Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\n
1. General overview
\n
Energy, the input to impulse the world\'s future, has been pointed out as the most important issue facing humanity in the next 50 years and crucial to solve issues like mitigation of pollution, global warming, among others [1]. For instance, among diverse forms of energy used, over 70% is produced in or through the form of heat [2]. Heat is transferred either to input energy into a system or to remove the energy produced in a system. Considering the rapid increase in energy demand worldwide, intensifying heat transfer process and thereby reducing energy loss are becoming increasingly important tasks. That is why thermal management plays a crucial factor concerning apparatuses or machines performance; thermal dissipation role has been subjected to many investigations and is under the scope of the operational useful life of these devices and components.
\n
Nanotechnology is a science that deals with diverse phenomenon\'s, properties\', and materials\' characteristics at the nanometric level (1 nanometer, nm = 10−9 m). Important and interesting discoveries have been realized in this field over the past 30 years. Among them, the discovery of Buckyball (C60) [3], carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [4], and graphene isolation and identification [5] are just to mention some of them. During the last couple of decades, diverse techniques, equipment, and instrumentations have been devised, as well as various relevant and interesting characteristics and properties of these materials were sort out for the betterment of mankind.
\n
Energy management becomes crucial for meeting the rising needs of mankind [2]. Nowadays, with increasing pressure of globalized markets and companies\' profit race, a dramatic search is carried out for obtaining proper material performance; optimizing components and devices designs; improving efficiencies; reducing tools wear, materials consumption, and pollution; and obtaining the most possible revenue. In addition to issues regarding scrap materials, maintenance, and components wear among others, a hot topic in industry is the heat dissipation. Avoiding or reducing the use of resources for cooling equipment, or simply reflected in wear/friction issues among metal-mechanic processes, there is a high demand for successful heat management and energy-efficient fluid-based heat transfer systems, with aid of reinforced materials.
\n
\n
\n
2. Introduction to nanofluids
\n
Among diverse techniques to cool down or maintain certain temperature in these systems, vanes, fins, or radiators as well as forced air/fluids thru cooling channels are being used, even though they are costly. Some equipment and devices use inexpensive conventional heat transfer fluids to intensify heat dissipation, such as water (DiW), ethylene-glycol (EG), oils, and other lubricants. However, the inherent limitation of these fluids is the relatively low thermal conductivity; water, for instance, is roughly three orders of magnitude less conductive than copper or aluminum (Table 1). What these conventional fluids lack in thermal conductivity, however, is compensated by their ability to flow.
Typical thermal conductivities for diverse conventional fluids and solid materials.
\n
The primary mechanism for heat transfer in fluids is convection; its efficacy mostly depends on the thermo-physical properties of conventional fluids. Still, if the thermal conductivity of conventional fluids were enhanced, it would be much more effective. Hence, since the solid materials possess several orders higher thermal conductivity compared with that of conventional fluids, an idea to introduce conducting particles to fluids was consider. This idea occurred more than a century ago for Maxwell [6], where millimeter- or micrometer-sized solid particles were dispersed in conventional fluids to increase cooling rates, also a formulation of a method to calculate the effective conductivity of such suspensions was developed. Later, this technique was investigated and adapted for particle shape and composition by Hamilton and Crosser [7], but neither can predict the enhanced thermal conductivities of nanofluids (NFs) because their models do not include any dependence on particle size [8, 9]. Among diverse particle geometry, different particle shapes occur naturally or are engineered for specific applications (see Figure 1).
\n
Figure 1.
Diverse particle shapes and geometries.
\n
Heat transfer using fluids is a very complicated phenomenon, and various factors such as fluid stability, composition, viscosity, surface charge, interface, and morphology of the dispersed particles influence the observed results [43–45]. Optimization and high efficiency of components and devices have gained great importance since these factors play a paramount role in diverse fields such as microelectronics, engine motors, fuel cells, air conditioning, power transmission systems, solar cells, medical therapy and diagnosis, biopharmaceuticals, components´ and tools´ wear, and nuclear reactors cooling, among others [15, 27, 46–49]. Solid materials such as metals, CNTs, oxide/nitride/carbide ceramics, semiconductors, and composite materials having higher thermal conductivity can be suspended within conventional fluids, resulting in better thermal transport performance composite fluids. Nevertheless, improvement in thermal conductivity cannot be achieved by just increasing the solid filler concentration because beyond a certain limit, increasing the filler fraction will also increase the viscosity, which will adversely affect the fluid properties and performance.
\n
Most early studies used suspensions of millimeter- or micrometer-sized particles, which led to countless problems, such as a tendency to settle too rapidly, unless flow rate is increased; not only losing the enhancement in thermal conductivity but also forming sludge sediment, increasing the thermal resistance, and impairing the heat transfer capacity of the conventional fluids. In addition, increasing flow rate also increases erosion of pipelines or channels by the coarse and hard particles; outstanding thermal conductivity enhancement is based on high particle concentration, which leads to apparent increase in viscosity. Furthermore, fluids of this scale size could have considerably larger pressure drops, thus making flow through small channels much more difficult since diverse parameters are critical for device performance, such as morphology and stability of dispersed particles or structures within these fluids, fluids composition, viscosity, fast sedimentation, channels clogging, wear or erosion, among others, which are often very serious for systems consisting of small channels [48–53]. Therefore, the search for nanofillers which can obtain high thermal conductivities at lower concentrations is desirable. Hence, extensive research has been done upon these conventional fluids, in order to develop improved materials to sublimely achieve all critical needs.
\n
A revolution in the field of heat transfer fluids arose with the advent of NFs, a term introduced by Choi\'s research group in the late 1990s at Argonne National Lab (ANL) [52]. First research was conducted by Masuda et al. [53] for γ-Al203 particles in water, and by Choi-Eastman group [52] for Cu in water as well. As depicted by Figure 2, nanofluids research has been increasing through time, reaching up to 1100 publications in 2015, according to scientific search engine “sciencedirect.com” and keyword Nanofluid. On the inset of Figure 2, two keywords were applied Nanofluid and 2D, where nearly 150 publications in 2015. Nanofluids are a new class of stable heat transfer liquid suspensions which are engineered containing homogeneously dispersed solid nanofillers (ultra-fine particles, fibers rods, or tubes <100 nm). Compared to micro- or milli-fluids, nanofluids tend to be more stable, since nanofillers possess unique properties, such as large surface area to volume ratio, as well as dimension-dependent physical properties, which make nanostructures better and more stably dispersed within conventional fluids. Nevertheless, some limitations of the effective incorporation of nanoparticles within conventional fluids are dispersion and solubility because these tend to aggregate and settle. In some cases, additives or surfactants are used to stabilize the nanoparticles within the fluids, even though the surfactants can decrease the thermal conductivity of the nanofluids, since surfactants introduce defects at the interfaces [54].
\n
Figure 2.
Number of publications with “Nanofluid” as search topic, according to Sciencedirect.com; inset showing number of publications with keywords “Nanofluid” and “2D.”
\n
Therefore, one of the main advantages of nanofluids is that they can be specially engineered to optimally fulfill particular objectives, such as enhanced thermal conductivity, a higher thermal energy storage capacity, a higher heat transfer coefficients, a better temperature stabilization, and less pressure drop, among others. Moreover, nanofluids are promising for practical application without clogging, sediment or such. Nanofluids will keep the fluidic properties of the conventional fluids, behave almost like conventional fluids, and incur in little or no extra penalty of pressure drop (i.e., the viscosity increase is small) due to the fact that dispersed nanoparticles are extremely small, which are very stably suspended in fluids with or without the aid of additives or surfactants [55]. Hence, search for new nanofillers which can get high thermal conductivities at lower filler fractions is important [15, 56].
\n
It has been demonstrated that nanofluids for heat transfer applications have provided better thermal performance than conventional fluids [12, 15, 48, 49, 56–58]. Therefore, the advent of nanofluid-based heat transfer systems can make compact designs with highly efficient thermal, physical, and electrical performance for instruments and devices.
\n
Experiments on convection heat transfer of nanofluids were conducted by several research groups [57, 59–61]. The results showed significant improvements in heat transfer rates of nanofluids. Meanwhile, the thermal conductivity enhancement of nanofluids shows a temperature-dependent characteristic—increase of enhancement with rising temperature, which makes the nanofluids more suitable for applications at elevated temperatures [15, 49, 62–66]. Additionally, previous research has shown that nanofluids display better performance in their thermo-physical and tribology properties, such as thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, viscosity, friction, etc., compared to conventional fluids [15, 46–49, 67–71]. Hence, nanofluids could be used for aforesaid engineering applications. From all these, a great variety of nanocomposite materials have been developed, using diverse techniques and methodologies, obtaining significant performance.
\n
\n
\n
3. Synthesis and preparation of nanofluids
\n
The manipulation of matter on the nanometer scale has become a central focus from both fundamental and technological perspectives. Unique, unpredictable, and highly intriguing physical, mechanical, optical, electrical, and magnetic phenomena result from the confinement of matter into nanoscale features. Morphology control in nanostructures has become a key issue in the preparation of electronic or mechanical nanodevices and functional materials [72]. A wide variety of combinations of nanostructures and conventional fluids can be used to synthesize and prepare stable nanofluids for diverse applications. Nanofluids could be manufactured by two methods:\n
One-step method: The one-step process simultaneously makes and disperses the nanostructures within the base fluid. This method avoids diverse processes such as particles drying, storage, handling, and dispersion, so the agglomeration of nanoparticles is minimized; therefore, stability of nanofluids is improved [73]. Thus, it is possible to obtain uniformly dispersed and highly stable suspended nanostructures within the base fluids [74, 75].
Two-step method: Two-step method is the most widely used method for preparing nanofluids [15, 49, 76–82]. Various nanostructures such as nanofibers, nanotubes, nanosheets, among other nanomaterials used in this technique are initially produced by mechanical comminuting, chemical reaction, vapor condensation, or decomposition of organic complex [83–85] and finally obtained as dry powder. Then, it is followed by further dispersion of as-produced nanostructures within base fluids through magnetic force agitation (stirring), ball milling, ultrasonic agitation, and high-shear mixing, among others [77, 81, 86, 87]. This procedure is the most economic method to produce nanofluids in large scale since nanoparticle synthesis techniques are readily scaled up to mass production levels. Sonication is used to speed dissolution by breaking intermolecular interactions, and homogeneously dispersing nanoparticles within a fluid. It is especially useful when it is not possible or difficult to stir a sample.
\n
\n
3.1. Nanofluids: variables and features
\n
Diverse features and challenges regarding the effect of nanoparticles on thermal transport, tribological performance, and energetic performance have been studied. The heat transfer enhancement in nanofluids, for example, has been attributed to many variables including nanoparticle size, shape, and filler fraction. However, as mentioned, diverse challenges have hindered their large-scale applications (Figure 3), such as nanoparticle dispersion, agglomeration, long-term stability, increase in nanofluid viscosity, cost increase, and scale-up capacity for industrial applications, which are presented in the following sections.
\n
Figure 3.
Common challenges of nanofluid developments.
