, J. Protective effect of extract of Crataegus pinnatifida pollen on DNA damage response to oxidative stress. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2013;59(1):709–714.
  66. 66. Velásquez P., Rodríguez K., Retamal M., Giordano A., Valenzuela L, Montenegro G. Antimicrobial Activity of chilean bee-pollen extracts. XI Congreso Latinoamericano de Botánica. 19-24 Octubre 2014. Salvador de Bahía, Brasil.
  67. 67. Cabrera C., Montenegro G. Pathogen control using a natural Chilean bee pollen extract of known botanical origin. Ciencia e Investigacion Agraria 2013;40(1):223–230.
  68. 68. Meda A., Lamien C.E., Romito M., Millogo J., Nacoulma O.G. Determination of the total phenolic, flavonoid and proline contents in Burkina Fasan honey, as well as their radical scavenging activity. Food Chemistry. 2005;91(1):571–577.
  69. 69. Aloisi, P.V., Ruppel, S. Bioactive and nutrition of bee pollen in the province of Chubut, Argentina. Revista de Investigaciones Agropecuarias. 2014;40(3):296–302.
  70. 70. Aličić, D., Šubarić, D., Jašić, M., Pašalić, H., Ačkar, Đ. Antioxidant properties of pollen. Hrana u Zdravlju i Bolesti. 2014;3(1):6–12.
  71. 71. Leja, M., Mareczek, A., Wyzgolik, G., Klepacz-Baniak, J., Czekonska, K. Antioxidative properties of bee pollen in selected plant species. Food Chemistry. 2007;100(1):237–240.
  72. 72. Serra Bonvehí, J., Soliva Torrentó, M., Centelles Lorente, E. Evaluation of polyphenolic and flavonoid compounds in honeybee-collected pollen produced in Spain. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2001;49(4):1848–1853.
  73. 73. Du Sert, P.P. Les pollens apicoles. Phytothérapie. 2009;7(2):75–82
  74. 74. Marghitas L.A., Stanciu O.G., Dezmirean D.S., Bobis O., Popescu O., Bogdanov S., Campos M.G. In vitro antioxidant capacity of honeybee-collected pollen of selected floral origin harvested from Romania. Food Chemistry. 2009;115(1):878–883.
  75. 75. Fatrcová-Šramková K., Nôžková J., Kačániová M., Máriássyová M., Rovná K., Stričík M. Antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of monofloral bee pollen. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B: Pesticides, FoodContaminants, and Agricultural Wastes. 2013;48(2):133–138.
  76. 76. Montenegro, G. Bee pollen Chilean: Differentiation and uses according to their properties and floral origin. 1st ed. Chile: Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; 2012.
  77. 77. Libonatti, C., Soledad, V., Marina, B. Antibacterial activity of honey: a review of honey around the world. Journal of Microbiology and Antimicrobials. 2014;6(3):51–56.
  78. 78. Esposito, S., Blasi, F., Bosis, S., Droghetti, R., Faelli, N., Lastrico, A., Principi, N. Aetiology of acute pharyngitis: the role of atypical bacteria. Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2004;53(7):645–651.
  79. 79. Guo, S.A., DiPietro, L.A. Factors affecting wound healing. Journal of Dental Research. 2010;89(3):219–229.
  80. 80. ASOEX (Asociación de Exportadores de Frutas de Chile, A.G.). Mercado de berries [Internet]. 2006 [Updated: 2016]. Available from: http://www.asoex.cl/ [Accessed: September, 2016]
  81. 81. ProChile. Foods from Chile, Source of Life [Internet]. 2013. Available from: http://www.prochile.gob.cl/int/united-states/wpcontent/blogs.dir/21/files_mf/952FoodsfromChile.pdf [Accessed: August, 2016]
  82. 82. Fredes, C., Montenegro, G., Zoffoli, J.P., Gómez, M., Robert, P. Polyphenol content and antioxidant activity of maqui (Aristotelia chilensis Molina Stuntz) during fruit development and maturation in Central Chile. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research. 2012;72(4):582–589.
  83. 83. Rubilar, M., Jara, C., Poo, Y., Acevedo, F., Gutierrez, C., Sineiro, J., Shene, C. Extracts of maqui (Aristotelia chilensis) and murta (Ugni molinae Turcz.): sources of antioxidant compounds and -glucosidase/-amylase inhibitors. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2011;59(5):1630–1637.
