More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
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IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2988",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"A Textbook of Advanced Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",title:"A Textbook of Advanced Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The discipline of oral and maxillofacial surgery covers a wide range of diseases, conditions, injuries and defects of the head, neck, face and jaws as well as the hard and soft tissues of the oral cavity. It is an internationally recognized surgical specialty rapidly changing with evolving advancements in technology. Specialists of this field care for patients with problems such as impacted teeth, facial pain, misaligned jaws, facial injuries, oral cancer, cysts, tumors, and patients requiring facial cosmetic surgery and dental implants. New texts are needed to keep practitioners up-to-date because advancements are being made world-wide on a daily basis. This book seeks to present advanced concepts on complex topics within the scope of this dynamic discipline.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1146-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7166-9",doi:"10.5772/3316",price:169,priceEur:185,priceUsd:219,slug:"a-textbook-of-advanced-oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",numberOfPages:872,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b5d9f2be309d43646fca5ce2cd1e3d19",bookSignature:"Mohammad Hosein Kalantar Motamedi",publishedDate:"June 26th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2988.jpg",numberOfDownloads:191704,numberOfWosCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitations:22,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:66,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:124,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 24th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 14th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 10th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 10th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 9th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"90148",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Hosein",middleName:"Kalantar",surname:"Motamedi",slug:"mohammad-hosein-motamedi",fullName:"Mohammad Hosein Motamedi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90148/images/system/90148.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohammad Hosein Kalantar Motamedi is a Professor of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at the Trauma Research Center, BMSU, and attending faculty of OMF Surgery at the Azad University of Medical Sciences, Tehran. He received his American Diploma from Pennington High School, in Pennington, VA, USA (honor student) and his Iranian Diploma from Hurr High School in Tehran (honor student). After graduation he was accepted at the University of Houston, Texas, USA where he studied predent. Two years later he transferred to the University of Tehran College of dentistry where he received his Doctorate of Dental Surgery Degree (DDS). He completed his Residency in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at SBUMS from 1987-1991, and was valedictorian of the National Board Exams in 1991. In 1995 he completed his fellowship at the University of Basel, Switzerland; he obtained full Professorship in 2007. He has published 25 books, 61 international conferences proceedings, supervised 63 doctorate dissertations, and published 185 papers indexed in PUBMED with an h-index of 21. He is Editor-in-Chief of TRAUMA MONTHLY journal and one of the founders of the BMSU Trauma Research Center and more recently the Craniomaxillofacial Research Center. He was granted 1st place prize at the Bagher Alum National Research Festival in 2010 and awarded 2nd Place Prize at the 16th International Razi Research Festival on Medical Sciences. The Iranian Society of OMF Surgeons awarded him “Most Published” in 2009 and 2010, and he was chosen for membership in the National Elite Foundation. In 2013 he was accepted in the Academy of Medical Sciences and he is listed in the Marquis Book \\'Who’s Who in the World” (1999-2020).",institutionString:"BMSU and AUMS",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1149",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"44949",title:"Complications Following Surgery of Impacted Teeth and Their Management",doi:"10.5772/53400",slug:"complications-following-surgery-of-impacted-teeth-and-their-management",totalDownloads:18721,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Çetin Kasapoğlu, Amila Brkić, Banu 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\r\n\tMagnetic materials acquired a very important position in several high-tech areas and technological developments. Such materials are being classified not only based on their origin but also on the nature of their processing, properties, functions, and applications. Magnetic materials present the basics of magnetism, magnetic materials, magnetic structures, and their applications in device technologies. Recently, new magnetic materials and hybrid structures have been developed using different synthesis and fabrication techniques. Different phenomena and interesting properties are studied theoretically and experimentally using advanced characterization techniques. Magnetic materials are now the building block of all technological innovation.
