Herbicide, rates, and timing of applications for evaluating purple nutsedge control and bell pepper growth response when applied to soil prior to laying of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) mulch in Georgia.
Abstract
The phase out of methyl bromide (MBr) challenged vegetable growers’ abilities to control weeds in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) mulch production systems. The herbicides halosulfuron, fomesafen, S-metolachlor, and clomazone are needed as part of the pesticide program in LDPE vegetable production to control weeds including Cyperus species. Experiments were conducted during the spring and autumn of 2012, evaluating Cyperus rotundus, bell pepper, and cucumber response to these herbicides applied to soil immediately prior to LDPE laying. Halosulfuron, fomesafen, S-metolachlor, and clomazone applied to soil under LDPE mulch did not negatively impact stand and growth of bell pepper in spring or autumn experiments, or cucumber in spring trials. However, there was significantly less growth in the autumn experiment as halosulfuron, S-metolachlor plus clomazone plus halosulfuron or fomesafen, reduced vine length. Cyperus rotundus suppression and control was achieved with halosulfuron alone and when used in combinations with S-metolachlor plus clomazone, and combinations of S-metolachlor plus clomazone plus fomesafen. These herbicides provided weed control that were comparable to MBr plus chloropicrin (MBrR-C). Using herbicides for control and suppression of Cyperus rotundus in combination with safety for pepper and cucumber will allow growers to implement new control strategies into their vegetable production systems.
Keywords
- Crop tolerance
- clomazone
- fomesafen
- halosulfuron
- S-metolachlor
1. Introduction
Effective weed control in fresh market production of vegetable crops is challenging due to the elimination of the preplant soil fumigant methyl bromide (MBr). Purple (
2. Importance
The use of LDPE mulch with fumigation to manage weeds, plant pathogens, and nematodes is standard for production of vegetables in the southeastern US [6–10]. Most LDPE mulch is laid for spring vegetable production followed by a second crop in the autumn and potentially a third crop the following spring [7]. Spring vegetables grown after LDPE mulch fumigation include watermelon [
3. Background information on LDPE mulch weed control
Methyl bromide was first used as a soil fumigant in France in the 1930s and was tested for nematode control beginning in the 1940s [13], and then used to sterilize soil in the 1950s [14]. It became the standard for broad-spectrum pest control in fresh market vegetable production through the 1990s [15–18]. Herbicides with soil persistence were first used for preemergence (PRE) weed control in agronomic crops beginning in the 1940s [19]. However, there was no need to incorporate herbicides into LDPE mulch fresh market vegetable production, as MBr was effective and consistent in control of multiple pests including most weed species. With the increasing awareness of MBr as an ozone-depleting compound, efforts to decrease its use began in earnest in the early 1990s. Data from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) fact sheets, sales, and usage information indicated the rapid decline in MBr use in the US from greater than 28,000,000 kg in 1991 to less than 2.2% of that baseline level in 2013 (Figure 2), due to restrictive use goals set at the Montreal Protocol in 1991 [7]. In the interim, MBr was often combined with chloropicrin as a means to reduce MBr usage [11]. The goal is to be at less than 0.01% of the 1991 baseline MBr use by 2017 in the US [20]. With the loss of MBr for weed control, herbicide alternatives were immediately considered, as there were several registrations already in place for bare soil production methods. For example, halosulfuron was registered for use in tomato in multiple US states in April 2004 as a pre- and postemergence application. Halosulfuron is now registered for use as a soil preemergence application prior to LDPE mulch laying [21]. While herbicide options are available in LDPE mulch scenarios, crop tolerance and weed control are often a concern and require additional research. There are several herbicides that should be considered as alternatives to MBr in LDPE mulch systems, but the critical factors for their success involve their effectiveness in controlling nutsedges and the level of crop tolerance.
3.1. Halosulfuron
Halosulfuron is a sulfonylurea herbicide that inhibits branched-chain amino acid synthesis [5] with good to excellent control of nutsedges [22, 23]. When soil applied in vegetables, halosulfuron was applied to soil for vegetable growth, its adsorption to soil colloids was highly correlated with soil organic carbon content and inversely related to soil pH. Halosulfuron degradation increases with temperature and lower soil pH, with soil moisture content and soil type further affecting soil persistence. Soil dissipation is primarily by chemical hydrolysis and microbial degradation [5]. Halosulfuron half-life (DT50) ranges from 6 to 98 days, depending on soil moisture and temperature regimes [8, 24] and exhibit hysteresis [25]. Injury from halosulfuron carryover to rotational crops has occurred as a result of its variable soil behavior [26]. This variability in the literature suggests that further evaluation of halosulfuron for weed control using LDPE is needed.