  84. 84. Reyes-Farias, M., Vasquez, K., Ovalle-Marin, A., Fuentes, F., Parra, C., Quitral, V., Garcia-Diaz, D.F. Chilean native fruit extracts inhibit inflammation linked to the pathogenic interaction between adipocytes and macrophages. Journal of Medicinal Foods. 2015;18(5):601–608.
  85. 85. Schreckinger, M.E., Wang, J., Yousef, G., Lila, M.A., Gonzalez de Mejia, E. Antioxidant capacity and in vitro inhibition of adipogenesis and inflammation by phenolic extracts of Vaccinium floribundum and Aristotelia chilensis. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2010;58(16):8966–8976.
  86. 86. Céspedes, C.L., Valdez-Morales, M., Avila, J.G., El-Hafidi, M., Alarcón, J., Paredes-López, O. Phytochemical profile and the antioxidant activity of Chilean wild black-berry fruits, Aristotelia chilensis (Mol) Stuntz (Elaeocarpaceae). Food Chemistry. 2010;119(3):886–895.
  87. 87. Miranda-Rottmann, S., Aspillaga, A.A., Pérez, D.D., Vasquez, L., Martinez, A.L., Leighton, F. Juice and phenolic fractions of the berry Aristotelia chilensis inhibit LDL oxidation in vitro and protect human endothelial cells against oxidative stress. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2002;50(26):7542–7547.
  88. 88. Céspedes, C.L., El-Hafidi, M., Pavon, N., Alarcon, J. Antioxidant and cardioprotective activities of phenolic extracts from fruits of Chilean blackberry Aristotelia chilensis (Elaeocarpaceae), Maqui, Food Chemistry. 2008;107(2):820–829.
  89. 89. Céspedes, C.L. Anti-inflammatory, antioedema and gastroprotective activities of Aristotelia chilensis extracts. Boletín Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas. 2011;9(6):432–439.
  90. 90. Fredes, C., Yousef, G.G., Robert, P., Grace, M.H., Lila, M.A., Gómez, M., Montenegro, G. Anthocyanin profiling of wild maqui berries (Aristotelia chilensis [Mol.] Stuntz) from different geographical regions in Chile. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2014;94(13):2639–2648.
  91. 91. Romanucci, V., D'Alonzo, D., Guaragna, A., Di Marino, C., Davinelli, S., Scapagnini, G., Zarrelli, A. Bioactive compounds of Aristotelia chilensis Stuntz and their pharmacological effects. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. 2016;17(6):513–523.
  92. 92. Muñoz, O., Christen, P., Cretton, S., Backhouse, N., Torres, V. Chemical study and anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antioxidant activities of the leaves of Aristotelia chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz, Elaeocarpaceae. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2011;63(1):849–859.
  93. 93. Suwalsky, M., Vargas, P., Avello, M., Villena, F., Sotomayor C.P. Human erythrocytes are affected in vitro by flavonoids of Aristotelia chilensis (Maqui) leaves. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2008;363(1):85–90.
  94. 94. Wu, B.H., Wang, W.C., Kuo, H.Y. Effect of multi-berries drink on endogenous antioxidant activity in subjects who are regular smokers or drinkers. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research. 2016;4(5):289–295.
  95. 95. Lee, H.J. Antioxidant activity and properties characteristics of pound cakes prepare using freeze dried maquiberry (Aristotelia chilensis [Mol.]) powder. The Korean Journal of Food and Nutrition. 2014;27(6):1067–1077.
  96. 96. Gironés-Vilaplana, A., Valentão, P., Moreno, D.A., Ferreres, F., Garcı́a-Viguera, C., Andrade, P.B. New beverages of lemon juice enriched with the exotic berries maqui, açaı, and blackthorn: bioactive components and in vitro biological properties. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2012;60(26):6571–6580
  97. 97. Schreckinger, M.E., Lotton, J., Lila, M.A., de Mejia, E.G. Berries from South America: a comprehensive review on chemistry, health potential, and commercialization. Journal of Medicinal Food. 2010;13(2):233–246.