\n
\n
3.1.1. Nanofiller size
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Diverse studies have found that as nanoparticles are reduced in size, the effective thermal conductivity of the nanofluid increases [13, 64, 88–94]. As the nanoparticle size is reduced, Brownian motion is induced. Also, lighter and smaller nanoparticles are better at resisting sedimentation, one of the biggest technical challenges in experimenting with nanofluids [61]. Li et al. [88] investigated the thermal properties of Al2O3/DiW nanofluids with particle sizes of 36 and 47 nm at various filler fractions. The nanofluid with 36-nm particles improved the effective thermal conductivity enhancement at ∼35°C, varying the filler fractions from 0.5 to 6.0 vol.% (∼7 to ∼28%, respectively). Similar trend was observed for the nanofluid with 47 nm particles, but slightly lower thermal conductivity enhancement was shown compared to the smaller particles nanofluid (∼4 to ∼25%, respectively). Nguyen et al. [95] and Minsta et al. [89] studied the heat transfer enhancement and behavior of Al2O3-water nanofluid for microprocessors/electronic purposes. It is found that with smaller nanoparticles (36 nm in diameter), nanofluids showed higher convective heat transfer coefficients than with larger ones (47 nm in diameter). From Nguyen\'s research, thermal transport increased 40% at 6.8 vol.% filler fraction, as compared to water. Chopkar et al. [96] studied 0.20–2.0 vol.% Al70Cu30 nanoparticle reinforced EG, and also found that thermal conductivity strongly depends on the size of nanoparticles.
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He et al. [97] studied the heat transfer behavior of TiO2-water nanofluids with diameters of 95, 145, and 210 nm at various filler fractions. For the 95-nm-particle-size nanofluid, the thermal conductivity showed an increase from 1 to ∼5% at 1.0 and 4.9 wt.%, respectively, compared to water; as filler fraction increased, the thermal conductivity increased as well. It was shown that the effective thermal conductivity decreases as particle size increases. Research conducted by Hong et al. [77] achieved 18% increase in thermal conductivity with only 0.55 vol.% of Fe-nanoparticles (∼10 nm size)-reinforced EG nanofluids. Showing as well that sonication of the nanofluid has an important effect on the thermal conductivity of the system indirectly proves the effect of particle size on the thermal conductivity of the nanofluid. Teng et al. [92] studied the effect of particle size, temperature, and weight fraction on the thermal conductivity ratio of Al2O3/water nanofluid with filler fraction up to 2.0 wt.%, and different Al2O3 particle nominal diameters (20, 50, and 100 nm). The results showed a dependence relationship between high thermal conductivity ratios and enhanced sensitivity, small nanoparticle size, and higher temperature. Hence, nanofillers\' size is a determinant variable for heat transfer nanofluids, since, as previously stated, its smaller size reduces or avoids critical issues of larger fillers.
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Nevertheless, there have been a few reports on SiC, CeO2, and Al2O3 nanoparticles reinforcing water that stated a decrease of the effective thermal conductivity with increase in particle size [98–101]. As shown by Beck et al.\'s [100] research on Al2O3/water nanofluids with diverse particle sizes ranging from 8 to ∼300 nm in diameter, the thermal conductivity enhancement decreases as the particle size decreases below ∼50 nm. Beck et al. attribute this behavior to nanoparticles thermal conductivity, as the particle size becomes small enough to be affected by increased phonon scattering [100]. Similarly, studies performed on water-based CeO2 nanofluids [101] showed an increase in the effective thermal conductivity with an increase of nanoparticle size, although only two particle sizes were studied (12 and 74 nm).
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3.1.2. Particle shape/surface area
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Several studies have found that rod-shaped nanoparticles, such as CNTs, remove more heat than spherical nanoparticles [78, 102–107], probably because rod-shaped particles have a larger aspect ratio (the ratio between a particle\'s surface area to volume) than spherical nanoparticles. Elias et al. [103] studied various boehmite alumina (γ-AlOOH) nanoparticle shapes (cylindrical, spherical, bricks, blades, and platelets) within EG/water (50/50%). Nanofluids at diverse filler fraction, up to 1.0 vol.%, showed a linear increase in thermal conductivity. Best performance was found for cylindrical-shaped nanoparticles, followed by bricks, blades, platelets, and spherical-shaped nanoparticles, respectively. Thermal conductivity enhancement of cylindrical-shaped nanoparticles is observed to be ∼2.5% higher than the spherical shape with 1.0 vol.% filler fraction. Murshed et al. [104] investigated water reinforced with TiO2 rod-type (10 nm in diameter and 40 nm in length) and spherical (15 nm) nanoparticles; an enhancement of thermal conductivity of ∼30 and ∼33%, respectively, was observed at 5.0 vol.% filler fraction compared to base fluid. EG-based nanofluids with addition of SiC nanowhiskers (1.5 μm in diameter and 18 μm in length) and spherical particles (diameter <40 μm) were investigated by Cherkasova et al. [106]. Nanowhiskers were prepared at various aspect ratios by ball milling from 0, 4, 12, and up to 28 h. At 2.5 vol.%, the thermal conductivity enhancement is observed to increase from 16.5 to 39.5% as the aspect ratio increases from 4.8 to 9.6. It is also observed that suspensions containing cylindrical particles showed significantly higher increase in thermal conductivity than suspensions with dispersed spherical particles. For 5.0 vol.%, a thermal conductivity enhancement of ∼85 and ∼20% was observed for suspensions containing SiC whiskers and spheres, respectively. Thermal conductivity increase for both types of particles is nearly linear with volume fraction of solids up to 5.0 vol.% as well. On other research on rod-type nanoparticles, Glory et al. [105] studied multiwall nanotubes (MWCNTs)/water nanofluids. An increase in thermal conductivity enhancement was observed with an increase of nanotube length. For instance, the relative increase of thermal conductivity of nanofluids at 2.0 wt.% with nanotubes with length of ∼0.5 μm was ∼14%, an 18% increase was observed for nanotubes with length of 1.0 μm, a 38% increase was observed for nanotubes with length of 1.7 μm, and finally, a ∼45% increase was observed for the longest nanotubes tested with length of ∼5.0 μm. As explained by Glory et al., this behavior is attributed to a mechanism where longer nanotubes diminish the number of nanotube-nanotube contacts, therefore favoring phonon transmission in the suspensions, giving an increase of the thermal conductivity. Other nanoparticles with morphology possessing large surface area are the 2D nanosheets, which are obtained by exfoliation layers in its structure [15, 108]. Moreover, little research has been conducted for 2D-nanoparticles reinforcing conventional fluids. Recently, it has been demonstrated by Taha-Tijerina et al. [15, 49] that 2D-based nanofluids have high impact in the thermal transport, as well as in physical, electrical, and tribological properties.
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3.1.3. Filler fraction
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Probably, the key variable for nanofluids\' improvement is the nanofillers concentration homogeneously dispersed within conventional fluids. Filler fraction has been stated by volume and weight percentages in papers, patents, and reports. Effective thermal conductivity (keff) and coefficient of friction (COF), among other properties of nanofluids improve with increasing nanoparticles filler fraction [109], but as the nanoparticles filler fraction increases, it may no longer be valid to assume a well-suspended nanoparticles. Also, pressure drop has been observed in diverse conventional fluids as filler fraction of different nanoparticles is increased [10]. This is why it is more effective to use a very small filler fraction in nanofluids [15, 110–113]. At low filler fractions, nanostructures have more intense Brownian motion at higher temperatures, which can significantly enhance the effective thermal conductivity. But at high volume fractions, nanoparticles have high potential to be agglomerated at high temperatures.
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3.1.4. Particles agglomeration
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A key challenge with nanofluids is that nanoparticles tend to agglomerate due to molecular interactions, such as Van der Waals forces [99, 114]. Agglomeration of nanoparticles increases as filler fraction increases, due to closer particles and higher Van der Waals attraction. Similarly, this issue generates other problems such as viscosity increments (Figure 4). Agglomeration causes the effective surface area to volume ratio to decrease, which impacts the thermal conductivity performance of the fluid. Timofeeva et al. [99, 107] studied the thermal conductivity and viscosity of Al2O3 nanoparticles dispersed in water and EG. It is observed that the main parameters for controlling nanofluids\' thermal conductivity enhancement are the geometry, agglomeration state, and surface resistance of nanoparticles. Karthikeyan et al. [109] identified that CuO nanoparticles and cluster size have a significant influence on thermal conductivity of water and EG. Similarly, it is found that nanoparticle agglomeration is time dependent; as time elapsed, agglomeration increased, which decreased the thermal conductivity. Wang et al. [115] performed studies on diverse fluids (water, pump fluid, engine oil, and EG) with the addition of Al2O3 and CuO with 28 and 23 nm in diameter, respectively. Viscosity of these systems increase as nanoparticles agglomerate, also thermal conductivity performance is observed to decrease, most probably an effect of the agglomeration of the nanoparticles. Moreover, particle agglomeration is exacerbated by the size of the reinforced fillers. Nasiri et al. observed a reduction in thermal conductivity with time for water-based CNT nanofluids due to agglomeration [114]. However, some reports show that aggregation in water-based Al2O3 nanofluids significantly increases the thermal conductivity of the fluid [116, 117]. In other studies, stable nanofluids showed no significant variation in thermal conductivity with time. Yu et al. observed that the thermal conductivity of EG-based ZnO nanofluids [118] and kerosene-based Fe3O4 nanofluids [119] were independent of time. Additionally, engine coolant-based Al2O3 nanofluid exhibited minimum change of thermal conductivity with time [120]. Yu et al. [121] conducted studies on EG-based graphene oxide nanosheets (GON). An enhancement in thermal conductivity at 5.0 vol.% of ∼61% was observed. Thermal conductivity performance was invariable for ∼7 days, reflecting high stability of GON/EG nanofluids.
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Figure 4.
Scheme of nanoparticles sedimentation over time.
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3.1.5. Stability
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Because the reinforced particles are so small, weight is less, and the sedimentation probability is less too (Figure 5). This reduced nanostructures sedimentation can overcome one of the major drawbacks of suspensions, the settling of particles, and make the nanofluids more stable. In some cases, to enhance the stability of the nanofluids, surfactants or additives are used; nevertheless, there are certain drawbacks of using them.
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Figure 5.
Nanoparticles sedimentation; CuO-reinforced nanofluids over time.
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3.1.6. Surfactants/additives
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Surfactants are mainly used to stabilize the nanofillers within the conventional fluids, even though these surfactants can affect the nanofluids performance, since surfactants introduce defects at the molecular interfaces [54]. The use of surfactants and dispersion agents has shown to be effective providing repulsion between nanoparticles and reducing agglomeration [49, 81, 122, 123]. Additives are also incorporated to materials to enhance their mechanical properties. For instance, Chen et al. [124] found that the addition of stearic acid (SA) coated MWNTs, and performed as lubricant, improving the friction reduction and anti-wear properties of MWNTs. Non-ionic surfactants were found to strongly interact with graphite surfaces in case of CNTs stabilization within aqueous suspensions [125]. Wang et al. [126] investigated oil with addition of graphite nanoparticles (∼10–30 nm), and also using a dispersant (CH-5) up to 12.0 wt.%. Graphite nanofluids at various filler fractions, from 0.5 to 4.0 wt.%, showed an increase in thermal conductivity from 0.5 to 20%, respectively. These increments were improved with the addition of dispersant (1.5–12.0 wt.%) from 2.4 to 36%. According to Wang et al., this behavior is due to the improvement in dispersibility of graphite with the aid of the dispersant. Oleic acid (OA)-modified TiO2 nanostructures increased the maximum non-seizure load 6–10 times when added to water [127]. Recently, OA was added to h-BN/mineral oil nanofluids [49] showing a decrease of 8 and 3% COF and wear scar diameter (WSD), respectively, compared to the surfactant-less material. Similarly, the addition of OA surfactant in nanolubricants of CuO and MoS2 in palm oil facilitated the reduction of agglomerates, thus improving the tribological properties [123]. In other cases, nanoparticles are used as additives to enhance their useful life, as well as antimicrobial agents. In metal-mechanic industry, for instance, diverse fluids are used to cut or lubricate stamping or metal-cutting processes. Nevertheless, some of them provide a breeding ground for large numbers of microorganisms (fungi/bacteria) which is hazardous to the machine operators [128, 129]. Kumar et al. used silver (Ag) nanoparticles dispersed in paints based on vegetable oil [130], since silver is highly antimicrobial by virtue of its antiseptic properties against several kinds of bacteria, fungi, and viruses [130, 131].