3.2. Fomesafen
Fomesafen, a member of the diphenyl ether herbicide family, is registered for postemergence application for control of dicot species in agronomic crops. However, it does have soil residual activity [27–29] with a half-life ranging from 6 to 12 months under aerobic conditions [30]. In contrast, fomesafen degradation under anaerobic conditions was less than 3 weeks [5]. Rauch et al. [31] reported fomesafen field DT50 varied between 28 and 66 days. Fomesafen has been the focus of several research studies to determine its potential preemergence soil residual activity in vegetables, with testing in tomato for control of American black nightshade (
3.3. S -metolachlor
Metolachlor is a chloroacetamide herbicide, and its dissipation from soil has been extensively investigated [39–44]. Weber et al. [44] reported that metolachlor sorption, mobility, and soil retention were related to organic matter, clay content, and surface area. As soil organic matter concentration increases, adsorption of metolachlor increases. Metolachlor mobility was inversely related to soil organic matter and clay content. Other studies came to similar conclusions, indicating that metolachlor binding was by physical forces between metolachlor molecules and soil constituent surfaces [44]. Half-life of metolachlor varies with soil temperature, moisture, and organic matter content [5, 45].
3.4. Clomazone
Clomazone inhibits photosynthesis and carotenoid biosynthesis in higher plants, and application to sensitive species results in bleaching or whitening of photosynthetic tissues, chlorosis, and death [46]. Clomazone is microencapsulated (ME) due to volatility issues [47]. As a soil-applied herbicide, clomazone is currently registered for use in certain US states for cabbage, cantaloupe, cucumber, squash, and watermelon (
4. Research
Cucumber and bell pepper production are now more reliant on herbicide combinations applied at the time of LDPE mulch laying when MBr alternative fumigants are either not available or not considered due to worker safety issues. Herbicides must provide residual weed control with minimal potential for vegetable crop injury. Weed control for comparing residual herbicides in vegetables has been performed for multiple crops and scenarios [7, 10, 37]. However, when applied to the soil surface prior to laying, LDPE mulch has not been fully researched. Therefore, this chapter will emphasize herbicide combinations for nutsedge control and response in bell pepper (Table 1) and cucumber (Table 2). Methyl bromide plus chloropicrin (MBR-C) was included as a standard along with a nontreated control.
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kg a.i. ha−1 | Spring | Autumn | |||
Clomazone MEb + fomesafen | 0.42 + 0.28 | Spring | Autumn | 1 wk PRE | 1 wk PRE |
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0.80 + 0.28 | Spring | Autumn | 1 wk PRE | 1 wk PRE |
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0.80 + 0.28 + 0.42 | Spring | Autumn | 1 wk PRE | 1 wk PRE |
Methyl bromide + chloropicrin (50:50) | 196 + 196 | Spring | Autumn | 3 wk PRE | 3 wk PRE |
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kg a.i. ha−1 | Spring | Autumn | |||
Halosulfuron | 0.04 | Spring | Autumn | 1 wk PRE | 1 wk PRE |
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0.80 + 0.42 + 0.04 | Spring | Autumn | 1 wk PRE | 1 wk PRE |
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0.80 + 0.42 + 0.28 | Spring | Autumn | 1 wk PRE | 1 wk PRE |
Methyl bromide + chloropicrin (50:50) | 196 + 196 | Spring | Autumn | 3 wk PRE | 3 wk PRE |
4.1. Field studies
Field studies conducted to evaluate herbicide replacement of MBr-C had two distinct research objectives. However, all experiments were conducted similarly. Herbicide application, bed formation, and laying of 32-μm-thick (1.25 mil) LDPE mulch occurred simultaneously. All studies were conducted on Tifton loamy sand (fine-loamy, kaolinitic, thermic Plinthic Kandiudults) with 86–88% sand, 8% silt, 4–6% clay, 0.5–1.3% organic matter, and pH ranging from 6.3 to 6.9. Experiments were conducted in the spring and autumn of 2011. The soil was moldboard-plowed 25–30 cm deep, then disk-harrowed. Single beds (0.82 m wide, 22.9 m long, and 20 cm high) were established with a bed shaper. All herbicide treatments were applied as laying of LDPE mulch occurred (Tables 1 and 2). Herbicides were applied with a CO2-pressurized sprayer calibrated to deliver 187 L/ha at 210 kPa to the bed as it was being prepared. This was in combination with the immediate cover with the LDPE mulch. A single drip irrigation tube with emitters spaced 30 cm apart with a flow rate of 30 ml/min was placed in the center of the bed under the LDPE mulch for application of water and fertilizer. Two separate tests were conducted with bell pepper (Table 1) and cucumber (Table 2). All tests had experimental designs of a randomized complete block with 5 or 12 replications. Treated plots included two rows of bell pepper or cucumber, with in-row spacing based on University of Georgia recommendations for vegetables. Commercial cucumber and bell pepper cultivars commonly grown in the southeastern US during the spring and autumn were selected. Transplanted cucumber “Thunder” and bell pepper “Camelot” were used. Cucumber and bell pepper were then established in the field by hand transplanting (7.5 cm deep into soil). The final comparisons for stand were based on the nontreated control. Irrigation was applied as needed through drip tape, and fertilizer was applied similarly based on University of Georgia recommendations for vegetables. Insects and plant diseases were monitored and sprayed when necessary.