  98. 98. Delporte, C., Backhouse, N., Inostroza, V., Aguirre, M.C., Peredo, N., Silva, X., Miranda, H.F. Analgesic activity of Ugni molinae (murtilla) in mice models of acute pain. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2007;112(1):162–165.
  99. 99. Suwalsky, M., Orellana, P., Avello, M., Villena, F. Protective effect of Ugni molinae Turcz against oxidative damage of human erythrocytes. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2007;45(1):130–135.
  100. 100. Shene, C., Reyes, A.K., Villarroel, M., Sineiro, J., Pinelo, M., Rubilar, M. Plant location and extraction procedure strongly alter the antimicrobial activity of murta extracts. European Food Research and Technology. 2009;228(3):467–475.
  101. 101. Peña-Cerda, M., Arancibia-Radich, J., Valenzuela-Bustamante, P., Pérez-Arancibia, R., Barriga, A., Seguel, I., Delporte, C. Phenolic composition and antioxidant capacity of Ugni molinae Turcz leaves of different genotypes. Food Chemistry. 2017;215(1):219–227.
  102. 102. Rubilar, M., Pinelo, M., Ihl, M., Scheuermann, E., Sineiro, J., Nuñez, M.J. Murta leaves (Ugni molinae Turcz) as a source of antioxidant polyphenols. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2006;54(1):59–64.
  103. 103. Ruiz, A., Hermosín-Gutiérrez, I., Mardones, C., Vergara, C., Herlitz, E., Vega, M., von Baer, D. Polyphenols and antioxidant activity of calafate (Berberis microphylla) fruits and other native berries from Southern Chile. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2010;58(10):6081–6089.
  104. 104. Ruiz, A., Mardones, C., Vergara, C., Hermosín-Gutiérrez, I., von Baer, D., Hinrichsen, P., Dominguez, E. Analysis of hydroxycinnamic acids derivatives in calafate (Berberis microphylla G. Forst) berries by liquid chromatography with photodiode array and mass spectrometry detection. Journal of Chromatography A. 2013;1281(1):38–45.
  105. 105. Fuentes, L., Valdenegro, M., Gómez, M.G., Ayala-Raso, A., Quiroga, E., Martínez, J.P., Figueroa, C.R. Characterization of fruit development and potential health benefits of arrayan (Luma apiculata), a native berry of South America. Food Chemistry. 2016;196(1):1239–1247.
  106. 106. Jiménez-Aspee, F., Theoduloz, C., Vieira, M.N., Rodríguez-Werner, M.A., Schmalfuss, E., Winterhalter, P., SchmedaHirschmann, G. Phenolics from the Patagonian currants Ribes spp.: isolation, characterization and cytoprotective effect in human AGS cells. Journal of Functional Foods. 2016;26(1):11–26.
  107. 107. Fredes, C., Montenegro, G. Chilean Plants as a Source of Polyphenols. In: Céspedes C.L., Sampietro D.A., Seigler D.S., Mahendra Rai, editors. Natural Antioxidants and Biocides from Wild Medicinal Plants. CABI (CAB International); 2013. p. 116–136
  108. 108. Villagra, E., Campos-Hernandez, C., Cáceres, P., Cabrera, G., Bernardo, Y., Arencibia, A.,. Morphometric and phytochemical characterization of chaura fruits (Gaultheria pumila): a native Chilean berry with commercial potential. Biological Research. 2014;47(1):1–8.
  109. 109. INIA. Tierra adentro, N5, agosto-septiembre [Internet]. 2011. Available from: http://www2.inia.cl/medios/tierraadentro/TierraAdentro95.pdf [Accessed: September, 2016]
  110. 110. Ruiz, A., Zapata, M., Sabando, C., Bustamante, L., von Baer, D., Vergara, C., Mardones, C. Flavonols, alkaloids, and antioxidant capacity of edible wild Berberis species from patagonia. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2014;62(51):12407–12417.
  111. 111. Manosalva, L., Mutis, A., Urzúa, A., Fajardo, V., Quiroz, A. Antibacterial activity of alkaloid fractions from Berberis microphylla G. Forst and study of synergism with ampicillin and cephalothin. Molecules. 2016;21(1): 76–85. DOI: 10.3390/molecules6
  112. 112. Ramirez, J.E., Zambrano, R., Sepúlveda, B., Kennelly, E.J., Simirgiotis, M.J. Anthocyanins and antioxidant capacities of six Chilean berries by HPLC–HR-ESI-ToF-MS. Food Chemistry. 2015;176(1):106–114.