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3.1.7. Viscosity
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Viscosity is described as the internal resistance of a fluid to flow. Viscosities in nanofluids are dependent on both fillers geometry and surface properties of nanofillers. As mentioned by Timofeeva et al. [107], elongated particles and agglomerates result in higher viscosity at the same filler fraction due to structural limitation of rotational and transitional Brownian motions. Nguyen et al. [132] have investigated on particle size effect for Al2O3 aqueous-based nanofluids and observed that the particle size effects on viscosity are more significant for high particles concentration. Taha-Tijerina et al. [15] investigated mineral oil reinforced with 2D nanostructures of h-BN and graphene at very low filler fractions. It was observed that the viscosity of the nanofluids decreases significantly with temperature (from 16 mm2/s at room temperature to 2.2 mm2/s at 100°C), as expected; while the enhancement in viscosity with the addition of 2D-nanofillers is very small (<2% at 313 K). This is an additional advantage of the low filler fractions since the increase in viscosity will decrease the effective thermal conductivity values as well as flow characteristics of the fluid. Moreover, the relatively small increase in viscosity (<30%) at 0.35 wt.% of h-BN is an evidence that the solution is not flocculating [133, 134]. Small deviations from the theoretical values of viscosity at higher concentrations of h-BN/MO may be as a result of a transition from a dilute to a semi-dilute phase or due to the onset of some small aggregation between the h-BN nanosheets [15].
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3.1.8. Brownian motion
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Researchers have found that Brownian motion, which is the random movement of particles (Figure 6), is one of the key heat transfer mechanisms in nanofluids [62, 115, 135–140]. Keblinski et al. stated possible micro-mechanisms for nanofluids thermal conductivity increase, among which Brownian motion was the reason for this [45]. Moreover, Jang et al. proposed that particles\' Brownian motion can induce nanoscale convection, which enhances the thermal conductivity of nanofluids [135]. Brownian motion only exists when the particles in the fluid are extremely small, and as the size of the particles gets larger, Brownian motion effects diminish [61].
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Figure 6.
Representative scheme of Brownian (random) motion of nanoparticles.
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3.1.9. Temperature dependence
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Nanofluids\' effective thermal conductivity and Brownian motion increase with temperature [11, 61–65, 141–143]. Das et al. [62], similarly to Lee et al. [144], observed that Al2O3 and CuO nanofluids thermal conductivity has temperature-dependent influence (in the range from 20 to 50°C); they posed motion of reinforced fillers as an important factor for that. Hu et al. showed a 20% increase in the thermal conductivity of ethanol with the addition of 4.0 vol.% of AlN at 273 K, and a strong temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity [145]. Similarly, Yu et al. [146] research on Al-N nanofluid showed an enhancement of ∼40% with a little effect on temperature from 10 to 60°C. Wang et al. [40] measured thermal conductivity of TiO2 (26 nm) and SiO2 (23 nm) nanoparticles suspended in DiW, EG, and ethanol. The experiment was conducted with 1.0–4.0 vol.% filler fractions at temperatures ranging from 18 to 65°C. Results indicated that thermal conductivity of nanofluids was higher than the base fluids and increased with rise of temperature and filler fraction. For instance, from measurements taken at 18–65°C, TiO2/DiW nanofluid thermal conductivity improved from 3, 4, and 10% to 9, 10, and ∼20% at filler fractions of 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 vol.%, respectively. As seen from research conducted by Wen et al. [66], the effective thermal conductivity increases with increasing temperature, showing a non-linear dependence after temperatures above ∼30°C. On the other hand, studies by Das et al. [147] on Al2O3/water nanofluids have shown that the thermal-conductivity ratio increased with temperature in a linear fashion.
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Jyothirmayee et al. [141] observed a temperature dependence on graphene nanosheets (GnS)-reinforced EG and DiW, on temperatures ranging from 25 to 50°C. It was observed that the thermal conductivity increases with increasing graphene concentration and temperature. The thermal conductivity of the base fluids did not show much enhancement as the temperature increases, similar tendency as reported by Jha et al. [148]. An enhancement in thermal conductivity of ∼2.4% is observed at 25°C with a very low filler fraction of 0.008 vol.% of the graphene/EG nanofluid, meanwhile, at 50°C, this increases to ∼17%. At 0.14 vol.%, the enhancement in thermal conductivity is 6.5% and 36% at 25 and 50°C, respectively. The behavior is similar as reported by Chon et al. [64] and Xie et al. [149]. For the 0.14 vol.% graphene/DiW nanofluid, the enhancement is about 13.6% and 94.3% at 25 and 50°C, respectively. These high increments in thermal conductivity exhibited by the graphene-based nanofluids can be ascribed to the high aspect ratio of defect-free graphene sheets. Walvekar et al. [150] and Ding et al. [151] performed diverse studies on CNTs-water nanofluids, showing that thermal conductivity is highly dependent on temperature as well.
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3.1.10. Interfacial layering on the liquid-nanostructure interface
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Interfaces are ideal templates for assembling nanoparticles into 2D structures by the nature of the interfaces. At the interfaces, the nanoparticles are mobile and defects of the structures can be eliminated [152]. This ordered structure could have higher thermal conductivity than that of the conventional, therefore an enhancement of the effective thermal conductivity. However, some issues could be addressed when a surfactant or dispersant is used [66]. Interfacial layering refers to a phenomenon at the liquid–particle interface where liquid molecules are more ordered than those in the conventional liquid; therefore the interface effect could enhance the thermal conductivity by the layering of the liquid at the solid interface (giving that crystalline solids possess much better thermal transport that liquids) [45, 153], by which the atomic structure of the liquid layer is significantly more ordered than that of the conventional liquid. Various researchers have suggested that there is a liquid layering on the nanoparticles, which helps enhance the heat transfer properties of the nanofluid [151, 154–156]. Yu et al. [156] proved the formation of layers by the liquid molecules close to a solid surface, even though the thickness and thermal conductivity of the nanolayers are not well known yet. Ren et al. [157] found, through a theoretical model, that adding liquid layering on the nanoparticles an increase in layer thickness leads to higher thermal conductivity increment; as larger the size of the suspended particles, the weaker appear the effects of the nanolayer and the thermal motion.
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4. Nanofluids application fields
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Diverse studies on nanofluids have been carried out by many researchers. This section deals with literature reviews on nanofluids; nanofluids preparation and characterization; thermo-physical, electrical, and tribological properties; as well as nanofluids applications, which lays foundation and basis for further investigations. Some of the main fields of application for these systems are thermal management and tribological, which are described in the following sections.
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4.1. Thermal performance of nanofluids
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Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal convection, thermal radiation, and thermal conduction. In diverse fields, thermal transport is a critical parameter to obtain efficient performance of components and devices. Heat convection occurs when bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries heat along with the flow of matter in the fluid, this process could be “natural,” by density differences in the fluid occurring due to temperature gradients, or “forced,” where fluid motion is generated by an external source such as a pump, fan, or other mechanical means. Radiation heat transfer is the transfer of energy by means of photons in electromagnetic waves in much the same way as electromagnetic light waves transfer light. On the other hand, heat conduction is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two systems. When an object is at a different temperature from another body or its surroundings, heat flows so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature, at which point they are in thermal equilibrium. The thermal conductivity (k) of liquids can be successfully measured if the time taken to measure k is very small so that the convection current does not develop [158]. Effective thermal conductivity (keff) is described as the nanofluid thermal conductivity, compared to conventional fluid thermal conductivity. Diverse techniques have been proposed to measure nanofluids thermal conductivity over the past years. The most common techniques to measure the effective thermal conductivity of nanofluids are the transient hot-wire method [15, 47, 99, 126, 158–161], steady-state method [35, 88, 105, 115, 162], cylindrical cell method [163], temperature oscillation method [62, 164–166], and 3-ω method [40, 167–169] to name a few.
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Heat transfer fluids have been explored in diverse systems. Argonne National Lab research group with Eastman et al. reported a 40% enhancement with only 0.40 vol.% of copper oxide (CuO) particles of 10 nm in diameter [83], while Choi et al. reported a remarkable 160% increase in thermal conductivity of MWCNTs/engine oil nanofluid at 1.0 vol.% filler fraction of nanotubes [170]. Marquis et al. [19] reported a thermal conductivity enhancement of 45% at 1.0 vol.% concentration of highly pure SWCNTs in 15W-40 oil. In this same investigation, a remarkable enhancement of 175% with 1.0 vol.% of MWCNTs in poly-a-olefin (BP Amoco Ds-166) oil is obtained, similar to Choi found at 1.0 vol.% of nanotubes in oil [170]. Similarly,, other researchers have investigated the effect of CNTs in diverse fluids with aid of dispersants. For instance, Liu et al. [14] measured the thermal conductivities of nanofluids containing MWCNTs dispersed in EG and synthetic engine oil. The increase of thermal conductivity for MWCNT/EG at 1.0 vol% was ∼12.5%, meanwhile, for MWCNT/synthetic engine oil, an improvement of ∼9 and 30% for 1.0 and 2.0 vol.% filler fraction was observed. Wen et al. [66] investigated the effect of temperature on the thermal conductivity of MWCNTs/DiW (20–60 nm in diameter and micrometer size in length) nanofluids. In order to properly stabilize the MWCNTs within DiW, 20 wt.% of sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS) was added to all samples. At 0.84 vol.% filler fraction, thermal conductivity enhancements of ∼24 and ∼31% were achieved at 20 and 45°C, respectively. In general, an improvement on thermal conductivity enhancement was observed as filler fraction and temperature increased. Assael et al. [78] studied the MWCNTs/DiW nanofluids with addition of 0.10 wt.% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as a dispersant. According to Assael et al., SDS would interact with MWCNTs, affecting their outer surface, enhancing interactions with DiW. It was found that at 0.60 vol.% MWCNTs, the enhancement in thermal conductivity was ∼38%. Hwang et al. [41] investigated the thermal conductivity of DiW- and EG-based nanofluids. MWCNTs (10–30 nm in diameter and 10–50 μm in length), CuO, and SiO2 (33 and 12 nm in diameter, respectively) were used. It was observed that thermal conductivity of nanofluids was improved almost linearly as filler fraction increased. For DiW-based systems, the addition of SiO2, CuO, and MWCNTs at 1.0 vol.% filler fraction showed an increase of 3, 5, and ∼12%, respectively. Also, CuO/EG nanofluid at 1.0 vol.% showed an increase of ∼9%.
