The complete family of gyro-device.
\r\n\tThe purpose of the book is to bring together the latest knowledge about genetic diversity by presenting the studies of some of the scientists who are engaged in development of new tools and ideas used to reveal genetic diversity, often from very different perspectives. The book should prove useful to students, researchers and experts in the area of biology, medicine and agriculture.
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As per this law, the product of maximum power (
The gyrotron is the most suitable source for the heating of plasma in Tokamak for controlled thermoneuclear fusion reactors. Gyrotron is being used as the heating source for electron cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH) as well as for the electron cyclotron current drive (ECCD).
Gyro-devices comprise of a family of microwave devices and gyrotron is one among those. However, gyrotron being the most popular gyro-device, the entire gyro-device family is sometime referred as gyrotrons. Various other commercially available gyro-devices are: gyro-klystron, gyro-traveling wave tubes (gyro-TWT) and gyro-twistron (a combination of Gyro-TWT and Gyro-Klystron).
In a gyro-device, a hollow electron-beam is generated with the help of a special kind of electron gun, known as magnetron injection gun (MIG) operating in temperature-limited regime of thermionic emission. This hollow electron beam is made to gyrate at cyclotron frequency with the help of a strong axial magnetic field. Subsequently, this gyrating electron beam is passed through an interaction structure, where the electron-beam interacts with the electromagnetic-wave (EM-wave). In case of gyrotron, the interaction-structure is an open-ended cavity. In case of gyro-TWT, the interaction structure is waveguide with an input and output coupler. When the cyclotron frequency synchronizes with the frequency of the EM-wave (frequency of EM-wave supported by the cavity in case of gyrotron and frequency of the EM-wave fed at the input coupler in case of gyro-TWT) the beam-wave interaction takes place. The transverse kinetic energy of the electron-beam gets converted to electromagnetic energy. Hence, the EM-wave gets generated (in gyrotron) or amplified (in gyro-TWT).
Let us now briefly discuss the origin of gyrotrons. It has been well known since the mid-fifties that there appeared to be a limit to the upper frequency at which most vacuum microwave devices could be made to operate with sufficient power and efficiency, primarily due to the reduction of physical size of the components of the device with increase of frequency [13]. This problem can be explained as follows: As the frequency of operation of the device increases, the dimension of the waveguide or cavity or the loading elements inside the waveguide (such as helix in case of helix-TWT) become uncomfortably small, as their physical size is closely related to the operating wavelength of the device. Furthermore, since the depth of penetration of the field generated by the electromagnetic wave is proportional to the operating wavelength, the field penetration inside the loading-element reduces with the increase of operating frequency. Hence, in order to have a proper interaction between the electron-beam and electromagnetic wave, electron-beam needs to be placed closer to the structure carrying electromagnetic wave, if we wish to retain an acceptable efficiency of beam-wave interaction [1, 2]. All these awkward requirements clearly indicate an urgent need for a radical change of approach. In conventional vacuum electronic slow-wave devices (such as TWT), periodic loading elements are required for slowing down the phase velocity of the electromagnetic wave (slow wave interaction: vph < c) so that the phase velocity becomes synchronized with the velocity of the slow space-charge wave produced by a perturbed electron beam. In case of helix-TWT, helix acts as periodic loading element, alternatively known as slow-wave structure (SWS). Whereas in gyro-device, alternatively known as fast-wave devices, the periodicity in the propagating medium is removed and the periodicity is brought in-to the electron-beam. The interaction now takes place with an electromagnetic wave whose phase velocity is higher than the free-space velocity of light (fast wave interaction, vph > c) [1, 2, 3]. Instead of periodicity of the loading element, the periodicity of the electron-beam comes into play. This leads to a quasi-synchronism between the electromagnetic wave and the electron-beam.
Gyro-devices comes under the category of Bremsstrahlung radiation device [13]. Here, instead of periodic show-wave-structure, the electron beam is made periodic by generating a hollow electron-beam gyrating under the influence of a strong axial magnetic field. When this electron beam is perturbed, two cyclotron waves get generated, namely slow and fast cyclotron wave. When the velocity of the fast cyclotron wave is synchronized with EM-wave, beam-wave interaction takes place. That’s why these devices are known as fast-wave device.
A variety of interaction stricture geometries are proposed in the literature [9, 11, 12, 13] for gyro-devices. In case of gyrotron, the interaction structure is an open ended cavity. Well directed and concentrated efforts were made in the mid-seventies by Granastein and his team at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) [13], as well as Gapanov and his team at IAP, Russia [14] who, with some help from others, succeeded in mounting an extensive research effort in the whole area of Bremsstrahlung radiation device, which include free-electron lasers as well as gyrotrons. Since then, gyro-devices have developed very rapidly to offer prodigious amounts of power, and very high efficiency of the order of 50% or more. Figure 1 shows capabilities of various vacuum electronic devices in terms of frequency and average power. It’s evident from the figure, for frequencies above the Terahertz range, laser devices are most suitable source for generation of electromagnetic wave. Again, for frequencies below the millimeter-wave range, conventional microwave tubes are most suitable source for the generation of high power. Gyrotron fits in between these two frequency regimes. Gyrotrons are best suited when the operating wavelength is approximately 1 mm and output power requirement is between hundreds of kilowatts to few megawatts. That’s why Gyrotron is found to be the most suitable source for the heating of plasma.