  113. 113. Brito, A., Areche, C., Sepúlveda, B., Kennelly, E.J., Simirgiotis, M.J. Anthocyanin characterization, total phenolic quantification and antioxidant features of some Chilean edible berry extracts. Molecules. 2014;19(8):10936–10955.
  114. 114. Albrecht, C., Pellarin, G., Rojas, M.J., Albesa, I., Eraso, A.J. Beneficial effect of Berberis buxifolia Lam, Zizyphus mistol griseb and Prosopis alba extracts on oxidative stress induced by chloramphenicol. Medicina. 2010;70(1):65–70.
  115. 115. INIA. Domesticacion del calafate para fines agroindustriales. Ministerio de Agricultura. Gobierno de Chile. [Internet]. 2001. Available from: http://repositoriodigital.corfo.cl/bitstream/handle/11373/4289/777.076_IF.pdf?sequence=3 [Accessed: September, 2016]
  116. 116. Habtemariam, S. The therapeutic potential of Berberis darwinii stem-bark: quantification of berberine and in vitro evidence for Alzheimer's disease therapy. Natural Product Communications. 2011;6(8):1089–1090.
  117. 117. Vergara, C., Von Baer, D., Hermosín, I., Ruiz, A., Hitschfeld, M.A., Castillo, N., Mardones, C. Anthocyanins that confer characteristic color to red copihue flowers (Lapageria rosea). Journal of the Chilean Chemical Society. 2009;54(2):194–197.
  118. 118. Pino, J.A., Abril, D., Contreras, D., Lamí-Izquierdo, L., Lorenzo-Izquierdo, M. Volatiles from Lapageria rosea Ruiz et Pav. red flower. Journal of Essential Oil Research. 2013;25(3):224–226.
  119. 119. Schmeda-Hirschmann, G., Loyola, J.L., Razmilic, I., Reyes, S., Rodríguez, J., Pacheco, P., Teoduloz, C. La Farmacopea Mapuche, una fuente de productos biológicamente activos. Revista Universum de la Universidad de Talca. Chile. 1993;8(1):153–179.
  120. 120. Rodriguez, J., Pacheco, P., Razmilic, I., Loyola, J.I., Schmeda‐Hirschmann, G., Theoduloz, C. Hypotensive and diuretic effect of Equisetum bogotense and Fuchsia magellanica and micropropagation of E. bogotense. Phytotherapy Research. 1994;8(3):157–160.
  121. 121. Strzałka, K., Świeżewska, E., Suwalsky, M. Tocochromanols, plastoquinone and polyprenols in selected plant species from Chilean Patagonia. Acta Biologica Cracoviensia. Series Botanica. 2009;51(1):39–44.
  122. 122. Pérez-Cruz, F., Cortés, C., Atala, E., Bohle, P., Valenzuela, F., Olea-Azar, C., Speisky, H., Aspée, A., Liss, E., López-Alarcón, C., Bridi, R. Use of pyrogallol red and pyranine as probes to evaluate antioxidant capacities towards hypochlorite. Molecules. 2013;12(8):1638–1652.
  123. 123. Schmeda-Hirschmann, G., Razmilic, I., Gutierrez, M.I., Loyola, J.I. Proximate composition and biological activity of food plants gathered by Chilean Amerindians. Economic Botany. 1999;53(2):177–187.
  124. 124. Simirgiotis M.J. Antioxidant capacity and HPLC-DAD-MS profiling of Chilean Peumo (Cryptocarya alba) fruits and comparison with German Peumo (Crataegus monogyna) from Southern Chile. Molecules. 2013;18(1):2061–2080.
  125. 125. Franco, W., Fuentes L., Valdenegro M., Figueroa C. Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Capacity of Peumo (Cryptocarya alba) and Arrayan (Luma apiculata) Leaves and Fruits [Internet]. 2013. Available from: https://iafp.confex.com/iafp/2013/webprogram/Paper3946.html [Accessed: September, 2016]
  126. 126. Arancibia-Avila, P., Toledo, F., Werner, E., Suhaj, M., Leontowicz, H., Leontowicz, M., Martinez-Ayala A.L., Paweł P., Gorinstein, S. Partial characterization of a new kind of Chilean Murtilla-like berries. Food Research International. 2011;44(7):2054–2062.