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He has worked as a postdoctoral researcher and visiting scientist at several institutions, including National Taiwan University, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan, and the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa. He has published more than 112 peer-reviewed articles and more than 110 research articles in conference proceedings and meetings. He has also published four books and five book chapters.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"251855",title:"Prof.",name:"Dipti Ranjan",middleName:null,surname:"Sahu",slug:"dipti-ranjan-sahu",fullName:"Dipti Ranjan Sahu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251855/images/system/251855.png",biography:"Prof. (Dr.) Dipti Ranjan Sahu is a Professor of Physics in Department of Natural and Applied Sciences, Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST),Namibia. 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1. Introduction
Modern nanotechnology includes several promising areas such as nano-optics, nano-photonics, nanochemistry, nanobiology, and nanomedicine. During the past decade, we have witnessed a tremendous growth of nanoparticle applications that require particles of different materials with different size, dispersion, shape, and morphology. As a result, the development of new nanoparticle synthesis methods is particularly important. Among the rapidly immerged techniques, plasma-based synthesis has a number of advantages being both rather simple and allowing unique and well-controlled formation of nanoparticles.
In particular, plasmas created by both pulsed laser ablation and by spark discharges can be used for nanoparticle synthesis. That is why these two techniques have attracted particular attention and resulted in numerous experimental and theoretical investigations. On one hand, the main advantage of laser ablation method, as was demonstrated in these studies, is the possibility to preserve target stoichiometry. On the other hand, spark discharge allows one to produce a very large amount of nanoparticles by using parallel multidischarge set-up. However, the main physical mechanisms involved in these processes stay partly puzzling. That is why additional studies based on a detailed comparison of both methods are required for the determination of their main similarities and differences.
Starting from the early 1990s, laser ablation (LA) has been intensively studied first for long laser pulses and then for much shorter ones [1-2]. A number of experiments revealed that laser interactions with solid targets lead to the formation of nanoparticles. Furthermore, if femtosecond laser is used, an explosive ejection of a mixture of clusters and atoms was both theoretically predicted and experimentally observed [3]. It was found that the produced nanoparticles demonstrated either plasmonic or photoluminescent properties, as well as a capacity of field amplification. These properties are particularly interesting biomedical applications, such as imaging and photodynamic therapy. It should be noted that absence of incompatibility with biological tissues is crucial for further development of most of the applications where nanoparticles are used in vivo. However, toxicity is hard to avoid in traditional chemical methods. In addition, the stability of these nanoparticles is still not high enough. It was demonstrated, fortunately, that nanoparticles produced by laser ablation are better suitable for biomedical applications, in particular, when they are produced in liquids [4]. This advantage made LA a unique tool for nanoparticle synthesis.
In order to elucidate the physical mechanisms of LA, many analytical and numerical investigations were performed [5 -11]. In vacuum, self-similar adiabatic models with condensation were proposed [10-11]. In the presence of a gas, only either very low or high background pressure was used in most of the models for simplicity. Shock waves were shown to be produced during the plume expansion in a high-pressured background gas [3]. In this case, a system of Navier-Stocks equations well describes the first 1–2 μs of the plasma plume expansion. It should be noted that such models are invalid at the later stages. To solve this issue, hydrodynamic calculations were switched to the direct Monte Carlo simulations where no such hypothesis is used at 1–2 µs after the laser pulse [11, 12]. Recently, such approaches as molecular dynamics (MD), hydrodynamics (HD), and combinations with the direct simulation Monte Carlo method (DSMC) were proposed for picosecond and femtosecond laser interactions [13-14]. The initial stage of laser ablation process can be examined by using either hydrodynamic models or atomistic simulation. On one hand, the main advantage of numerical hydrodynamics is in the calculation rapidity and in the possibility to reach rather larger scales [10, 13]. Atomistic simulations, on the other hand, are not based on equilibrium assumptions and can more easily provide size distributions of nanoparticles. In particular, two-temperature molecular dynamics simulations (TTM-MD) were performed for femtosecond laser ablation of metals [14, 15].
In the presence of a sufficiently high-pressured background environment, such as atmospheric pressured gas or a liquid, diffusion-driven nucleation and aggregation processes start playing an important role (Figure 1) at longer delays [16].