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Ding et al. [66] also investigated the effects of MWCNTs dispersed in DiW, with addition of 0.25 wt.% gum Arabic (GA) dispersant. For MWCNTs at 0.50 and 1.0 wt.%, an increase in thermal conductivity was achieved up to ∼30 and ∼38% at 25°C, and ∼35 and ∼80% at 30°C, respectively. It was found that these improvements were slightly higher than that results reported by Liu et al. [14], Wen et al.[151], Assael et al. [78], and Xie et al. [171], but lower than that showed by Choi et al. [170]. There are diverse factors that cause these discrepancies among the different groups; as mentioned by Wang et al. [138], these discrepancies should rely on the dependency of thermal conductivity is on diverse factors such as the structure and properties of the CNTs, aspect ratio, clustering, addition of dispersants, temperature and the experimental errors as well. Hong et al. [58] successfully developed stable and homogeneous nanolubricants and nanogreases based on CNTs in polyolefin oils. Thermal conductivity experiments showed an increment of 20% at 0.10 wt.% filler fraction; similarly, at 3.0 and 10 wt.%, thermal conductivity increments were 50 and 80%, respectively. More recently, Walvekar et al. [150] analyzed the effect of CNTs on diverse temperatures ranging from 25 to 60°C. CNTs/DiW nanofluids were stabilized with the addition of GA as dispersant. Superb results showed improvements at diverse filler fractions, varying from 0.01 to 0.10 wt.%, and diverse temperatures, ranging from 25 to 60°C. A maximum thermal conductivity enhancement of ∼288% was shown for 1.0 wt.% CNTs/DiW nanofluids at 60°C.
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Research on oxide nanoparticles have been conducted as well. Das et al. [62], for instance, showed strong temperature dependence of nanofluids with Al2O3 and CuO particles as used by Lee et al. [144], which significantly improved the scope of nanofluids as an alternate for existing coolants. In 2005, Chon et al. [64] and Li et al. [172] confirmed this, but no temperature effect on thermal conductivity enhancement of nanofluids was observed in CNTs [173]. Li et al. [174] synthesized kerosene-based nanofluids with dispersed Cu nanoparticles (∼40–60 nm in diameter). Temperature dependence on thermal conductivity for Cu/kerosene-based nanofluids showed that as nanofluid temperature increases, thermal conductivities increased as well. For measurements at 25, 40, and 50°C, the effective thermal conductivity increased by ∼10, ∼13, and 15%, respectively, with 1.0 wt.% Cu nanoparticles. In other investigations, nanodiamonds (<10 nm) dispersed in EG (with addition of poly (glycidol) polymer) and MO (with addition of OA) were studied by Branson et al. [175]. It was observed that addition of 0.88 vol.% of nanodiamonds enhanced the thermal conductivity by ∼12%. In MO, for instance, with enhancements of ∼6 and ∼11%, filler fractions of 1.0 and 1.9 vol.% are achieved, respectively. According to Branson et al., the differences on enhancement efficiencies are attributable to divergence in thermal boundary resistance at nanoparticle/surfactant interfaces [175].
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Several research studies have developed graphene-based nanofluids with high nanoparticle stability and significant enhancements [146, 176–183]. Shaikh et al. studied the effect of exfoliated graphite (2D sheets in micrometer size range) dispersed within poly-α-olefin (PAO) oil at various filler fractions, ranging from 0.10 to 1.0 vol.%. It was observed that addition of 2D structures improved the thermal conductivity from 18 to ∼130%, respectively [176]. Moreover, Yu et al. [180] investigated EG/graphene sheets (0.20–2.0 μm range, and 0.43 nm of interplanar distance), obtaining up to ∼86% increase in thermal conductivity with 5.0 vol.% concentration at 50°C. Hadadian et al. [184] prepared highly stable graphene oxide (GO)-based nanosheets. Thermal transport of EG increased by 30% with 0.07 GO mass fraction. Other EG-based nanofluids synthesized by Yu et al. [121, 180] have shown better enhancements of 61 and 86% with graphene oxide [121] and graphene nanosheets [180], respectively, at 5.0 vol.% loading. Similarly, a different study by Yu et al. [146] with graphene oxide nanosheets found enhancements of up to 30.2, 62.3, and 76.8% for distilled water, propyl glycol, and liquid paraffin (LP), respectively. Kole et al. [159] obtained a 15% in thermal conductivity with 0.395 vol.% exfoliated GnS dispersed in distilled water. Moreover, Aravind et al. [178] synthesized graphene and graphene-MWCNT composite nanoparticles and dispersed them in polar base fluids. Enhancements in thermal conductivity of de-ionized water of 9.2 and 10.5% were found for graphene and graphene-MWCNT, respectively. According to this study, a synergistic effect was found for graphene-MWNT additives; furthermore, MWNTs prevented restacking of graphene sheets.
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Diverse theories explain the mechanisms that could affect the behavior of nanofluids; the most accepted being Brownian motion [40, 137–140], percolation theory [137, 138, 154, 173, 185], micro-convection cell model [137–140, 154, 185], and liquid layering theory [45, 137, 138, 153, 154, 185]. Table 2 shows the influence of oil-based nanofluids on thermal conductivity. Similarly, Table 3 shows the results from diverse investigations on other water-based nanofluids, and various materials and sizes used as reinforced nanoparticles. Table 4 shows the influence of various nanofluids in thermal management properties, as well.
Influence of diverse nanofluids in thermal management.
Notes: If not specified, measurements were conducted at room temperature.
1With addition of <1 vol.% of thioglycolic acid.
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4.2. Tribological performance
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Tribology is a science and technology that describes the interaction between surfaces and their relative movement, practices and materials associated, including friction, lubrication, and wear. Friction and wear are two major causes of energy and material losses in mechanical processes. Friction plays a crucial role in diverse processes such as drilling, cutting, working pair components and mechanisms, among others; a measurement for this property, which is becoming more relevant in today\'s life, is the COF (μ). Wear is a critical issue as components are in constant friction; a key measurement of the anti-wear properties of the lubricants and metal-cutting fluids is the WSD. Lubricants can be used to minimize contact friction between components, resulting in considerable energy and tooling savings [198]. The use of nanoparticles on lubricant nanofluids applications have the advantage of not to be temperature sensible and that tribo-chemical reactions are limited, compared to conventional additives [71, 199–201]. A great advantage is that in cooling applications, there could be higher energy savings and less pollution emissions. Moreover, it is very important to mention that some of these used nanoparticles are environmental friendly.
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Figure 7.
Schematic diagram of the tribological mechanism of nanosheets as lubricant additives.
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The addition of nanoparticles (or nanoadditives) has been shown excellent enhancements in tribological properties in numerous fluids. Moreover, diverse mechanisms by which dispersed nanoparticles in lubricants result in lower friction and wear have been shown in the literature. These mechanisms include (i) reacting with the surfaces creating a transferred solid lubricant film from nanoparticles under the contact pressure [202, 203], (ii) rolling of nanoparticles in the contact zone, where the nanoparticles serve as a third body, which decrease the contact between the asperities of the two mating surfaces [204], (iii) reducing asperity contact by filling the valleys of contacting surfaces [71, 205, 206], (iv) shearing of trapped nanoparticles at the interface without the formation of an adhered film [207], and (v) tribosinterization of nanoparticles can occur on the wear surfaces forming a film which also prevent the direct contact of rubbing surfaces and reduce greatly the frictional force between the contacting surfaces [71, 208, 209]. As observed by Zhang et al. [204], a particular effect occurs when excessive concentration of nanostructures is added to nanofluids. A threshold is reached and even though with higher filler fraction there is an improvement in tribological properties, there is an optimal filler fraction where wear is minimized, as it is explained by the tribological mechanism depicted in Figure 7. During tribological evaluation (four-ball tribotesting), components are in sliding contact, nanosheets can form a protective layer on the surface of each steel ball at lower concentrations, which introduces the enhanced anti-wear performance. However, as the nanosheets loading exceed a critical value, the fluid film will become discontinuous, degrading the anti-wear properties, finally leading to a dry friction.
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Eswaraiah et al. [210] synthesized ultrafine graphene thru solar radiation exfoliation techniques (sheets ∼300 nm by <2 nm thick). Nanofluids from these material and motor oil showed a decrease in COF of 80%, compared to base oil. This increase was attributed to the graphene tribological mechanism, which acted as nano-bearing within the oil, as well as for its excellent mechanical properties. It was explained by Hernández-Battez et al. [71] that nanoparticles could react with the surfaces, forming antifriction compounds and deposit on the wear surfaces by tribosinterization [71]. Moreover, Yu et al. [211] reported improved lubricating properties by adding 0.2 wt.% Cu nanoparticles to lubricant oil; in their study, Cu formed a soft film by friction-shearing and high pressure, reducing the COF up to 20%. As described by Peng et al. [212] during the friction process, a lubricating film of the nanoparticles is formed between the rubbed faces. The nanoparticles in the film not only bear the load but also separate the rubbing faces, dominating the reduction in the wear and friction.
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Recently, Hu et al. [213] investigated the effects of MoS2 nanosheets (30–70 nm in thickness) dispersed in LP. Average COF for 0.5 wt.% filler fraction of MoS2/LP was reduced ∼60%, as well as WSD, which was reduced ∼8%, compared to pure LP. The anti-wear properties of the base fluid with MoS2 nanosheets were improved remarkably by increasing the MoS2 concentration up to 0.5 wt.%. According to Hu et al., due to the dimension and surface effect, it is ascribed that MoS2 could enter into the gap of the friction pair, functioning as lubricator. Wu et al. [214] studied the effects of 2D nanosheets of MoS2 with addition of 1.0 wt.% of span-80 (sorbitant monooleate) as a surfactant in LP. Results were also compared with MoS2 microparticles (3–5 μm in diameter). It was shown that COF was reduced by ∼18% at 1.5 wt.% MoS2/LP; furthermore, the COF of nanosheets were lower and more stable than that of microparticles due to the surface area effect [215]. As explained by Wu et al., the lubrication mechanism of layered 2D-nanosheets of MoS2 was associated with the shearing of the weak Van der Waals bonds between molecular layers. When MoS2 is used as an additive in base oils, besides molecules of base oils, MoS2 powder is also adsorbed on the surface of substrates. Then the adsorbed MoS2 is burnished and forms stable films, which can endure high loads and improve tribological performances of the base oil. Therefore, with addition of MoS2 particles, the COF of base oil is reduced significantly. Similarly, Kao et al. [216] used TiO2 nanoparticles as additives in paraffin oil to reduce the friction between cast iron components. Tribological studies revealed an enhancement of ∼24% in COF at 60°C; it was concluded that spherical nanoparticles provide good rolling to reduce friction between two parallel specimens, as nanoparticles could fill rough cracks in a metal wall surface to reduce the COF.