Domain of microwave tubes/ laser devices.
Ever since the advent of cyclotron-resonance maser (CRM) instability devices, a vast amount of research work has been carried out and a number of gyro-devices have been developed. Out of these, the most popular device is gyrotron (alternatively known as gyro-monotron). The other two commercially available gyro-devices widely used in radar applications are, gyro-TWT [3, 8], and gyro-klystron [3]. However, the entire class of gyro-devices are usually referred as gyrotron. There are few less popular gyro-devices, namely, Gyro backward-wave oscillator (gyro-BWO), gyro-twystron [3] (a combination of gyro-TWT and gyro-klystron), cyclotron autoresonance maser (CARM) and slow-wave cyclotron amplifier (SWCA) [13]. Technology for these devices are not as matured as for gyrotron, gyro-TWT and gyro-klystron. Some of the gyro-devices are oscillators and some are amplifiers. Same is brought out in the Table 1.
Oscillator | Amplifier |
Gyrotron(Gyro-Monotron) | Gyro TWT |
Gyro Backward Wave Oscillator | Gyro Klystron |
Gyroton | Gyro Twistron |
CARM | Cyclotron Autoresonance Maser (CARM) |
Slow Wave Cyclotron Amplifier (SWCA) | |
Gyroton-TWT | |
Magnicon |
The complete family of gyro-device.
In Table 1, the most popular gyro-device names are written in red. As is evident from the Table 1, cyclotron autoresonance maaser (CARM) can be configured both as amplifier as well as oscillator.
In the following section, two most popular gyro-devices, namely, gyrotron, and gyro-TWT are discussed in brief with the schematic diagrams.
A schematic diagram of the gyrotron with axial output of cavity mode is shows in Figure 2(a). The schematic view of high-power gyrotron with radial output of Gaussian beam is shown in Figure 2(b). Here the beam-wave interaction take place in an open-ended cavity. The hollow electron-beam from the electron-gun (known as magnetron injection gun) is injected into a region with very strong axial magnetic field [3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. Magnetic flux densities of the order of several Tesla are normally required and this usually necessitates the use of superconducting magnets [6].
(a): Gyrotron with axial output. (b): High power Gyrotron with radial output of Gaussian beam.
The beam-wave interaction takes place in the interaction cavity region. In order to avoid the thermal issues, gyrotrons usually incorporate a highly overmoded cavity. The reported continuous wave (CW) and pulsed power capabilities of the gyrotron are three order of magnitude higher than the conventional microwave oscillators.
In case of axial output gyrotrons (Figure 2(a)), output millimeter-wave generated in the cavity propagates along the axis of the gyrotron and comes out of the gyrotron through an output-window. The spent-electron beam (the electron-beam after the beam-wave interaction) gets collected in the collector. In case of gyrotron with radial-output (Figure 2(b)), the cavity-resonator mode of EM-wave gets converted to Gaussian (TEM00) mode with the help of a quasi-optical launcher (QOL) and 3 or 4 mirrors. The Gaussian beam comes out of the gyrotron radially (perpendicular to the axis of gyrotron) through the output-window and the spent electron-beam gets collected in the collector.
Gyro-TWT is a high power millimeter-wave amplifier [3, 8]. This is used in millimeter-wave radars. Gyro-TWT is also used for electron-cyclotron current drive (ECCD) for Tokamak. In this device, the interaction-cavity is replaced by a non-resonant structure (waveguide) to produce beam-wave interaction. This device has the potential of amplifying EM-powers of 2 order of magnitude higher than the conventional TWT. Gyro-TWT provides a high spectral quality amplification over a narrow bandwidth. The device interaction essentially involves a narrow band resonance between the electron-beam and the electromagnetic-wave near the waveguide cut-off due to the dispersive nature of the waveguide interaction structure. However, wideband coalescence is possible by proper dispersion shaping of the waveguide. Axial phase synchronism is required between the traveling wave and the gyrating electron. Techniques are being used to increase the band-width by tapering the magnetic field or by periodically loading the waveguide structure. The cross sectional view of gyro-TWT is shown in the Figure 3.
Gyro TWT.
In a gyrotron, the electron beam, which is normally in the shape of a thin hollow cylinder, is injected into a region with strong axial magnetic field and passed through a cylindrical cavity or waveguide region containing an electromagnetic wave with an azimutal component of electric field [1, 2, 3]. The rotational velocities of the electrons are normally 1.2 to 2 times the axial velocity. So, majority of the electron energy is rotational.