Figure 1.
Nanoparticle formation and growth schematics.
However, despite a growing interest in LA, some of its basic mechanisms remain not enough understood. The challenge is that ablation processes strongly depend on the ensemble of such parameters as temporal pulse width and shape, on laser wavelength, on the size of the laser spot, laser intensity, repetition rate, as well on the target material and background conditions. [17]
In spark discharges (SD), a typical set-up consists of two electrodes connected to a charged capacitance [16]. When high enough voltage V0 is applied, a so-called streamer is formed first. Once it reaches the opposite electrode, plasma breakdown takes place, followed by the streamer transition to an expanding plasma column. In this column, Joule heating of both plasma and electrodes take place. In addition, electrodes are bombarded by energetic ions that induce sputtering, which can be considered to be similar to laser ablation. If background gas is present, rapid thermalization of the sputtered material leads to primary nanoparticle formation that can then grow by collisions and form larger particles or aggregates.
Numerical modeling of spark discharge consists of several steps with rather different time scales [16]: (i) streamer formation and propagation between electrodes; (ii) streamer-to-spark transition; (iii) gas heating and cylindrical expansion, (iv) electrode evaporation and erosion; (v) nanoparticles formation. Nanoparticle formation, here as in the case of laser ablation in the presence of a gas or a liquid, includes nucleation and collisional growth (Figure 1).
This work is aimed at the better understanding of the mechanisms involved in nanoparticle formation by laser ablation and by spark discharge. First, laser ablation is considered by using both atomistic and hydrodynamic numerical methods. In particular, mechanisms of nanoparticle formation and the corresponding conditions are analyzed. Then, attention is focused on the role of the background environment and its role in nanoparticle formation. These results are used to explain several recent experimental results.
Second, spark discharge is investigated. Plasma properties and conditions required for nanoparticle formation are examined. Finally, we compare laser ablation and spark discharge as promising methods of nanoparticle formation.
2. Laser ablation
To examine ultra-short, laser-ablated plume dynamics and nanoparticle evolution under realistic experimental conditions and to account for the fact that the ablated plume contains several components, DSMC calculations of the plume dynamics are first performed in the presence of an inert background gas (Ar) with pressure P = 300 Pa. The initial conditions are set based on the parameterization of the MD results obtained at a delay of 200 ps after the beginning of the laser pulse (100 fs, 800 nm) [16].
Figure 2 shows separately the density of atoms and clusters for two different delays after the laser pulse. Here, larger clusters were initially at the back of the plume. The obtained results demonstrate that plume front starts experiencing a pronounced deceleration and practically stops at both plume- and gas-dependent delay (here, ~10µs). Theoretically, the initial expansion stage is described by a so-called blast-wave (or, shock-wave) model when shock waves are degenerated.
The corresponding nanoparticle size distributions are presented in Figure 3. One can see that after a sufficient delay, a peaked distribution appears instead of a decreasing function. This effect can be explained by collisional growth that is described by the general rate equation having typically log-normal solutions. The amount of sufficiently large nanoparticles formed at such short delays is rather small and cannot explain the finally observed size distributions.
Longer stage includes plume mixing with the background followed by the rapid thermalization and a much more enhanced particle formation. Then, plume species are thermalized and a diffusion-driven regime enters into play.
Figure 2.
Calculated plume dynamics for Ni expansion in Ar gas at 300 Pa, (a) density snapshot for atoms at\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt = 0.55 µs, (b) the same for clusters at t = 0.55 µs; (c) the same for atoms at t = 10 µs, (d) the same for clusters at\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt = 10 µs.
Figure 3.
Size distributions calculated by using MD-DSMC model in the presence of 300 Pa of Ar at different time delays.
3. Spark discharge
In our model developed for spark discharge (SD), the following stages are considered: (i) streamer formation and propagation between electrodes; (ii) streamer-to-spark transition; (iii) gas heating and cylindrical expansion; (iv) electrode evaporation and erosion; (v) nanoparticles formation [16].