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For the protection of mechanical components, from friction and wear in aerospace, automotive, military, and various industrial applications, an efficient lubricant is demanded; graphene is a widely known material for this purpose. More recently, BN has attracted attention, since it has similar properties as graphene. Among diverse applications, BN could improve lubricity properties of composites under friction or wear applications as well. Zhang et al. [217] and Saito et al. [218], for instance, have observed a decrease in COF with increasing temperature in composites containing BN and have attributed this to the lubricating nature of BN. Silver (Ag) is also used due to its relatively larger coefficient of diffusion and its nature to form low shearing stress junctions at sliding interfaces, resulting in good lubrication. However, h-BN high thermal stability, good chemical inertness, and high thermal conductivity, makes it suitable candidate to be a “clean” lubricant [217]. There are studies available in the literature on the coatings prepared by addition of h-BN. Leon et al. reported that Ni–P–hBN autocatalytic composite coating with 35 vol.% hBN sliding against steel ball at room temperature had a COF of ∼0.2 [219], while steel on steel COF is ∼0.8. Avril et al. reported that laser melting hBN/α-Fe(Cr) coating showed lower COF and better wear resistance than untreated steels under dry sliding within a temperature range of 25–500°C [220]. Spikes [221] stated that the most promising 2D sheet structures are carbon-based graphitic materials and the inorganic fullerenes. These showed low friction in boundary lubrication conditions in laboratory tests. Hence, for metal-mechanic and oil industry which deals with drilling, cutting, or other friction characteristics with working tools, this research will be suitable. Table 5 shows the influence of 2D nanoparticles on tribological applications with COF and wear performance.
Influence of nanofluids (oil-based) in tribological applications.
Notes: If not specified, measurements were conducted at room temperature.
1Oleic acid was added ∼5 vol.%.
2On steel/440C systems.
3On titanium/440C pairs.
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5. Two-dimensional nanostructures
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Initial studies on 1-D nanostructures got immediate attention soon after the landmark paper by Iijima [4] on CNTs in 1991 and various types of organic-inorganic 1-D nanostructures were realized thereafter [226]. More recent advances in layered materials enable large-scale synthesis of various two-dimensional (2D) materials [5, 15, 108, 210, 227, 228], where atoms are arranged in flat layers, which can be stacked on top of each other. One of the most common naturally layered materials is graphene, which has been widely studied for its superb properties and applications in diverse fields. 2D materials can be good choices as nanofillers in heat transfer fluids, as they have high surface area available for heat transfer.
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A common production route of these layered nanostructures is exfoliation, where material individual layers are separate out from each other, either chemically or mechanically (i.e., abrasion) [15, 49, 108, 229–231]. It is important to mention that even though exfoliation can be achieved mechanically on a small scale [229, 230], liquid phase methods are required for diverse applications such as nanoelectronics, micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS)/nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), chemical and pressure sensors, etc. [231]. Another possible route to obtain these 2D structures is by direct chemical growth of individual layers (i.e., graphene sheets) through chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique on the surface of a metals catalyst (i.e., copper, silica) by heating at high temperatures (∼600–1200°C) and passing a carbon-containing gas such as methane over the catalyst [227]. A breakthrough research by Coleman et al. [108] showed that they were able to synthesize diverse 2D materials (MoS2 WS2, BN, Bi2Te3, MoSe2, MoTe2, NiTe2, etc.) by wet exfoliation technique. Exfoliation of 2D insulators such as Bi2Te3, Bi2Se3, and h-BN would reduce its residual bulk conductance, highlighting surface effects. Another important aspect is that changes in electronic properties, as the number of layers is reduced as expected [108, 232]. This class of materials represents a diverse and largely unexploited source of 2D systems with interesting physic-mechanical and electrical properties, with high specific surface areas that is important for sensing, catalysis, and energy storage applications [108]. Hence, like graphene [5, 233], layered materials must be exfoliated to achieve their full potential.
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6. Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN)
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In our research, main focus is on a novel 2D material, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), which is a ceramic material that exhibits versatile properties such as outstanding mechanical stability, remarkable chemical inertness, anti-wear promotion, high electrical resistivity, and superb thermal conductivity [5, 46, 234–239]. On the other hand, h-BN is an effective solid lubricant, it is suitable for diverse applications such as metal-working processes where lubrication at high-temperatures is required and is widely used in high-temperature wear-sealing materials of aerospace engines [155, 239]. Boron and nitrogen atoms behave similarly to carbon when bonded with each other to form boron nitride, exhibiting many similar structures as carbon only with alternating B and N atoms instead of C atoms (see Figure 8). Because of this, there are many forms of boron nitride (BN) that coincide with carbon structures and have a variety of properties and functions. h-BN (so-called “white graphite” due to its structural similarity to graphite) is a common form of BN that has a similar configuration to graphite which has been recently studied [15, 49, 108, 133]. Like graphite, this honeycomb layered material has hexagonal ring layers separated by 3.33 Å, in which every boron atom is connected to three nitrogen atoms by strong covalent bonds and vice versa; the B-N distance is 1.44 Å. Between the layers, every boron interacts with a nitrogen atom through a Van der Waals force [237, 240]. Therefore, the strong B-N bond makes an h-BN atomic layer a mechanically strong material, quite analogous to graphene, and individual BN layers could be isolated from bulk h-BN crystals [15, 108, 229]. As an insulating material with very high thermal conductivity [241], h-BN surpasses other nanofillers and is an attractive material for high thermal transport and electrically insulating composites [15, 133, 236, 242]. Nevertheless, theoretical studies indicate that high thermal conductivities can only be achieved from the (002) planes (up to hundreds to thousands of W/m K) [50, 243]; through a synthesis process of wet exfoliation, h-BN can give maximum exposure to these (002) lattice planes. Meantime, some thermal management systems need electrically conducting fillers for static electric charge dissipation. Graphene-based systems are good for these applications where they can do both thermal and electrical management. This shows how h-BN will be specially applicable and useful in thermal management applications, where electrical insulation is also required. It is also important to mention that BN is environmentally and skin friendly; proof of this is that BN is widely used as the main ingredient for cosmetics. According to the Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) report from 2012, BN is used in 483 cosmetic formulations. Products containing BN are reported to be used on baby skin (in a lotion, oil, powder, or cream), eye area, or mucous membranes. BN is reported to be used at up to 25% in eye product formulations, at 2% in lipstick formulations, up to 16% in powders, and at up to 0.9% in fragrance preparations [244]. Hence, since little research have been conducted on 2D nanostructures, and particularly on boron nitride, exfoliated h-BN, having a few layers in thickness has a remarkable opportunity to overcome the material of the future in the thermal management field for diverse applications, including electrical/electronic, since its nature allows it to be a thermal conductor but an electrical insulator.
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Figure 8.
Scheme of h-BN and graphite structure.
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7. Summary
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The present work offers a general overview of the recent research and development on preparation and characterization of nanofluids for thermal management and tribological applications, with emphasis on experimental data, variables and features, as well as proposed mechanisms responsible for nanofluids improvement performance. Nowadays, many technologies search for the highest efficiency, mainly and more than ever before, on the cooling and anti-wear challenges within machines, devices and components. Several efforts have been made trying to homogeneously disperse nanostructures (oxides, metals, ceramics, CNTs, 2D-nanosheets and others) within conventional fluids to improve their properties, such as thermal transport, viscosity, lubrication, electrical behavior, among others. Nanofillers size has positive effect on conventional fluids performance, that is compared to larger dispersed solid particles making flow through small channels much more easier, also since diverse parameters are critical for devices performance, such as morphology and stability of dispersed nanostructures within conventional fluids, fluids composition, viscosity, fast sedimentation, channels clogging, wear or erosion, among others, which are often very serious for systems consisting of small channels. Furthermore, properties improvement is also dependent of various factors, such as filler fraction, temperature, chemical, and interfacial properties on the nanostructure-fluid interfaces. Some nanofluids are currently expensive, partly due to the difficulty in manufacturing. Hence, mass production of nanostructures could further decrease the cost, also low filler fraction is necessary to make nanofluids more affordable before they will see widespread applications.
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\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Authors acknowledge the support from UDEM personnel, Department of Engineering at Universidad de Monterrey, the Institute for Sustainable Technologies (ITeE-PIB), Rice University, and CONACYT.
\n
\n',keywords:"2D nanostructures, nanofluids, tribology, wear, scuffing, thermal conductivity",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/51152.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/51152.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51152",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51152",totalDownloads:2202,totalViews:408,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:9,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:88,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 18th 2015",dateReviewed:"April 20th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 31st 2016",dateFinished:"June 14th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Advancement in technology demands the successful utilization of energy and its management in a greater extent. Thermal energy management plays a crucial role from high-payload electrical instruments to ultra-small electronic circuitries. The advent of nanofluids that happened in the 1990s successfully addressed the low thermal efficiency of conventional fluids in a significant manner. The ground-breaking report on the concept of “nanofluids for thermal management” led to the development of numerous thermal fluids using nanofillers of ceramics, metals, semiconductors, various carbon nanostructures, and composite materials. Later, demonstration of two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials and their successful bulk synthesis led to the development of highly efficient fluids with even very low filler fractions. Introduction of 2D materials into fluids also brought out the multifunctional aspects of fluids by using them in tribology. In this chapter, we narrate the advances in thermal nanofluids and the development of novel fluids with the discovery graphene. Multifunctional aspects of these fluids are discussed here. To support the experimental observation, a theoretical platform is discussed and its predictions are correlated on the basis of existing data. The chapter has been concluded with a brief discussion on futuristic aspects of nanofluids in real-life applications. This chapter aims to focus on the description of the thermal transport, tribological behavior, and aspects that involve the use of 2D-based nanofluids, from various 2D nanostructures such as h-BN, MoS2, WS2, graphene, among others. The homogeneous nanoparticle distribution within conventional fluids and the results from the thermal transport and tribological tests and observations are included. The nanofluids under investigation belong mainly to dielectric and metal-mechanic lubricants. Also, the mechanisms that promote these effects on the improvement of nanofluids properties are considered.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/51152",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/51152",book:{id:"5693",slug:"two-dimensional-materials-synthesis-characterization-and-potential-applications"},signatures:"Jaime Taha-Tijerina, Laura Peña-Parás and Demófilo Maldonado-\nCortés",authors:[{id:"182402",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:"Jaime",surname:"Taha-Tijerina",fullName:"Jose Taha-Tijerina",slug:"jose-taha-tijerina",email:"jose.taha@udem.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Monterrey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"182865",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Peña-Paras",fullName:"Laura Peña-Paras",slug:"laura-pena-paras",email:"laura.pena@udem.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"182868",title:"Dr.",name:"Demofilo",middleName:null,surname:"Maldonado-Cortes",fullName:"Demofilo Maldonado-Cortes",slug:"demofilo-maldonado-cortes",email:"demofilo.maldonado@udem.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. General overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Introduction to nanofluids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Synthesis and preparation of nanofluids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Nanofluids: variables and features",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1. Nanofiller size",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2. Particle shape/surface area",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3. Filler fraction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.4. Particles agglomeration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.5. Stability",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.6. Surfactants/additives",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.1.7. Viscosity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.1.8. Brownian motion",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.1.9. Temperature dependence",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"3.1.10. Interfacial layering on the liquid-nanostructure interface",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Nanofluids application fields",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.1. Thermal performance of nanofluids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.2. Tribological performance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"5. Two-dimensional nanostructures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"6. Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"7. Summary",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Smalley RE. Future global energy prosperity: The Terawatt challenge. MRS Bull. 2005;30(06): 412–417. DOI:10.1557/mrs2005.124'},{id:"B2",body:'Wen D, Lin G, Vafaei S, Zhang K. Review of nanofluids for heat transfer applications. Particuology. 2009;7(2): 141–150. DOI:10.1016/j.partic.2009.01.007'},{id:"B3",body:'Kroto HW, Heath JR, O’Brien SC, Curl RF, Smalley RE. C60: Buckminsterfullerene. Nature. 1985;318(6042): 162–163. DOI:10.1038/318162a0'},{id:"B4",body:'Iijima S. Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. Nature. 1991;354(6348): 56–58. DOI:10.1038/354056a0'},{id:"B5",body:'Geim AK, Novoselov KS. The rise of graphene. 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(CIR); 2013; 9 p.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jaime Taha-Tijerina",address:"jose.taha@udem.edu",affiliation:'
University of Monterrey, San Pedro Garza García, NL, México
University of Monterrey, San Pedro Garza García, NL, México
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1. Introduction
Ovaries are the prime female reproductive organ that produces the oocyte or the egg cell for fertilization. It is also an endocrine gland that produces the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone responsible for ovulation and pregnancy maintenance. Some of the diseases that affect the ovaries are ovarian cysts, primary ovarian insufficiency, ovarian torsion and more recently ovarian cancer (OC). OC was first detected in the 1950s and is now one of the deadliest gynecological cancers among women [1, 2]. According to the latest Global Cancer Observatory: CANCER TODAY (GLOBOCAN 2018), the incidence and mortality rates of OC vary globally and ranks at the 8th and 7th position respectively [3]. The highest mortality rates are reported in Oceania and Europe and the lowest are from Latin America, the Caribbean and Asia [3]. OCs are also prevalent in countries with a high human development index (HDI) but with lower mortality rates due to increased diagnostic and therapeutic support [4].