Temperature data used for growing-degree-day (GDD) calculation were collected off-site at the Georgia Weather Monitoring Network, located within 5 km of the experiment [51]. Growing degree days were calculated by using daily minimum and maximum air temperature. Previous studies used a base temperature of 10.4°C for purple nutsedge [52, 62]. Growing degree days provide a more biologically meaningful measure of crop growth compared with time after planting [53, 63].
Crop stand counts, height, and vine length measures were evaluated multiple times after transplanting. Purple nutsedge stand counts were made multiple times during the season on the entire length of the bed. Data were not combined for analysis due to differences in the time of year when the experiments were conducted. Plant height, vine lengths, and vegetable and purple nutsedge stand counts were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) in SAS 9.2 (SAS Institute, 2012). Linear regression models, using the equation,
were assessed to determine associations between herbicide treatment and all dependent variables using the REG Procedure in SAS 9.2 with respect to growing degree days. Treatment means are presented for clarity. Mean separation of 95% asymptotic confidence intervals for comparison of parameter estimates was then used to compare each treatment to MBr-C.
5. Purple nutsedge and crop response
Bell pepper, cucumber, and purple nutsedge were measured periodically over time. In spring 2011, greater than 500 GDD were accumulated, over the 2 months the experiment was conducted. In autumn 2011, greater than 550 GDD were accumulated for the 2 months the experiment was conducted.
5.1. Bell pepper
There were no significant differences in crop population density (stand) (data not shown) or plant height response in bell pepper for treatment combinations containing clomazone, fomesafen, or
5.2. Purple nutsedge control in bell pepper
Populations of purple nutsedge varied between the two experiments ranging from 0 to 40 plant m−2 at 0–530 GDD after trial initiation (Tables 5 and 6, Figures 5 and 6). This level of purple nutsedge population density has been shown to cause reductions in bell pepper shoot dry weight and fresh market yield [53, 63]. Control of purple nutsedge by combinations of
5.3. Cucumber
Relative to MBr-C, there were no significant differences in cucumber stand among halosulfuron alone, or combinations containing clomazone, fomesafen,
5.4. Purple nutsedge control in cucumber
Similar to the bell pepper experiments, the populations of purple nutsedge varied between the two cucumber tests, ranging from 0 to 32 plant m−2 at 0–600 GDD after trial initiation (Tables 9 and 10, Figures 9 and 10). Variability of purple nutsedge control was observed with halosulfuron alone, and the trios of herbicides applied in combination with each other. For the spring experiment (Table 9, Figure 9), all herbicide treatments were different from MBr-C with the rate of purple nutsedge growth of 0.009–0.016 shoots per m2 GDD−1. In comparison, the rate of purple nutsedge growth for the nontreated control was 0.017 shoots per m2 GDD−1. For the autumn experiment, halosulfuron provided control similar to MBr-C with
6. Discussion
The complexity and difficulty of managing nutsedge species in vegetable crops have increased with the elimination of methyl bromide. Successful management of nutsedge will require diligent control programs utilizing LDPE mulches along with residual herbicides prior to crop planting, during the cropping season, and between crops (spring and autumn), in order to extend the use of LDPE mulches and reduce costs. This research indicated that combining multiple herbicides could provide control of purple nutsedge in bell pepper and cucumber LDPE mulch production. But variability in purple nutsedge control was observed, which indicates the need for further development as growers incorporate this strategy. Spring and autumn soil-applied residual herbicide treatments prior to LDPE mulch lying did not reduce bell pepper growth. Bell pepper was tolerant of herbicide combinations not previously considered as options for nutsedge control. However, cucumber injury to
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Clomazone + fomesafen | 6.13 | NSa | ±1.24 | 0.062 | NS | ±0.0038 |
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7.35 | NS | ±1.83 | 0.056 | NS | ±0.0057 |
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6.48 | NS | ±0.67 | 0.062 | NS | ±0.0021 |
Methyl bromide + chloropicrin | 6.30 | NS | ±0.63 | 0.060 | NS | ±0.0019 |
Nontreated | 6.48 | NS | ±0.67 | 0.062 | NS | ±0.0021 |
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Clomazone + fomesafen | 4.82 | NSa | ±3.68 | 0.073 | NS | ±0.0158 |
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5.04 | NS | ±1.64 | 0.074 | NS | ±0.0070 |
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5.35 | NS | ±1.33 | 0.071 | NS | ±0.0057 |