Streamer formation is described numerically by using a system of drift-diffusion equations together with Poisson equation for electric potential with a particularly chosen set of boundary conditions. When streamer reaches the opposite electrode, electron emission increases dramatically, so that the streamer is transformed in a conductive plasma column. The oscillations of the electric charge Q in the corresponding circuit with the total resistance RΣ is described by the Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
The oscillating behavior of the discharge is presented in Figure 4, defining the properties of the following plasma column. According to this solution, both electrodes play a role at different delays leading to both evaporation and erosion of the electrodes. When polarity switches, a crater is formed at the surface of one of the electrodes due to both evaporation and erosion.
Figure 4.
Typical time evolutions of voltage and electric current during a “single” spark event obtained in N2 for C = 8 nF; L = 0.77 µH; RΣ = 1 Ω.
The erosion flux jsurfΣ is formed due to two main processes: (i) thermal evaporation caused by Joule heating, and (ii) sputtering due to ion bombardment. Similarly to nanosecond laser ablation, evaporation flux jsurfT is described by the Hertz-Knudsen equation, where surface temperature is calculated as follows [16]
where s corresponds to the cathode material (solid), c is the specific heat of cathode material, ρs is the density, Ts is the temperature, σs is the electric conductivity, χs is the thermal diffusivity coefficient, k is the Boltzmann constant, α is the sticking coefficient for vapor molecules onto the surface, Peq is the equilibrium vapor pressure, and Psurf is the hydrostatic pressure of gas applied on the surface.
The sputtering yield Y\n\t\t\t\tY and flux jsurfsput is given by
where αsurf is a factor function of m/M, m and M are the atomic weights of cathode material and incident particles, respectively, E+ is the bombarding energy, Usurf is the surface-binding energy, and j+ is the flux density of bombarding ions. The solution of Eqs (1–2) yields cathode erosion flow as a function of time. At the same time, plasma column also gains energy by Joule heating.
Once the amount of the ejected material is calculated, plasma dynamics is modeled by using Navier-Stokes equations [17]. The corresponding equations contain, in particular, Joule heating term, which determines plasma heating occurring mostly near its axis, where plasma pressure initially arises to several atmospheres. Figure 5 shows typical axial temperature evolution. After a delay of 0.5 µs, which corresponds to plasma expansion, pressure drops back to the values around the atmospheric pressure. Plasma temperature remains high during all the discharging process and drops below electrode boiling point only after 0.1–0.5 ms. During cooling, gas density increases. Lager density and smaller temperature provide conditions required for nanoparticle formation.
Figure 5.
Typical time evolutions of the plasma temperature obtained for Ar for gap of 1 mm, R = 1 Ω, C = 8 nF, and L = 0.77 µH.
4. Spark discharge vs nanosecond laser ablation
Typically, laser energy absorption leads to the target heating and thermal evaporation in the nanosecond laser ablation of metals. Plasma expansion stage is much longer than the evaporation stage, on the order of ~10 laser pulse temporal widths (~300 ns). Here, plasma electrons gain energy from laser radiation by inverse Bremsstrahlung effect, so that ionization takes place. Then, a so-called blast wave model describes hemispherical expansion as follows [16]:
Rv=°ξ°(2E0ρv)1/5t2/5,E3
\n\t\t\t
ξ={75(γ−1)(γ+1)216°π°(3γ−1)}1/5,E4
\n\t\t\t
Tv=T0(R0Rv)3(γ−1),E5
\n\t\t\t
where R0 is the shock wave position, ξ is a constant depending on the plume specific heat capacity, E0 is the initial internal energy of vapor plume, T0 is the initial temperature, and γ is the adiabatic coefficient. This model is valid, if the external shock wave is present and if the mass of the background gas surrounding the shock wave is larger than the mass of the ablated material. During the expansion, both plume temperature and density rapidly decay. As a result, the condition of supersaturation is realized at a certain delay leading to the nanoparticle formation.