Most OCs manifest post menopause and the increased incidence is reported in women older than 65 years [5]. Considering the ethnicity, non-Hispanic white women are reported to have the highest incidence and mortality rates [6]. OCs are heterogeneous cancer, hence the risk factors for each histological subtype vary. In general, some of the major risk factors for OC include Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer (HBOC) syndrome [7], Lynch syndrome [8], menopausal hormonal therapy [9, 10], endometriosis [11], IVF treatment [12], use of fertility drugs [13], late menopause [14] and null parity [15]. Interestingly, high parity [16], hysterectomy [17] and usage of hormonal contraceptive pills for prolonged periods [18] are reported to have a protective effect since these conditions confer in the suppression of ovulatory cycles [19]. The sterilization treatment, tubal ligation is also reported to reduce the risk of OCs [17, 20]. Recently reported other emerging risk factors for OCs are the use of talc powders [21], asbestos exposure [22] and pelvic inflammatory disease [23].
OCs are difficult to detect;therefore almost 60% of OC cases are diagnosed at advanced stages [24]. It is often called the “whispering cancer” or “silent cancer” due to its asymptomatic nature and late presentation [25, 26]. Late-stage OC symptoms are very nonspecific and diffuse but may include abdominal bloating or swelling, pelvic pain, increased urinary urgency, weight loss, or fatigue [27, 28]. Although a biopsy is the only reliable diagnosis for OC, screening for serum cancer antigen 125 (CA-125) levels combined with ultrasound imaging are used for women with increased risk [29]. The emerging technique of liquid biopsy is being explored for identifying serum biomarkers for early detection of OCs. It holds great promise being non-invasive and is utilized to diagnose, prognose and predict surgical outcomes. One such serum biomarker identified is the Human Epididymis Protein 4 (HE4) which is reported to have high specificity for OCs [30, 31]. 2011 FDA approved, ROMA index (risk of ovarian malignancy algorithm) deduced from HE4, CA-125 and the menopausal status is used for diagnosis and prognosis of OCs with a specificity of 90% [32, 33, 34]. Another recent 2016 FDA approved serum-based screening test, Overa also uses HE4 levels along with other serum proteins is reported to show a sensitivity of 94% along with pathological diagnosis [35]. The mutational status of multiple cancer-causing genes are also being developed as screening tests for various cancers like PapSEEK and CancerSEEK and are reported to detect OC with a specificity of 63% and 98%, respectively [36, 37].
According to the World cancer report 2020, OC five-year survival rate is below 30% [38]. This is mainly because this cancer gets diagnosed at stage III or IV with metastasis and the recurrence rate high despite standard therapy. Cytoreductive surgery followed by chemotherapy based on cancer’s surgical stage remains the gold standard treatment for OCs. The most commonly administered chemotherapy drugs are platinum derivatives e.g. cisplatin and carboplatin and are often combined with taxane-based drugs like paclitaxel or docetaxel. These drugs induce apoptosis in the tumor cells by creating double-stranded breaks in the DNA [39]. Despite chemotherapy being effective for advanced cancers in the initial phases, cancer relapses in 70% of cases due to drug resistance [40]. In the case of recurrent OCs, the second line of the chemotherapy treatment regimen is based on the platinum-free interval and the tumor’s molecular profile [41]. Furthermore, the treatment options include combinations of carboplatin with gemcitabine, topotecan, vinorelbine, trabectedin, belotecan or pegylated liposomal doxorubicin [42].
Despite intensive combination chemotherapy, the survival rate decreases with chemoresistance and subsequent OC metastasis. The lack of anatomical barrier around the ovaries facilitates the dissemination of OC cells into the peritoneal cavity, metastasizing onto abdominal organs resulting in bowel obstruction, which is the major cause of OC morbidity and mortality [43, 44]. Currently, there are no preventive measures for OCs, and options for the high-risk category are prophylactic surgeries like hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) combined with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (removal of both ovaries and fallopian tube) or bilateral salpingectomy (removal of both fallopian tubes) [45]. Women with average risk can opt for oral contraceptive treatment [46].
Presently, there is no effective cure for advanced OC. Though these cancers vary histologically, clinical treatment therapies neglect these differences and are treated as a single disease. Each OC subtype is characterized by specific genetic mutations that deregulate specific signaling pathways that should be utilized for personalized or tailored therapeutics. Precision therapy is the need of the hour for OC treatment in improving the current survival rate. In the following sections of the chapter, we describe the various OC subtypes, their histological classification and the key molecular pathways activated in each subtype along with its druggable targets.
2. Ovarian cancer subtypes
OC neoplasms arise from distinct regions of the ovary. They are termed heterogeneous as each OC subtype is unique with varied morphology, biologic behavior and even prognosis. High throughput sequencing technologies have identified each OC subtype as distinct even on a molecular level with unique genomic characteristics. OCs are broadly classified into epithelial and non-epithelial cancers. Non-epithelial cancer comprises germ cell cancer, stromal cell cancer, and the rare small cell carcinoma. The origin of the various subtypes of OCs and the sub-classifications are depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Origin of the various ovarian cancer subtypes and their sub-classifications.
2.1 Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC)
Epithelial ovarian cancers (EOCs) comprise 90% of all OCs and are among the most well-characterized forms of OC. EOCs are thought to arise from the epithelium, the outer lining of the ovary. EOC is an age-related disease and is considered mainly a postmenopausal disease. Based on tumor cell morphology, they are further subdivided into high grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC), low grade serous ovarian carcinoma (LGSOC), mucinous ovarian carcinoma (MOC), endometrioid carcinoma (EC), and clear-cell carcinoma (CCC). The histological image, epidemiology, molecular alterations and pathways affecting each EOC variant are outlined in Figure 2.
High grade serous ovarian carcinomas (HGSOCs) are the most lethal forms of OCs and account 75% of all EOCs [48]. They are the most aggressive and chemoresistant forms of EOCs responsible for 70–80% of OC related deaths. HGSOCs are thought to be derived from the fallopian tube [49]. These cancers are mainly diagnosed in postmenopausal women and due to its asymptomatic character presents themselves in advanced stages. Familial HBOC syndrome, and menopausal hormonal therapy predispose women towards this cancer [25, 50].
HGSOCs are characterized by a high frequency (90%) of somatic TP53 mutations. These mutations are present in the DNA binding domain of TP53 which render its tumor-suppressive function inactive, leading to enhanced cell proliferation and metastasis. The drug APR-246 targeting TP53 resulting in its wild type stabilization is under clinical trial and has shown favorable results [51]. Another drug, nutlin-3a targeting MDM2, a negative regulator of TP53, has also entered clinical trials with positive outcomes [52]. Moreover, combination therapy using nutlin-3 and RG7388 (another MDM2-TP53 antagonist) have reported cytotoxic effects in various OC cell lines [53].
15–20% of HGSOC patients harbor germline mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2 [48]. The BRCA genes are involved in the repair of double-strand DNA breaks through homologous recombination (HR). Besides, most HGSOCs with the germline BRCA mutation are also reported to harbor somatic mutations in other HR-related genes conferring an HR deficient (HRD) phenotype [54]. The Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network (TCGA) has reported almost 50% HGSOCs cases as HR deficient [55]. HRD conferring genes besides BRCA1/2 include Fanconi anemia genes (PALB2, FANCA, FANCI, FANCL, FANCC), RAD family genes (RAD50, RAD51, RAD51C, RAD54L), MRN complex genes (Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1), and also DNA damage response genes (ATM, ATR, CHEK1, CHEK2) [54, 56]. This manifestation of inactivating BRCA gene mutations and other HRD genes confer a DNA repair-deficient phenotype leading to genomic instability [57].
One of the most remarkable developments for OC therapy has been the PARP (poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase) inhibitors. PARP is an excision repair enzyme involved in the repair of single DNA strand breaks. PARP inhibitor treatment in BRCA-deficient cancer induces synthetic lethality and cell death [58]. The PARP inhibitor olaparib has been reported to show increased progression-free survival (PFS) and is currently approved as first-line maintenance therapy for BRCA-mutant individuals [59, 60]. Another PARP inhibitor, niraparib, improved PFS regardless of BRCA or HRD status is also approved for first-line maintenance of advanced OCs [61]. CDK4/6 inhibitors (palbociclib, ribociclib and abemaciclib) are also under clinical trials as maintenance and combination therapy for HGSOCs [62]. Cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 (CDK4/6) are key kinases that regulate the cell cycle. CDK4/6 inhibitors hinder G1-S transition inducing cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase. PI3K/AKT and NOTCH pathways are reported to be deregulated in HGSOCs which could also be targeted via combination therapies using PI3K inhibitors or the AKT inhibitor, afuresertib [63].
One of the first targeted therapy used to treat advanced OCs is Bevacizumab, an anti-angiogenic agent that targets vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) [64]. Angiogenesis plays a pivotal role in tumor progression and metastasis in many malignant cancers. This drug acts by neutralizing VEGF-A, thereby inhibiting tumor growth and invasion. Bevacizumab is currently approved as a combination therapy along with platinum/taxane drugs for advanced HGSOCs and has been reported to show a significant improvement in progression-free survival [57].
2.1.2 Low grade serous ovarian carcinoma (LGSOC)
As the name suggests, LGSOCs are indolent and less aggressive tumors with relatively better prognosis than HGSOC. They are prevalent in younger women with a median age of 55 years and constitute less than 5% of all OCs [65]. Though LGSOCs are chemoresistant they are treated the same way as HGSOCs with platinum/taxane drugs. The increased survival rate in LGSOCs is attributed to its longer disease trajectory and complete resection of the tumor post-primary cytoreductive surgery [66].