Because the magnetic field is very large, the orbit diameter for the electrons is very small. As a result, the thickness of the hollow electron beam is several times the diameter of the electron orbit as shown in Figure 4, and in effect, the hollow electron-beam contains a large number of small beams, referred as beamlets [2, 6]. Figure 4 shows the thickness of the hollow electron-beam as twice the diameter of beamlet.
Gyrotron cross section showing electron trajectories.
The basic operating mechanism of gyrotron can be explained by considering the interaction of a single beamlet of electrons with the electric field. In Figure 5 it is assumed that electrons in a single beamlet are initially uniformly distributed along a single helical path prior to interaction with the RF electric field. The electrons are assumed to rotate in the counter clockwise direction as they move through the RF field. The rotational frequency of electrons is the cyclotron frequency, which is given by
Bunching of electrons in a Gyrotron.
Where,
Where
Where,
The radius of the gyrating orbit, alternatively known as Larmor radius (
Where,
Now, referring again to Figure 5(a), when the electric field is such that it tends to accelerate electrons (top of the orbits), the electron mass is increased and so the cyclotron frequency (
If the cyclotron frequency (ωc) is somewhat lower than the frequency of the electromagnetic wave (ω), then the position of the bunches along the helical orbit is delayed with respect to the phase of the applied field as indicated in Figure 5(b). Hence, the bunched electrons face a decelerating field and give-up their kinetic energy to the field. As the electron bunches rotate in near synchronism with the alternating RF-field, they continue to give-up energy on each half-cycle of rotation.
The interaction that has just been described for the electrons in a single beamlet in a gyrotron also takes place in the other beamlets. Thus, the electron distribution becomes as indicated in Figure 6. As the direction of the electric field alternates, the direction of motion of electron also alternates, and so the electrons throughout the transit period of the electron-beam give-up energy on each half cycle of operation. This is how the beam-wave interaction happens.
Electron motion in relation to direction of electric field in a gyrotron.
With the proper shape of the RF-field, it is possible to excite harmonic mode of interactions with the electrons [1, 2, 8, 13, 14, 15]. As shown in Figure 7, the EM-wave field oscillates at a frequency twice the cyclotron frequency [2], i.e., ω = 2ωc. The direction of the field reverses in the center of the electron orbit. Thus, an electron that is initially decelerated by the field is moving transverse to the field when the field reverses, and so does not have its orbital energy changed. By the time the field reverses again, the electron has moved 900 around its orbit and is again in a decelerating field. Thus, during each full orbital motion of electron, the RF-field goes through two complete cycles. Hence, for harmonic mode of operation, for a given operating frequency, the cyclotron frequency is half the value used in fundamental mode of operation. As a result, the magnetic field is reduced by a factor of two. Operation at frequencies higher than the second harmonic are also being examined [15], but the intensity of the interaction is reduced, making the efficiency of gyrotron low.
Harmonic interaction of an electron and a field varying at twice the cyclotron frequency. (a) At an arbitrary time T, (b) At half RF cycle after T.
For harmonic mode operation, the frequency of operation of the gyrotron is approximately given by
where, s is an integer, representing the harmonic number. Value of s equals to 2 corresponds to second harmonic operation. It signifies that the electromagnetic-wave frequency of the gyrotron is chosen to be twice the cyclotron frequency. Harmonic operation reduces the magnetic field requirements by factor of s (
In a gyrotron, a hollow electron beam gyrating at cyclotron frequency under the influence of a strong axial magnetic field interacts with the transverse electric field excited inside the cavity. If the cyclotron frequency is synchronized with the frequency of millimeter wave supported by the cavity (cut-off frequency of the cavity) for the selected higher order mode, millimeter wave gets generated. This phenomenon is known as cyclotron resonance maser (CRM) interaction. The hollow gyrating electron-beam is generated with the help of magnetron injection gun (MIG). The gyrating electron-beam is passed through a beam-tunnel and fed into an open ended interaction-cavity. The millimeter wave generated in the cavity region diffracts out with the help of a non-linear taper (NLT). The waveguide mode of electromagnetic-wave is covered to Gaussian mode with the help of a quasi-optical launcher (QOL) and mirror units. The millimeter wave is taken out of the gyrotron with the help of a high power millimeter-wave window. The spent electron-beam is collected in a collector. The required axial magnetic field throughout the gyrotron, starting from the MIG to collector is provided by a magnetic-system consisting of a main superconducting-magnet along with a number of non-superconducting solenoid magnets. Out of all these subsystems, MIG and interaction-cavity are the most important subsystems of gyrotron. The following section describes some of these main subsystems of gyrotron.