Time evolutions of plasma properties are obtained in [16]. For spark discharge, when gas density decreases, plasma resistivity drops down, thus preventing further energy absorption from the electric current. During the expansion, plasma cools down and gas goes back to the axis. These processes are repeated when the energy absorption is high enough for efficient expansion.
Figure 6.
Typical time evolution of primary critical clusters size formed by spark discharge and by laser ablation.
In the case of nanosecond laser ablation, laser energy absorption by the plume takes place. As a result, the ejected plasma is hot, but the energy input is limited in time by laser pulse duration. After the end of the laser pulse, the ablated plume expands and cools down. The critical nuclei sizes are calculated as a function of time (Figure 6).
The obtained results clearly demonstrate that, despite rather different plasma sources, the behavior of particle formation in spark discharge appears to be very similar to the one in laser ablation. The difference in time delays corresponds to the transition of the system to the supersaturated state. Primary NPs formed by nucleation can then evolve due to evaporation, condensation, and/or growth.
Diffusion-driven nucleation leads to the formation of nucleus, whose size is controlled by the free energy as follows [18]:
ΔG(n,c)=−nkTln(c/ceq)+4πa2n2/3σ,E6
\n\t\t\t
where k is the Boltzmann constant; T is the temperature in Kelvins; a is the effective radius; ceq is the equilibrium concentration of atoms/monomers; n is the number of atoms/monomers in the nuclei; and σ is the effective surface tension. The peak of the nucleation barrier corresponds to the critical cluster size
nc=[8πa2σ3kTln(c/ceq)]3.E7
\n\t\t\t
The production rate of the supercritical nuclei is given by
ν(t)=Kcc2exp[−ΔG(nc,c)kT].E8
\n\t\t\t
As a result, narrow size distributions are produced. The formed particles can collide and aggregate. These collisional processes are described by simplified Smoluchowski equations [18]. Laser-induced fragmentation is neglected here.
Several calculations are performed to study time-evolution of the size distribution for multiple pulse cases. Because saturation is rather high, monomer radius here is as small as a = 1.59–10 and the radius of critical nuclei is recalculated at all the time-steps.
Figure 7.
Calculated size distribution obtained for 10, 100, 1000, and 2000 pulses. Here, laser frequency is 1 kHz, gold solution in water is considered with a = 1.59–10 m.
The obtained results (Figure 7) show that when several pulses are applied, these small nuclei grow for pulse number up to 103 because tiny particles grow easier than larger ones. Here, collisions with atoms dominate in the growth process. The obtained results show that further increase in the number of pulses affects particle size distribution only slightly. This effect takes place if laser frequency is not too high, so that the ablated material has time to diffuse and concentration does not grow near the target. As a result, the mean radius can remain rather small (in the nanometer range, smaller than ~3 nm here).
The criterion of the catastrophic nucleation due to thermalization can be derived based on the inequality nc ≤ 1. This means that
Nc=[8πa2σ/3kBTln(c/ceq)]3~1.E9
\n\t\t\t
Typically, at the beginning of the diffusional expansion stage, the condition ln(S)=ln(c/ceq)=8πa2σ/3kT≥1 is valid, so that this mechanism prevails in the nanoparticle formation. Finally, at the last stage, ripening or sintering of the created particles eventually inters into play if the background density is sufficiently high. For instance, this process occurs in liquids, in particular, in the absence of the surface passivation by additional chemicals.
5. Conclusions
In this chapter, recent advancements in the modeling of laser ablation and spark discharges are summarized. In addition, we have compared processes leading to nanoparticle formation in laser ablation and in spark discharges. In particular, a comparison of the influence of plasma properties on nanoparticle formation has been performed.