  127. 127. Flis, S., Jastrzebski, Z., Namiesnik, J., Arancibia-Avila, P., Toledo, F., Leontowicz, H., Gorinstein, S. Evaluation of inhibition of cancer cell proliferation in vitro with different berries and correlation with their antioxidant levels by advanced analytical methods. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis. 2012;62(1):68–78.
  128. 128. Gorinstein, S., Arancibia-Avila, P., Toledo, F., Namiesnik, J., Leontowicz, H., Leontowicz, M. Kyung-Sik Ham, Seong-Gook Kang, Kann Vearasilp, Suhaj, M. Application of analytical methods for the determination of bioactive compounds in some berries. Food Analytical Methods. 2013;6(2):432–444.
  129. 129. Suwalsky, M., Avello, M., Obreque, J., Villena, F., Szymanska, R., Stojakowska, A., Strzalka, K. Protective effect of Philesia Magellanica (coicopihue) from Chilean Patagonia against oxidative damage. Journal of the Chilean Chemical Society. 2015;60(2):2935–2939.
  130. 130. Simirgiotis, M.J., Ramirez, J.E., Hirschmann, G.S., Kennelly, E.J. Bioactive coumarins and HPLC-PDA ESI-ToF-MS metabolic profiling of edible queule fruits (Gomortega keule), an endangered endemic Chilean species. Food Research International. 2013;54(1):532–543.
  131. 131. Falkenberg, S.S., Tarnow, I., Guzman, A., Mølgaard, P., Simonsen, H.T. Mapuche herbal medicine inhibits blood platelet aggregation. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012;2012(1):Article ID 647620. DOI: 10.1155/2012/647620
  132. 132. Cerón, M.A.O. Acción antimicrobiana de extractos crudos de especies de plantas nativas sobre Escherichia coli y Salmonella spp. [thesis]. Chile. 2012.
  133. 133. Simirgiotis, M.J., Bórquez, J., Schmeda-Hirschmann, G. Antioxidant capacity, polyphenolic content and tandem HPLC–DAD–ESI/MS profiling of phenolic compounds from the South American berries Luma apiculata and L. chequen. Food Chemistry. 2013;139(1):289–299.
  134. 134. Cheel, J., Theoduloz, C., Rodríguez, J., Saud, G., Caligari, P.D., Schmeda-Hirschmann, G. E-cinnamic acid derivatives and phenolics from Chilean strawberry fruits, Fragaria chiloensis ssp. chiloensis. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2005;53(22):8512–8518.
  135. 135. Cheel, J., Theoduloz, C., Rodríguez, J.A., Caligari, P.D., Schmeda-Hirschmann, G. Free radical scavenging activity and phenolic content in achenes and thalamus from Fragaria chiloensis ssp. chiloensis, F. vesca and F. x ananassa cv. Chandler. Food Chemistry. 2007;102(1):36–44.
  136. 136. Wang, S.Y., Lewers, K.S., Bowman, L., Ding, M. Antioxidant activities and anticancer cell proliferation properties of wild strawberries. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 2007;132(5):647–658.
  137. 137. Simirgiotis, M.J., Theoduloz, C., Caligari, P.D., Schmeda-Hirschmann, G. Comparison of phenolic composition and antioxidant properties of two native Chilean and one domestic strawberry genotypes. Food Chemistry. 2009;113(2):377–385.
  138. 138. Simirgiotis, M.J., Schmeda-Hirschmann, G. Determination of phenolic composition and antioxidant activity in fruits, rhizomes and leaves of the white strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis spp. chiloensis form chiloensis) using HPLC-DAD–ESI-MS and free radical quenching techniques. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2010;23(6):545–553.
  139. 139. Schmeda-Hirschmann, G., Simirgiotis, M., Cheel, J. Chemistry of the Chilean Strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis spp. chiloensis). Gene, Genome and Genomics. 2011;5(1):85–90.