Most high power gyrotrons use magnetron injection guns (MIGs), which produce annular electron-beams in which electrons gyrates in cyclotron frequency. The gyrating frequency is so chosen that the beam-wave interaction at desired mode can take place. For good interaction-efficiency, the transverse velocity component of electron should be as large as possible. A spread in transverse velocity results in a spread in axial velocity, and eventually reduces the efficiency of the gyrotron. Hence, the electron velocity spread should be kept as small as possible [8]. The cut-section view of a typical MIG with anode is shown in Figure 8 indicating various parts of MIG.
Cut-section view of a typical MIG.
The electrons are emitted from a annular cathode operating in temperature limiting regime of thermionic emission [2, 3]. MM-type dispenser cathode is used as emitter. The electron motion is taking place in crossed electric and magnetic fields so that the electrons follow helical trajectories around the magnetic flux lines with the electrons gyrating in cyclotron frequency. The accelerating potential of 20–70 kV is applied between the cathode and the anode. The MIG can have a diode or a triode configuration. In the triode configuration, there are two anodes, namely modulating anode and accelerating anode. In triode configuration, second anode provides the main accelerating potential. Whereas, the first anode (which is closer to cathode) is used to fine-tune the velocity pitch-factor of the beam (ratio of transverse to axial beam-velocity) as well as for pulsing the beam (i.e., for switching the beam ON and OFF). Gyro-TWT’s usually incorporate triode MIG. In diode configuration, there is only one anode. Diode MIG needs much simpler power-supply for providing the necessary voltages. However, on the flipside, gyrotrons with diode MIG have lesser control over the beam.
The gyrating electron beam enters the interaction cavity, where the beam-wave interaction takes place [3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. This is an open ended overmoded cavity operating near cut-off [3, 6]. The interaction cavity generally consist of 3 sections, namely downtaper-section, straight section and uptaper-section. The shape of the cavity is dependent on the mode of the electromagnetic field with which the beam is intended to interact and also the harmonic number of interaction. The required diffractive quality factor of the cavity is achieved by proper fine tuning of the cavity shape. Schematic drawings of a typical Gyrotron cavity is presented in Figure 9. The down-tapering is offered to the input-end of the cavity. This prevents the millimeter wave from back-traveling towards the MIG. The up-tapering is offered in the output-end of the cavity. The up-tapering helps the millimeter-wave to diffract out of the cavity. In case of coaxial gyrotrons, a coaxial insert is placed at the center of the cavity. The main beam-wave interaction takes place at the straight section of the cavity.
A typical Gyrotron cavity.
The millimeter-wave signal generated in the cavity needs to diffract out of the cavity. The same is achieved by the non-linear taper (NLT). This NLT is basically a tapered waveguide section with a specific tapering profile. A raised-cosine profile is incorporated in the NLT region to avoid reflection of electromagnetic-wave. This section acts as an interface between the interaction cavity and the QOL [6, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Generally interaction cavity operates at a mode much higher than the dominant mode of the cavity. This enable the use of much higher cavity dimension and volume and this in-turn eliminates the bearing on the maximum power handling capacity at higher frequencies of millimeter-wave and sub-millimeter-wave regime. Broadly, the cavity operating modes are divided into three categories, namely, TE0 n mode, TEm n (m > n) mode and TE1 n mode. TEm n mode, when m> > n, is called the whispering gallery mode. This mode is most widely used in gyrotrons for plasma heating applications. The relative merits and demerits of these modes are presented in the Table 2.
Gyrotron cavity modes.
The radius of the hollow electron beam generated by MIG is generally much larger than the required hollow beam radius at the cavity region. The purpose of the beam-tunnel is to gradually bring down the beam radius to the value needed in the cavity region. Beam-tunnel is basically a cylindrical waveguide structure placed between the anode and interaction-cavity. The inner radius of the beam-tunnel at the anode end is matched to the anode inner radius and at the cavity end is matched to the input inner radius of the cavity. In order to ensure that the beam-tunnel does not take part in interaction, lossy dielectric material is placed inside the beam-tunnel. One of the popular configuration of beam-tunnel is a stack of alternate metal (OFHC copper) and lossy ceramic (AlN, SiC) rings stacked inside the cylindrical waveguide of beam-tunnel (Figure 10). The axial length of the beam-tunnel is so chosen that that the electron beam undergoes an adiabatic compression as it propagates from the MIG to the cavity, i.e., the beam trajectories follows the magnetic flux lines. This configuration ensures maximum beam laminarity and minimum beam-turbulence. Cavity.
Cut section view of a beam tunnel.
The purpose of the quasi-optical launcher (QOL) is to convert the cavity mode of EM-wave into a Gaussian (TEM00) mode. This is accomplished with the help of a helically-cut waveguide section (QOL) followed by 3 or 4 toroidal mirrors system. QOL consist of a mildly tapered waveguide structure with helically cut end (known as Vlasov launcher) with dimple patterned inner surface (Denisov type surface deformation). Millimeter wave is launched from the QOL to the mirror system [16]. After passing through the mirror system, a Gaussian beam (with more than 98% Gaussian mode purity) is emerged. A typical QOL and 3 mirrors for converting cavity mode to Gaussian (TEM00) mode is shown in Figure 11. The Gyrotron with Gaussian output is most suited for plasma heating applications. Because, the Gaussian millimeter-wave beam can be transmitted through a waveguide over a very long distance with very little attenuation. Hence, the gyrotron can be placed away from the plasma vessel. Sometimes, the Gaussian beam is further converted to HE11 mode with the help of a matching optic unit (MOU) placed external to gyrotron and then transmitted to the plasma vessel. This arrangement further reduces the attenuation of the beam.