First, mechanisms of nanoparticle generation have been investigated for femtosecond laser interactions in the presence of a background environment. The obtained calculation results have demonstrated the long time-evolution of plume species involves nucleation and growth determining the final size distribution that tends to be a limited one with the increase in laser intensity. The obtained results explain several experimental observations including both longer time dynamics of nanoparticles and size distributions. Then, conditions are formulated for catastrophic nucleation to become the main mechanism of nanoparticle formation as a result of thermalization and collisions among the species in the presence of a background environment. The produced nanoparticles can be collected, form a colloid, or can be deposited at a substrate forming nanostructures. Therefore, the presented study is of interest for many applications where both metallic nanoparticles and nanostructures are used in nanophotonics, plasmonics, medicine, biological sensing, textile industry, and other promising fields.
Furthermore, cylindrical plasma column expansion has been shown to govern primary nanoparticle formation in spark discharge, whereas hemispherical shock describes quite well this process for nanosecond laser ablation at atmospheric pressure. In addition, spark discharge leads to oscillations in plasma properties, whereas monotonous behavior is a characteristic for nanosecond laser ablation.
Despite the difference in plasma density and time evolutions calculated for both phenomena, after well-defined delays, similar critical nuclei have been shown to be formed by both techniques. This result can be attributed to the fact that whereas larger evaporation rate is typical for nanosecond laser ablation, a mixture of vapor and background gas determines the supersaturation in the case of spark.
Acknowledgments
The research leading to these results received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under Grant Agreement n° 280765 (BUONAPART-E). Computer support is provided by CINES of France under the project C2015085015. Partial support from PALSE ERTIGO project (Lyon-Saint-Etienne) and PICS 6106 of CNRS, France, is also gratefully acknowledged.
\n',keywords:"Nanoparticles, laser ablation, plasma, spark discharge, synthesis, modeling, size distribution, nucleation, aggregation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/49343.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/49343.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49343",totalDownloads:2132,totalViews:211,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:85,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 27th 2014",dateReviewed:"August 19th 2015",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 9th 2015",dateFinished:"October 13th 2015",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Laser ablation (LA) and spark discharge (SD) techniques are commonly used for nanoparticle (NP) formation. The produced NPs have found numerous applications in such areas as electronics, biomedicine, textile production, etc. Previous studies provide us information about the amount of NPs, their size distribution, and possible applications. On one hand, the main advantage of the LA method is in the possibilities of changing laser parameters and background conditions and to ablate materials with complicated stoichiometry. On the other hand, the major advantage of the SD technique is in the possibility of using several facilities in parallel to increase the yield of nanoparticles. To optimize these processes, we consider different stages involved and analyze the resulting plasma and nanoparticle (NP) parameters. Based on the performed calculations, we analyze nanoparticle properties, such as mean size and mean density. The performed analysis (shows how the experimental conditions are connected with the resulted nanoparticle characteristics in agreement with several previous experiments. Cylindrical plasma column expansion and return are shown to govern primary nanoparticle formation in spark discharge, whereas hemispherical shock describes quite well this process for nanosecond laser ablation at atmospheric pressure. In addition, spark discharge leads to the oscillations in plasma properties, whereas monotonous behavior is characteristic for nanosecond laser ablation. Despite the difference in plasma density and time evolutions calculated for both phenomena, after well-defined delays, similar critical nuclei have been shown to be formed by both techniques. This result is attributed to the fact that whereas larger evaporation rate is typical for nanosecond laser ablation, a mixture of vapor and background gas determines the supersaturation in the case of spark.