Methyl bromide + chloropicrin | 4.48 | NS | ±1.50 | 0.072 | NS | ±0.0064 |
Nontreated | 5.20 | NS | ±1.65 | 0.072 | NS | ±0.0071 |
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Clomazone + fomesafen | 6.61 |
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±1.33 | 0.037 |
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±0.0049 |
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5.73 |
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±1.43 | 0.032 |
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±0.0062 |
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3.89 |
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±1.28 | 0.033 |
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±0.0042 |
Methyl bromide + chloropicrin | 0.0 |
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±1.88 | 0.004 |
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±0.0069 |
Nontreated | 11.0 |
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±1.88 | 0.056 |
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±0.0069 |
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Clomazone + fomesafen | −0.68 |
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±1.13 | 0.016 |
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±0.0032 |
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−0.71 |
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±1.83 | 0.020 |
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±0.0002 |
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−0.48 |
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±0.63 | 0.008 |
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±0.0018 |
Methyl bromide + chloropicrin | −0.39 |
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±0.89 | 0.006 |
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±0.0025 |
Nontreated | −0.88 |
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±2.48 | 0.017 |
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±0.0070 |
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Halosulfuron | 2.12 | NSa | ±0.88 | 0.094 | NS | ±0.0071 |
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1.85 | NS | ±0.85 | 0.073 | NS | ±0.0068 |
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2.44 | NS | ±0.83 | 0.081 | NS | ±0.0067 |
Methyl bromide + chloropicrin | 2.40 | NS | ±1.05 | 0.081 | NS | ±0.0084 |
Nontreated | 0.79 | NS | ±1.91 | 0.104 | NS | ±0.015 |
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Halosulfuron | 2.49 | NSa | ±0.88 | 0.072 |
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±0.0062 |
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3.77 | NS | ±0.97 | 0.050 |
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±0.0068 |
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3.70 | NS | ±1.09 | 0.066 |
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±0.0076 |
Methyl bromide + chloropicrin | 3.24 | NS | ±5.01 | 0.180 |
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±0.0352 |
Nontreated | 3.76 | NS | ±2.32 | 0.118 |
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±0.016 |
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Halosulfuron | 0.21 |
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±0.55 | 0.016 |
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±0.0018 |
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0.00 |
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±0.55 | 0.009 |
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±0.0018 |
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−0.33 |
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±0.55 | 0.009 |
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±0.0018 |
Methyl bromide + chloropicrin | −0.11 |
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±0.77 | 0.004 |
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±0.0026 |
Nontreated | 0.09 |
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±0.77 | 0.017 |
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±0.0026 |
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Halosulfuron | −0.92 |
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±3.27 | 0.022 |
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±0.0091 |
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0.0015 |
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±3.27 | 0.037 |
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±0.0091 |
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2.94 |
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±3.66 | 0.034 |
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±0.0101 |
Methyl bromide + chloropicrin | −0.23 |
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±3.25 | 0.018 |
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±0.0092 |
Nontreated | −0.57 |
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±3.27 | 0.037 |
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±0.0091 |
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