LGSOCs are characterized by activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway in 80% cases. KRAS (54%), BRAF (33%), NRAS (26%), and ERBB2, the upstream regulators of MAPK pathways are reported to be mutated, with mutations in BRAF/KRAS considered as good prognostic markers [67]. Due to the high prevalence of activated MAPK pathway in LGSOCs, MEK inhibitors (Trametinib, Selumetinib, Pimasertib, Binimetinib) are among the druggable targets for these cancers and some are under evaluation [65]. Recurrent mutations in PIK3CA, FFAR1, USP9X (11%) and EIF1AX (15%) are reported as driver mutations [68]. USP9X and EIF1AX are regulators of the mTOR pathway which are downstream effectors of the MAPK pathway. The use of Metformin, an inhibitor of the mTOR pathway, along with MEK inhibitor (Trametinib) has been reported to show an inhibitory effect in various LGSOCs cell lines [69]. Taken together, MEK inhibitors and Metformin are potential candidates for targeted therapies. CDK4/6 inhibitors, (ribociclib and abemaciclib) are under clinical trials for LGSOCs [65]. Endocrine therapy using letrozole, anastrozole or tamoxifen used as maintenance therapy has been reported to be beneficial in LGSOCs due to estrogen and progesterone receptors expressions [70].
2.1.3 Endometrioid carcinomas
Endometrioid carcinomas (ECs) are the second most common EOCs representing 10% of all OCs [71]. They are diagnosed in women in the age range of 40–70 years and are associated with a good prognosis. As its name suggests they are associated with endometriosis and are thought to be derived from the endometrium [72]. Endometriosis, menopausal hormone therapy, HBOC syndrome, Lynch syndrome and late menopause are some of the risk factors associated with ECs [14, 73].
One of the most mutated genes reported in ECs is ARID1A at a frequency of 30%. ARID1A is a component of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex. Targeting ARID1A with HDAC inhibitors have been reported to be effective in mice models harboring ARID1A tumor mutation [74]. CTNNB1, of the β-catenin signaling is also reported to be mutated at a rate of 25–60%. β-catenin signaling is a conserved pathway involved in development implicated in other epithelial cancers but its oncogenic role is less understood [75]. Other less frequent mutations are KRAS/BRAF (20%), which are regulators of MAPK pathways, PIK3CA (12%), and TP53 (25%) [76]. PTEN mutations with frequent loss of heterozygosity (45–75%) is also reported [52]. PTEN is a tumor-suppressor gene that is a negative regulator of the PI3K pathway and is also the most mutated in the related endometrial cancers [77]. The multiple mutational spectra of ECs warrants the investigation of combination therapy using MEK inhibitors (trametinib, MEK162), TP53 activators (APR-246), and PI3K inhibitors (idelalisib, voxtalisib). Only 14% of EC cases are reported to be BRCA mutation carriers [78], and HBOC syndrome being one of the risk factors for ECs, PARP inhibitors are a viable option for targeted therapies.
2.1.4 Mucinous ovarian carcinomas
Mucinous carcinomas (MOCs) are a rare subset of EOCs accounting for 2–3% of all OCs. They are histologically characterized by high levels of intracellular mucin. MOCs are more prevalent in women below 40 years and unlike other EOC types, the only risk factor identified is smoking [14, 79]. Early-stage MOCs have an excellent prognosis and beyond stage II, they are addressed by standard chemotherapeutic agents with poor outcomes, as these tumors are chemoresistant.
Though rare, MOCs have been well characterized. The predominant mutation present in MOCs is KRAS mutations reported in 66% of cases [79, 80]. A recent large cohort study identified many other mutations in MOCs besides KRAS in varying degrees which are TP53 mutation, HER2 amplification (a member of the epidermal growth factor receptor family), PIK3CA/PTEN (regulator of PI3K-PTEN-AKT pathway), BRAF mutation, CTNNB1/APC mutations (regulator of Wnt-signaling pathway), and ARID1A mutation (a member of the SWI/SNF family) [79, 80]. One of the potential drugs for the treatment of MOCs is 5-fluorouracil. MOCs and mucinous colorectal cancer (CRC) share a similar mutational profile with unfavorable outcome [81]. 5-fluorouracil, which is currently utilized for CRC treatment has been effective in various MOC cell lines in combination with oxaliplatin [82]. Moreover, the multiple mutational spectra reported in MOCs are a great avenue for identifying the most potent target for tailored therapies. Some targeted drugs like BRAF inhibitors, PI3K inhibitors are already being investigated in various other cancer types. Combinatorial therapy using dual inhibitors is warranted for MOC treatment due to its varied mutational landscape.
2.1.5 Clear-cell carcinomas
Clear cell carcinomas (CCCs) of the ovary constitute >5% of all OCs and 10% of all EOCs [83]. The incidence rates of CCCs vary by ethnicity; the majority of the cases are reported in East Asian countries (mainly Japan) for unknown reasons [84]. They are mostly diagnosed in younger women with an option of fertility-sparing surgery before standard chemotherapy. These are chemoresistant tumors with a poor prognosis if diagnosed at an advanced stage, but most of these cases are diagnosed early with a good prognosis [83]. They are a distinct class of EOCs thought to arise from endometriosis or clear cell adenofibroma, hence they are associated with endometriosis which is thought to be the precursor for CCC manifestation and this association is considered a good prognosis [85]. Late menopause and endometriosis are considered to be the highest risk factors for developing CCCs.
The most common genomic alterations identified in CCCs are activating mutations in PIK3CA, a regulator of the PI3K-PTEN-AKT pathway (50%), and loss of function in ARID1A, component of SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex (50%) [86]. Other mutations reported in varying degrees are MET gene amplification, mutations in ARID1B, SMARCA4, ERBB2, PIK3CA, PIK3R1, AKT2, PTEN, KRAS, PPP2R1A, TP53, TERT promoter, and ZNF217 overexpression [85, 87]. Antioxidant genes like Glutathione peroxidase 3 (GPX3), glutaredoxin (GLRX), and superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) are reported to be highly expressed in CCCs rendering them resistant to chemotherapy [88]. A recent report on the pharmacological inhibition of EZH2 for loss of function of ARID1A has shown considerable promise in treating CCCs [89]. The overexpression of the transcription factor ZNF217 is a poor prognostic marker. In-vitro studies in ZNF217-overexpressing cells treated with triciribine, a DNA synthesis inhibitor, have shown inhibitory effects suggesting ZNF217 be a druggable target [90]. Targeting PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathways using PI3K inhibitor (idelalisib, Voxtalisib) or mTOR pathway inhibitor (Metformin) are other viable options.
2.2 Sex cord-stromal tumors (SCSTs)
The rare ovarian sex cord-stromal tumors (SCSTs) constitute 8% of all OCs and are diagnosed in broad age groups with mixed prognosis [91]. These neoplasms originate from the stromal cells and/or the sex chord cells of the ovary, which are involved in the endocrine function of producing the female sex hormones, therefore unlike EOCs, they present with hormone-related disorders. Certain hereditary cancer syndromes predispose patients towards SCST. Based on the WHO classification of OCs, the various subtypes of SCSTs with their incidence, risk factors, prognosis, and molecular alterations are outlined in Table 1 [92].
Sex cord-stromal tumors subtypes: epidemiology, and molecular alterations.
Due to the rarity of these tumor types, the molecular characteristics of only a few of these subtypes are reported. The cancers arising in the ovary’s granulosa cells are the most common in this group comprising 2–5% of all OCs [93]. Granulosa cells are somatic cells involved in folliculogenesis and ovulation, the variant adult granulosa cell tumors (AGCTs), which are estradiol producing are the most common in this group constituting 70% of all SCSTs [94]. Inhibin, a gonadal hormone secreted by granulosa cells, is reported to be elevated in GCT patients [95]. Inhibin level and CA-125 are utilized as a diagnostic biomarker to assess disease progression in GCTs [96]. 97% of AGCTs are characterized by the ubiquitous presence of FOXL2 mutations, a component of the TGFβ pathway [95]. The pleiotropic TGFβ pathway is reported to be deregulated in many cancers conferring chemoresistance and metastasis [97]. Moreover, TERT promoter mutations are reported in 40% of recurrent AGCT cases with poor prognosis [98]. Few small cohort studies of AGCTs, and juvenile granulosa cell tumors (JGCTs), have reported amplification in AKT leading to possible dysregulations in PI3K/AKT pathways [99, 100]. Activating GNAS mutations involved in tumor invasion are reported in 30% of JGCTs with aggressive nature [101]. The notch signaling pathway is also reported to be altered in GCTs [102]. Estrogen producing thecomas, composed of pure stromal cells are also reported to harbor FOXL2 mutation at a rate of 21% [103]. Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors (SLCTs), which belong to mixed-sex chord and stromal cells are androgen-secreting tumors that induce varying degrees of virilization (male physical characteristics) [104]. Mutation in DICER1, an endoribonuclease involved in microRNA biogenesis, is reported with a high frequency of 88% in undifferentiated SLCTs [105].
Targeting Activin A of the TGFβ pathway and aromatase, a downstream target of FOXL2 has been reported promising for targeted therapies [106, 107]. TERT promoter mutations are present in various cancer types and are reported to activate the oncogenic MAPK pathway; targeting this pathway using MEK inhibitors (trametinib, MEK162) are potential treatment options [108]. Besides, other druggable pathways for GCTs include PI3K and NOTCH pathways. Identifying drugs targeting DICER1 is warranted which could provide novel modalities for tailored therapies for SLCTs.
2.3 Ovarian germ cell tumors (OGCTs)
Ovarian germ cell tumors (OGCTs) of the ovary are rare ovarian neoplasms comprising 2–3% of all OCs [109]. These histologically variant heterogeneous neoplasms arise in the egg or ovum, the ovary’s primordial germ cell. They primarily manifest in young and adolescent women with excellent prognosis if diagnosed in earlier stages [110]. These tumors are chemosensitive allowing fertility-sparing surgery in most cases [111]. A recent small cohort study reported a low mutational burden in OGCTs explaining their chemosensitive disposition [112]. OGCTs are classified into dysgerminomas, immature teratomas, yolk sac tumors, and mixed germ cell tumors in order of their frequency. Embryonal carcinomas, choriocarcinomas, and malignant struma ovarii tumors are other very rare forms of OGCTs [113]. The understudied, very rare mixed germ cell tumors are the only aggressive OGCT subtype with poor prognosis [114]. There are no risk factors identified for OGCTs but certain genetic diseases like Turner’s syndrome, Triple X syndrome, and Swyer syndrome are reported to be high-risk factors for dysgerminomas [115]. The incidence rate, prognosis, risk factors, and their molecular characteristics are outlined in Table 2.
PIK3CA or AKT1 mutation (72%), 12p amplifications harboring KRAS (60%)
Mixed germ cell tumors
5% of OGCTs
<20 years
Poor
12p amplifications harboring KRAS (~40%)
Table 2.
Ovarian germ cell tumors subtypes: epidemiology and molecular alterations.