  140. 140. Salvat, A., Antonacci, L., Fortunato, R.H., Suárez, E.Y., Godoy, H.M. Antimicrobial activity in methanolic extracts of several plant species from northern Argentina. Phytomedicine. 2004;11(2):230–234.
  141. 141. Costamagna, M.S., Zampini, I.C., Alberto, M.R., Cuello, S., Torres, S., Pérez, J., Quispe J., Schmeda-Hirschmann G., Isla, M.I. Polyphenols rich fraction from Geoffroea decorticans fruits flour affects key enzymes involved in metabolic syndrome, oxidative stress and inflammatory process. Food Chemistry. 2016;190(1):392–402.
  142. 142. Reynoso M.A., Sánchez Riera A., Vera N.R. Nutraceutical properties and safety evaluation of fruits and arrope of Geoffroea decorticans (Chañar). Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences. 2016;6(2):485. DOI: 10.4172/2155-9600.1000485
  143. 143. Mølgaard, P., Holler, J.G., Asar, B., Liberna, I., Rosenbæk, L.B., Jebjerg, C.P., Simonsen, H.T. Antimicrobial evaluation of Huilliche plant medicine used to treat wounds. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2011;138(1):219–227.
  144. 144. Rojo, Leonel E., Ribnicky, David, Logendra, Sithes, Poulev, Alex, Rojas-Silva, Patricio, Kuhn, Peter, Dorn, Ruth, Grace, Mary H., Ann Lila, Mary, Raskin, Ilya. In vitro and in vivo antidiabetic effects of anthocyanins from Maqui Berry (Aristotelia chilensis). Food Chemistry. 2012;131(1):387–396.
  145. 145. Alfaro, S., Mutis, A., Palma, R., Quiroz, A., Seguel, I., Scheuermann, E. Influence of genotype and harvest year on polyphenol content and antioxidant activity in murtilla (Ugni molinae Turcz) fruit. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. 2013;13(1):67–78.
  146. 146. Genskowsky, E., Puente, L.A., Pérez‐Álvarez, J.A., Fernández‐López, J., Muñoz, L.A., Viuda‐Martos, M. Determination of polyphenolic profile, antioxidant activity and antibacterial properties of maqui [Aristotelia chilensis (Molina) Stuntz] a Chilean blackberry. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2016;96(12):4235–4242.
  147. 147. Augusto, Thalita Riquelme, Salinas, Erick Sigisfredo Scheuermann, Alencar, Severino Matias, D'arce, Marisa Aparecida Bismara Regitano, Camargo, Adriano Costa de, Vieira, Thais Maria Ferreira de Souza. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of hydroalcoholic extracts of wild and cultivated murtilla (Ugni molinae Turcz.). Food Science and Technology (Campinas). 2014;34(4):667–679.
  148. 148. Junqueira-Gonçalves, M.P., Yáñez, L., Morales, C., Navarro, M., A Contreras, R., Zúñiga, G.E. Isolation and characterization of phenolic compounds and anthocyanins from Murta (Ugni molinae Turcz.) fruits. Assessment of antioxidant and antibacterial activity. Molecules. 2015;20(4):5698–5713.
  149. 149. Jofré I., Pezoa C., Cuevas M., Scheuermann E., Almeida Freires I., Rosalen P.L., Matias de Alencar, Romero F. Antioxidant and vasodilator activity of Ugni molinae Turcz. (Murtilla) and its modulatory mechanism in hypotensive response. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2016;2016(1):Article ID 6513416. DOI: 10.1155/2016/6513416
  150. 150. Moyer, R.A., Hummer, K.E., Finn, C.E., Frei, B., Wrolstad, R.E. Anthocyanins, phenolics, and antioxidant capacity in diverse small fruits: Vaccinium, Rubus, and Ribes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2002;50(3):519–525.
  151. 151. Jiménez-Aspee, F., Theoduloz, C., Ávila, F., Thomas-Valdés, S., Mardones, C., von Baer, D., Schmeda-Hirschmann, G. The Chilean wild raspberry (Rubus geoides Sm.) increases intracellular GSH content and protects against H2O2 and methylglyoxal-induced damage in AGS cells. Food Chemistry. 2016;194(1):908–919.

Written By

Patricia Velásquez and Gloria Montenegro

Submitted: 23 May 2016 Reviewed: 13 September 2016 Published: 01 March 2017