A typical QOL for converting TE6,2 cavity mode to Gaussian mode.
The millimeter-wave signal is finally taken out of the gyrotron with the help of the high-power output window. This window consists of a ceramic disc which isolates the ultra-high vacuum environment inside the gyrotron enclosure from the outside atmosphere. The ceramic disc material and thickness is so chosen that it appears almost transparent to the electromagnetic-wave and the millimeter-wave comes out of the gyrotron through the window with minimum attenuation. Also, a material, which is a good thermal conductor but bad electrical conductor, is chosen for window. Usually single disc window is used. However, for the purpose of VSWR matching, sometime double disc window may be incorporated. For short-pulse operation, sapphire, beryllium-oxide (BeO) or boron-nitride may be used as window ceramic materials. For long pulse high-power operation, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond is generally used as the window material due to its very high thermal conductivity.
After the electron-beam comes out of the interaction-cavity, the spent electron-beam gets collected in the collector. The kinetic energy of the spent-electron beam (the electron-beam which has already undergone beam-wave interaction) gets dissipated in the collector. Hence, if the electronic-efficiency of a gyrotron is 40%, 60% of the electron beam power gets dissipated in the collector. Since the dissipated power in the collector is very high, the thermal management of collector is a very critical issue. The cut-section view of a typical collector is presented in the Figure 12. In some of the high power gyrotrons, a low frequency magnetic sweeping coil is used for sweeping the electron-beam along the length of collector to avoid creation of hot-spots. For the enhancement of overall efficiency of gyrotron, multistage depressed collector (MDC) is used, where the collector is kept at a negative potential with respect to cavity.
Cut-section view of a typical collector.
The purpose of the magnetic system is to generate required axial magnetic field profile needed for the cavity as well as the MIG and collector. For lower frequency operation, non-superconducting air-cooled solenoids are preferred. However, for higher frequency operation (i.e., for gyrotrons operating at W-band or beyond), superconducting magnets are being used. The state-of-the-art magnets employ cryogen free superconducting magnet technology. Which eliminates the need of re-filling of liquid helium. Some researchers have reported gyrotrons developed with Samarium-Cobalt (Sm2Co17) permanent magnets and special type of room temperature solenoid made out of copper foil. Such gyrotrons usually operate at higher harmonic mode of interaction.
Gyrotrons have wide range of applications. These applications coves the domain of scientific research, industrial heating, homeland security and defense. Same is shown in tree diagram (Figure 13).
Applications of gyrotron.
Majority of gyrotrons developed worldwide are being used for the electron cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH) of plasma in the controlled thermoneuclear fusion reactor [7]. The plasma is kept confined in the plasma vessel with the help of very high value of superconducting magnetic field (magnetic confinement). The magnetically confined plasma is then exposed to very high power millimeter wave beam generated with the help of a gyrotron. This elevates the temperature of the plasma to 1000000 C. At this temperature, fusion reaction takes place. Millimeter-wave beam generated by a gyrotron is also used for the electron cyclotron current drive (ECCD), electron cyclotron resonance ion source (ECRIS) and also for the diagnostics cooling tower system (CTS). For the ITER (international thermoneuclear experimental reactor) project, it’s proposed to use 20 numbers of 170 GHz long-pulse gyrotrons to generate combined heating power of 24 MW. For this purpose, till now, the highest order mode number attempted is TE34,19 for the generation of 2 MW of continuous power at 170 GHz. The photograph of a 2 MW gyrotron for ECRH application is shown in Figure 14. The photograph of a ECRH System (Stellarator W7-AS) with 140 GHz gyrotron is shown in Figure 15.
2 MW Gyrotron for ECRH application.
140 GHz Gyrotron based ECRH system (Stellarator W7-AS).
Other important scientific research application of gyrotron is in the area of spectroscopy. This includes, electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy, dynamic nuclear polarization – nuclear magnetic resonance (DNP-NMR) Spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction magnetic resonance (XRDMR) spectroscopy etc. Also, W- band frequency of 95 GHz being an atmospheric window, gyrotrons operating at W-band are having special significance in connection with defense and homeland-security [17, 18]. The active denial systems (ADS) for controlling low-intensity conflicts, uses 95 GHz gyrotron. Also a number of millimeter-wave radar systems, such as space surveillance radar, space derby radar, imaging radar and weather radar uses W-band gyrotron as well as gyro-TWT/ gyro-klystrons.