The most frequent mutations reported in OGCTs are KIT mutations and 12p amplification, which harbor KRAS [112]. The OGCT subtype, dysgerminomas harbor 12p amplification and KIT mutation at a frequency of 80% and 30–50%, respectively [116]. KIT is a proto-oncogene involved in PI3K/AKT/mTOR, JAK/STAT and MAPK pathways [117], whereas the oncogene KRAS is involved in the tumor development pathway of Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK pathway [118]. The aneuploid, yolk sac tumors are reported to harbor PI3K and AKT1 mutations, besides KRAS altering PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. The TGFβ/BMP and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways are also reported to be activated in yolk sac tumors [116]. Few druggable targets of these pathways like AKT inhibitor (afuresertib) and MEK inhibitor (trametinib) are already under clinical trials for various OCs [119].
2.4 Small cell carcinoma of the ovary (SCCO)
Small cell carcinoma of the ovary (SCCO) is a group of extremely rare OCs accounting for <1% of all OCs [120]. Their biology is poorly understood as their cellular lineage is unknown. Based on histologic characterization, SCCO is classified into hypercalcemic type (SCCO-HT), which is chemoresistant and pulmonary type (SCCO-PT) which is chemo-sensitive. These are highly malignant cancers with an average survival of 5.7 years. The incidence rate, prognosis, risk factors and molecular characteristics are outlined in Table 3.
SCCO subtypes
Incidence rates
Incident age groups
Prognosis
Chromatic alteration
SCCO-hypercalcemic type
<1% of all OCs
<40 years
Poor
SMARCA mutation (90%)
SCCO- pulmonary type
<1% of all OCs
<59 years
Poor
None reported
Table 3.
Small cell carcinoma of the ovary subtypes: Epidemiology, and molecular alterations.
One of the significant mutations identified in 90% of cases of SCCOHT is germline or somatic mutations of SMARCA4 [121]. SMARCA4 mutation is considered one of the hallmarks of SCCOHT, it is a key component of the switching/sucrose non-fermenting (SWI/SNF) chromatin remodeling complex [122, 123]. The loss of function of SMARCA4 leads to the upregulation of EZH2, the catalytic subunit of the PRC2 complex which is utilized as a druggable target for SCCOHT [124]. Targeting EZH2 using tazemetostat has reported antiproliferative and antitumor effects in SCCOHT cell lines [125]. Moreover, a recent study has reported oncolytic viruses’ effect on SCCOHT derived cell line BIN-1 in reducing its proliferation >75%, which holds promise in developing targeted therapies [126]. Some of the broad categories of drugs being investigated for SCCOHT and some of which are already in clinical trials, include tyrosine kinase inhibitors, immune checkpoint inhibitors and HDAC inhibitors [127]. There are no studies reported on the molecular characterization and pathogenesis of SCCO-PT due to its rarity.
3. Potential drugs for targeted therapies in OCs
Presently, targeted therapy is employed only to improve the efficacy of standard therapy in OC treatment with drugs such as bevacizumab, an anti-angiogenic agent which is licensed for use as front-line therapy for advanced OCs [57] and olaparib, a PARP inhibitor which is now approved for first-line maintenance therapy for patients with relapsed BRCA-mutated OCs [128]. Very recently, the combination of bevacizumab and olaparib is FDA approved for first-line maintenance treatment in advanced OCs with HRD positive status [129].
Generic drugs being investigated for a variety of OC types are receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) inhibitors. RTK inhibitors have been reported to be efficacious in treating a variety of malignant cancers by inhibiting tumor cell proliferation via blocking the signal transduction cascade. For e.g., Ponatinib is a multi-tyrosine kinase inhibitor that targets pathways like EGFR, FGFR, PDGFR, and VEGFR all of which are aberrantly activated in various cancer types [130]. Other RTK inhibitors being investigated for OCs are Palbociclib, Abemaciclib and Ribociclib [131, 132]. Likewise, immunotherapy using immune checkpoint inhibitors like Pembrolizumab and Nivolumab has been revolutionary in oncology research. These are monoclonal antibodies that trigger the immune T-cell activation to attack the cancer cells and Pembrolizumab is already under clinical trial for various cancer types [133, 134]. Epigenetic abnormalities being the hallmarks of cancers, epigenetic modulators like HDAC inhibitors have shown great promise as anti-cancer drugs. HDAC inhibitors like Vorinostat, Panobinostat, Quisinostat, and Trichostatin are under investigation for targeted therapies for OCs [126, 135].
4. Role of miRNAs in ovarian cancer
miRNAs are single-stranded RNA nucleotides that regulate gene expression. In the human body, they are reported to be involved in regulating around 60% of genes affecting various cellular and biological processes. Each miRNA has multiple gene targets or multiple miRNAs can act on one target gene. They can function either as an oncogene or a tumor suppressor and their expressions in cancer cells are deregulated [136]. The miRNA expression profile for each OC subtype is reported to be distinct, with a subset of miRNAs downregulated or upregulated [137]. The miRNA signatures identified in various cancer types are being investigated for their utility as cancer biomarkers in tumor diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic outcome.
The sensitivity of a cancer drug profoundly affects treatment efficacy and prognosis. miRNAs are involved in conferring chemo-sensitive or chemoresistant phenotype by regulating the drug-resistance related genes [138]. Therefore, manipulating the expression levels of specific miRNAs can aid in drug sensitivity. As previously mentioned, the sensitivity for platinum drugs varies among each OC subtype, and this profoundly affects the treatment efficacy and prognosis. Though still in its infancy, targeting miRNA holds great promise for a more customized therapeutic approach. Here, we highlight the key miRNAs reported in recent literature, which are deregulated in the various OC subtypes (Table 4).
The global incidence rate for OC is expected to increase by 47% by 2040 [141]. Except for the emergence of PARP inhibitors in women with HRD HGSOC tumors, the conventional treatment protocol for other OC subtypes has remained the same since the 1980s, with no significant impact on survival rates. Screening for high-grade OCs remains a challenge. With the advances in the high throughput screening technologies, the focus is warranted to shift towards translational research to treat each OC subtype for their underlying genomic aberrations.
\n',keywords:"ovarian cancer subtypes, targeted therapy, miRNAs in ovarian cancers",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75017.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75017.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75017",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75017",totalDownloads:744,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 6th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2021",datePublished:"October 6th 2021",dateFinished:"February 1st 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Ovarian cancer is the deadliest gynecological cancer among women with an overall 5-year survival rate below 50% due to its asymptomatic nature, diagnosis at advanced stages, and a high recurrence rate after standard therapy in 70% of cases. Ovarian cancers are heterogenous cancers where each subtype possesses a varied morphology and biologic behavior. Accumulating evidence has identified each of these subtypes characterized with specific pathways activated in each along with specific gene alterations. For example, high-grade serous ovarian cancer is characterized by universal TP53 mutation, mucinous ovarian cancer with KRAS mutation and clear cell or endometrioid ovarian cancers with ARID1A mutations. With the current focus of molecular-targeted therapies for cancer, such druggable markers serve as excellent targets for precision therapy and combination therapy. This chapter, provides an overview of the critical molecular pathways activated in the ovarian cancer subtypes with its druggable targets studied in ovarian cancer. We also highlight the implications of miRNAs in chemoresistance and sensitivity in the regulation of ovarian cancer.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75017",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75017",signatures:"Febina Ravindran and Bibha Choudhary",book:{id:"10342",type:"book",title:"Ovarian Cancer",subtitle:"Updates in Tumour Biology and Therapeutics",fullTitle:"Ovarian Cancer - Updates in Tumour Biology and Therapeutics",slug:"ovarian-cancer-updates-in-tumour-biology-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",bookSignature:"Gwo-Yaw Ho and Kate Webber",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10342.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-744-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-743-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-745-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"297757",title:null,name:"Gwo-Yaw",middleName:null,surname:"Ho",slug:"gwo-yaw-ho",fullName:"Gwo-Yaw Ho"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"334121",title:"Prof.",name:"Bibha",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhary",fullName:"Bibha Choudhary",slug:"bibha-choudhary",email:"vibha@ibab.ac.in",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"335007",title:"Dr.",name:"Febina",middleName:null,surname:"Ravindran",fullName:"Febina Ravindran",slug:"febina-ravindran",email:"feina28@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Ovarian cancer subtypes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 High grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Low grade serous ovarian carcinoma (LGSOC)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Endometrioid carcinomas",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 Mucinous ovarian carcinomas",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.5 Clear-cell carcinomas",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.2 Sex cord-stromal tumors (SCSTs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.3 Ovarian germ cell tumors (OGCTs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.4 Small cell carcinoma of the ovary (SCCO)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"3. Potential drugs for targeted therapies in OCs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Role of miRNAs in ovarian cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Swerdlow M. 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Orphanet J Rare Dis 2013; 8: 33'},{id:"B127",body:'Tischkowitz M, Huang S, Banerjee S, et al. Small-Cell Carcinoma of the Ovary, Hypercalcemic Type–Genetics, New Treatment Targets, and Current Management Guidelines. Clinical Cancer Research 2020; 26: 3908-3917'},{id:"B128",body:'Banerjee S, Gonzalez-Martin A, Harter P, et al. First-line PARP inhibitors in ovarian cancer: summary of an ESMO Open - Cancer Horizons round-table discussion. ESMO Open 2020; 5: e001110'},{id:"B129",body:'Ray-Coquard I, Pautier P, Pignata S, et al. Olaparib plus Bevacizumab as First-Line Maintenance in Ovarian Cancer. N Engl J Med 2019; 381: 2416-2428'},{id:"B130",body:'Tan FH, Putoczki TL, Stylli SS, et al. Ponatinib: a novel multi-tyrosine kinase inhibitor against human malignancies. Onco Targets Ther 2019; 12: 635-645'},{id:"B131",body:'Lang JD, Hendricks WPD, Orlando KA, et al. 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Molecules 2015; 20: 3898-3941'},{id:"B136",body:'Gandellini P, Giovannetti E, Nicassio F. MicroRNAs in Cancer Management: Big Challenges for Small Molecules. BioMed Research International 2015; 2015: 1-2'},{id:"B137",body:'Alshamrani AA. Roles of microRNAs in Ovarian Cancer Tumorigenesis: Two Decades Later, What Have We Learned? Front Oncol 2020; 10: 1084'},{id:"B138",body:'Chen S-N, Chang R, Lin L-T, et al. MicroRNA in Ovarian Cancer: Biology, Pathogenesis, and Therapeutic Opportunities. Int J Environ Res Public Health; 16. Epub ahead of print 29 April 2019. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16091510'},{id:"B139",body:'Kraggerud SM, Hoei-Hansen CE, Alagaratnam S, et al. Molecular characteristics of malignant ovarian germ cell tumors and comparison with testicular counterparts: implications for pathogenesis. Endocr Rev 2013; 34: 339-376'},{id:"B140",body:'Chang RK, Li X, Mu N, et al. MicroRNA expression profiles in non-epithelial ovarian tumors. Int J Oncol 2018; 52: 55-66'},{id:"B141",body:'Ferlay J, Ervik M, Lam F, Colombet M, Mery L, Piñeros M, Znaor A, Soerjomataram I, Bray F (2018). Global Cancer Observatory: Cancer Tomorrow. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer. Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/tomorrow, accessed [01 Dec 2020]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Febina Ravindran",address:"vibha@ibab.ac.in",affiliation:'
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Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. 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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. 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Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. 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Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:18},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:null,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. 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His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
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\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
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\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
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\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
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\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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