Worldwide, a number of research institutions, academic institutions and industries are working in the field of gyrotron, with frequency varying from lower end of microwave range (8 GHz) to 1 THz. The output power of these gyrotrons also ranges from 100 s of kW to few MW. Pulse duration also varies from few milliseconds to full continuous wave (CW) operation. The efficiency of gyrotron varies from 10–70%. The worldwide scenario of Gyrotron for plasma heating purpose are presented in the Tables 3 and 4 [7, 11, 12, 13, 19, 20, 21].
Institute | Frequency (GHz) | Mode | Power (MW) | Efficiency (%) | Pulse length (Sec) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cavity | Output | |||||
CPI, USA | 28,35 | TE02 | TE02 | 0.2 | 37 | CW |
CPI, USA | 53.2,56,60,70 | TE01/02 | TE02 | 0.23 | 37 | CW |
CPI, USA | 70.15 | TE10,3 | TEM00 | 0.6 | 47 (SDC) | 2.25 |
CPI, USA | 84 | TE15,4 | TEM00 | 0.56 | 44 (SDC) | 2.0 |
CPI, USA | 94.9 | TE6,2 | TEM00 | 0.12 | 50 (SDC) | CW |
Gycom, Russia | 68 (70) | TE9,3 | TEM00 | 0.5 (0.68) | 50 (48) (SDC) | 1.0 (3.0) |
Gycom, Russia | 75 | TE11,5 | TEM00 | 0.8 | 70 (SDC) | 0.1 |
Gycom, Russia | 82.7 | TE10,4 | TEM00 | 0.65 | 53 (SDC) | 0.3 |
Gycom, Russia | 82.7 | TE10,4 | TEM00 | 0.9 | 32 | 0.3 |
Gycom, Russia | 82.7 | TE10,4 | TEM00 | 0.2 | 52 (SDC) | CW |
Gycom, Russia | 84 | TE12,5 | TEM00 | 0.88 | 54 (SDC) | 3.0 |
Gycom, Russia | 84 | TE12,5 | TEM00 | 0.5 (0.2) | 50 (SDC) | 10 (CW) |
Hughes | 60 | TE02 | TE02 | 0.2 | 35 | 0.1 |
IECAS, China | 24.1 | TE01 | TE01 | 0.15 | 24 | 0.02 |
IECAS, China | 34.3(2Ωc) | TE02/03 | TE03 | 0.2 | 30 | 0.02 |
Mitshubishi, Japan | 88 | TE8,2 | TEM00 | 0.35 | 29 | 0.1 |
NEC, Japan | 35 | TE01 | TE01 | 0.1 | 30 | 0.001 |
NRL, USA | 35 | TE01 | TE01 | 0.15 | 31 | 0.02 |
Philips, Germany | 70 | TE02 | TE02 | 0.14 | 30 | CW |
Toshiba, Japan | 77 | TE18,6 | TEM00 | 1.2 | 38 (SDC) | 10.0 |
Toshiba, Japan | 77 | TE18,6 | TEM00 | 0.3 | 36 (SDC) | 900 |
UESTC, China | 70(2Ωc) | TE02/03 | TE03 | 0.1 | 20 | 0.0001 |
UESTC, China | 94(2Ωc) | TE02/03 | TE03 | 0.12 | 20.5 | 0.0001 |
94 | TE61/62 | TE61/62 | 0.09 | 43 | CW |
Gyrotrons for electron cyclotron resonance heating, 28–95 GHz.
SDC: Single-Stage Depressed Collector; CW: Continuous Wave Operation.
Institute | Frequency (GHz) | Mode | Power (MW) | Efficiency (%) | Pulse length (Sec) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cavity | Output | |||||
CPI, USA | 140 | TE02/03 | TE03 | 0.1 | 27 | CW |
CPI, USA | 140 | TE15,2 | TE15,2 | 0.32 | 31 | 3.6 |
CPI, USA | 140.2 | TE28,7 | TEM00 | 0.9 | 33 (SDC) | 1800 |
KIT, Germany | 140.8 | TE03 | TE03 | 0.12 | 26 | 0.4 |
KIT, Germany | 162.3 | TE25.7 | TEM00 | 1.48 | 35 | 0.007 |
KIT, Germany | 139.8 | TE28,8 | TEM00 | 1.0 | 50 (SDC) | 12 |
KIT, Germany | 139.8 | TE28,8 | TEM00 | 0.92 | 44 (SDC) | 1800 |
Gycom, Russia | 140 | TE22,6 | TEM00 | 0.96 | 36 | 1.2 |
Gycom, Russia | 140 | TE22,6 | TEM00 | 0.54 | 36 | 3.0 |
Gycom, Russia | 140 | TE22,6 | TEM00 | 0.1 | 35 | 80 |
Gycom, Russia | 170 | TE25,10 | TEM00 | 1.0 | 53 (SDC) | 570 |
Gycom, Russia | 170 | TE25,10 | TEM00 | 0.8 | 55 (SDC) | 1000 |
Gycom, Russia | 140 | TE22,6 | TEM00 | 0.8 | 32 | 0.8 |
Gycom, Russia | 140 | TE22,6 | TEM00 | 0.88 50 | 50.5(SDC) | 1.0 |
Toshiba, Japan | 170 | TE31,8 | TEM00 | 1.3 | 32 | 0.003 |
Toshiba, Japan | 170 | TE31,12 | TEM00 | 1.56 | 27 | 0.1 |
Toshiba, Japan | 168 | TE31,8 | TEM00 | 0.52 | 19 | 1.0 |
Toshiba, Japan | 168 | TE31,8 | TEM00 | 0.52 | 30 (SDC) | 1.0 |
Gyrotrons for electron cyclotron resonance heating, above 140 GHz.
The authors are thankful to Dr. M.V. Kartikeyan, professor, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)-Tirupati, India, for his valuable suggestions and inputs. The authors are also thankful to Sri G. Viswam, Center Head, Microwave Tube Research & Development Center (MTRDC), Bangalore, India, for his necessary help and support. Also, the authors are thankful to Shroyonaa Karmakar, Jain University School of Design, for the preparation of the diagrams.
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These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"53504",doi:"10.5772/66925",title:"Applications of Ionizing Radiation in Mutation Breeding",slug:"applications-of-ionizing-radiation-in-mutation-breeding",totalDownloads:3509,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"As a predicted result of increasing population worldwide, improvements in the breeding strategies in agriculture are valued as mandatory. The natural resources are limited, and due to the natural disasters like sudden and severe abiotic stress factors, excessive floods, etc., the production capacities are changed per year. In contrast, the yield potential should be significantly increased to cope with this problem. Despite rich genetic diversity, manipulation of the cultivars through alternative techniques such as mutation breeding becomes important. Radiation is proven as an effective method as a unique method to increase the genetic variability of the species. Gamma radiation is the most preferred physical mutagen by plant breeders. Several mutant varieties have been successfully introduced into commercial production by this method. Combinational use of in vitro tissue culture and mutation breeding methods makes a significant contribution to improve new crops. Large populations and the target mutations can be easily screened and identified by new methods. Marker assisted selection and advanced techniques such as microarray, next generation sequencing methods to detect a specific mutant in a large population will help to the plant breeders to use ionizing radiation efficiently in breeding programs.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Özge Çelik and Çimen Atak",authors:[{id:"147362",title:"Dr.",name:"Özge",middleName:null,surname:"Çelik",slug:"ozge-celik",fullName:"Özge Çelik"},{id:"147364",title:"Prof.",name:"Çimen",middleName:null,surname:"Atak",slug:"cimen-atak",fullName:"Çimen Atak"}]},{id:"32846",doi:"10.5772/36950",title:"Current Importance and Potential Use of Low Doses of Gamma Radiation in Forest Species",slug:"current-importance-and-potential-use-of-low-doses-of-gamma-radiation-in-forest-species",totalDownloads:5301,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"L. G. Iglesias-Andreu, P. Octavio-Aguilar and J. Bello-Bello",authors:[{id:"110581",title:"Dr.",name:"Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Iglesias-Andreu",slug:"lourdes-iglesias-andreu",fullName:"Lourdes Iglesias-Andreu"}]},{id:"58410",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72074",title:"Radiation-Induced Degradation of Organic Compounds and Radiation Technologies for Purification of Aqueous Systems",slug:"radiation-induced-degradation-of-organic-compounds-and-radiation-technologies-for-purification-of-aq",totalDownloads:1437,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Environmental application of radiation technologies is an important part of radiation processing. Radiation treatment of aqueous systems contaminated with organic compounds is a promising method of water and wastewater purification and corresponding technologies are being developed. In this chapter, the following aspects of radiation treatment process are considered: sources of contamination and major contaminants of water and wastewater; primary processes in aqueous systems initiated by ionizing radiation; principal ways of contaminant conversion as consequences of primary processes (complete mineralization of organic compounds, partial decomposition of organic molecules resulted in detoxification, decolorization, disinfection of polluted water, and improvement in biological degradation of contaminant, polymerization of monomers’ contaminants, oxidation-reduction processes, and coagulation of colloids); sources of ionizing radiation; and main equipment applied in radiation technologies of aqueous system purification.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Igor E. Makarov and Alexander V. Ponomarev",authors:[{id:"213652",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Makarov",slug:"igor-makarov",fullName:"Igor Makarov"},{id:"213657",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Ponomarev",slug:"alexander-ponomarev",fullName:"Alexander Ponomarev"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32842",title:"Sterilization by Gamma Irradiation",slug:"sterilization-by-gamma-irradiation",totalDownloads:74831,totalCrossrefCites:37,totalDimensionsCites:85,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Kátia Aparecida da Silva Aquino",authors:[{id:"102109",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:"Aparecida Da S.",surname:"Aquino",slug:"katia-aquino",fullName:"Katia Aquino"}]},{id:"32837",title:"Environmental Gamma-Ray Observation in Deep Sea",slug:"environmental-gamma-ray-observation-in-deep-sea-",totalDownloads:2934,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"Hidenori Kumagai, Ryoichi Iwase, Masataka Kinoshita, Hideaki Machiyama, Mutsuo Hattori and Masaharu Okano",authors:[{id:"108174",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidenori",middleName:null,surname:"Kumagai",slug:"hidenori-kumagai",fullName:"Hidenori Kumagai"},{id:"108237",title:"Dr.",name:"Masa",middleName:null,surname:"Kinoshita",slug:"masa-kinoshita",fullName:"Masa Kinoshita"},{id:"137650",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Iwase",slug:"ryoichi-iwase",fullName:"Ryoichi Iwase"},{id:"137656",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",middleName:null,surname:"Machiyama",slug:"hideaki-machiyama",fullName:"Hideaki Machiyama"},{id:"146918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mutsuo",middleName:null,surname:"Hattori",slug:"mutsuo-hattori",fullName:"Mutsuo Hattori"},{id:"146919",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaharu",middleName:null,surname:"Okano",slug:"masaharu-okano",fullName:"Masaharu Okano"}]},{id:"58998",title:"Ionizing Radiation-Induced Polymerization",slug:"ionizing-radiation-induced-polymerization",totalDownloads:1828,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Ionizing radiation can induce some kinds of reactions, other than polymerization, such as dimerization, oligomerization, curing, and grafting. These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. A further detailed discussion of these aspects is presented throughout this chapter.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy",authors:[{id:"212371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamady Ghobashy",slug:"mohamed-mohamady-ghobashy",fullName:"Mohamed Mohamady Ghobashy"}]},{id:"53780",title:"Gamma-Ray Spectrometry and the Investigation of Environmental and Food Samples",slug:"gamma-ray-spectrometry-and-the-investigation-of-environmental-and-food-samples",totalDownloads:2531,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gamma radiation consists of high‐energy photons and penetrates matter. This is an advantage for the detection of gamma rays, as gamma spectrometry does not need the elimination of the matrix. The disadvantage is the need of shielding to protect against this radiation. Gamma rays are everywhere: in the atmosphere; gamma nuclides are produced by radiation of the sun; in the Earth, the primordial radioactive nuclides thorium and uranium are sources for gamma and other radiation. The technical enrichment and use of radioisotopes led to the unscrupulously use of radioactive material and to the Cold War, with over 900 bomb tests from 1945 to 1990, combined with global fallout over the northern hemisphere. The friendly use of radiation in medicine and for the production of energy at nuclear power plants (NPPs) has caused further expositions with ionising radiation. This chapter describes in a practical manner the instrumentation for the detection of gamma radiation and some results of the use of these techniques in environmental and food investigations.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Markus R. Zehringer",authors:[{id:"311750",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus R.",middleName:null,surname:"Zehringer",slug:"markus-r.-zehringer",fullName:"Markus R. Zehringer"}]},{id:"54118",title:"Gamma Rays from Space",slug:"gamma-rays-from-space",totalDownloads:2091,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"An overview of gamma rays from space is presented. We highlight the most powerful astrophysical explosions, known as gamma-ray bursts. The main features observed in detectors onboard satellites are indicated. In addition, we also highlight a chronological description of the efforts made to observe their high energy counterpart at ground level. Some candidates of the GeV counterpart of gamma-ray bursts, observed by Tupi telescopes, are also presented.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Carlos Navia and Marcel Nogueira de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"189908",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Navia",slug:"carlos-navia",fullName:"Carlos Navia"},{id:"243084",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"marcel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Marcel De Oliveira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"227",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82739",title:"Experimental Breeder Reactor II",slug:"experimental-breeder-reactor-ii",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105800",abstract:"The Experimental Breeder Reactor II (EBR-II) operated from 1964 to 1994. EBR-II was a sodium-cooled fast reactor operating at 69 MWth producing 19 MWe. Rather than using a loop approach for the coolant, EBR-II used a pool arrangement where the reactor core, primary coolant piping, and primary reactor coolant pumps were contained within the pool of sodium. Also contained within the pool was a heat exchanger where primary coolant, which is radioactive, transferred heat to secondary, nonradioactive, sodium. The nuclear power plant included a sodium boiler building where heat from the secondary sodium generated superheated steam, which was delivered to a turbine/generator for electricity production. EBR-II fuel was metallic uranium alloyed with various metals providing significant performance and safety enhancements over oxide fuel. The most significant EBR-II experiments occurred in April 1986. Relying on inherent physical properties of the reactor, two experiments were performed subjecting the reactor to loss of primary coolant flow without reactor SCRAM and loss of the secondary system heat removal without reactor SCRAM. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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