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/49343",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/49343",book:{id:"4790",slug:"nanoparticles-technology"},signatures:"Andrey Voloshko and Tatiana E. Itina",authors:[{id:"13419",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Itina",fullName:"Tatiana Itina",slug:"tatiana-itina",email:"tatiana.itina@univ-st-etienne.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13419/images/6617_n.png",institution:null},{id:"175208",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrey",middleName:null,surname:"Voloshko",fullName:"Andrey Voloshko",slug:"andrey-voloshko",email:"andrey.voloshko@univ-st-etienne.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Laser ablation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Spark discharge",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Spark discharge vs nanosecond laser ablation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'T. Makimura, Y. Kunii, and K. Murakami, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Part 1, 35, 4780 (1996).'},{id:"B2",body:'C. Vivien, J. Hermann, A. Perrone, C. Boulmer-Leborgne, A. Luches: J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 31 (1998) 1263.'},{id:"B3",body:'L. V. Zhigilei, B. J. Garrison, J. Appl. Phys. 88, ( 3), 1281, (2000)'},{id:"B4",body:'S. Besner et al., Appl. Phys. A 93, 955-959 (2008)'},{id:"B5",body:'M. E. Povarnitsyn et al., Appl. Surf. Sci. 258(23) , 9480-9483, (2012)'},{id:"B6",body:'S. Amoruso, R. Bruzzese, M. Vitiello, N. N. Nedialkov, and P. A. Atanasov, J. Appl. Phys. 98, 044907 (2005).'},{id:"B7",body:'O. Albert, S. Roger, Y. Glinec, J. C. Loulergue, J. Etchepare, C. Boulmer-Leborgne, J. Perriere, E. Millon, Appl. Phys. A: Mater Sci. Process. 76, 319 (2003).'},{id:"B8",body:'S.I. Anisimov, D. Bäuerly and B.S. Luk’yanchuk, Phys. Rev. B 48, (1993) 12076.'},{id:"B9",body:'H.C. Le, D.E. Zeitoun, J.D. Parisse, M. Sentis, W. Marine: Phys. Rev. E. 62(3) (2000) 4152.'},{id:"B10",body:'S. I. Anisimov, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 54, 339 (1968) [Sov. Phys. JETP, 27, 182 (1968)].'},{id:"B11",body:'T.E. Itina, J. Hermann, P. Delaporte, M. Sentis, Phys. Rev. E, 66, 066406 (2002).'},{id:"B12",body:'G. A. Bird, Molecular Gas Dynamics and the Direct Simulation of Gas Flows (Clarendon, Oxford, 1994).'},{id:"B13",body:'T. E. Itina, K. Gouriet, L. V. Zhigilei, S. Noel, J. Hermann, and M. Sentis, Appl. Surf. Sci. , 253, 7656-7661 (2007).'},{id:"B14",body:'D. S. Ivanov, and L.V. Zhigilei, Phys. Rev. B, 68, 064114 (2003).'},{id:"B15",body:'M.E. Povarnitsyn and T.E. Itina, Appl. Phys. A, DOI: 10.1007/s00339-014-8319-1.'},{id:"B16",body:'A. Voloshko, J-Ph.Colombier, T. E. Itina,. Appl. Surf. Sci.336, 143-149 (2014).'},{id:"B17",body:'M. Povarnitsyn, V. Fokin, P. Levashov, T. E. Itina, Phys Rev B, in press (2015).'},{id:"B18",body:'J. Park, V. Privman, E. Matijevic, J. Chem. Phys. B 105, 11603-11635 (2001).'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Andrey Voloshko",address:null,affiliation:'
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Tatiana E. Itina",address:"tatiana.itina@univ-st-etienne.fr",affiliation:'
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1. External root morphology
The mandibular central and lateral incisors have a single conical root. The root dimensions of both incisors vary corresponding to the crown. They are narrow in mesiodistal dimension and wide in labiolingual dimension and taper uniformly on both proximal sides from the CEJ to the apex. The apical end may curve slightly to the distal. Longitudinal root depressions can be seen in both incisors from the mesial and distal views. Multiple comparisons revealed that, among all permanent teeth, mandibular central incisor has the shortest root. Furthermore, in contrary to maxillary incisors, the root of mandibular lateral incisor is longer than that of mandibular central incisor [1]. It has been reported that the average lengths of mandibular central incisor and lateral incisor roots are 12.6 mm (7.7–17.9) and 13.5 (9.4–18.1), respectively [2]. Kim et al. [3] measured the mandibular incisor root lengths using CBCT in Korean population and found that no significant differences in crown and root lengths were noted between the CBCT-based and direct measurements. The R/C ratios were higher for the mandibular lateral incisors (1.4 ± 0.1) than mandibular central incisors (1.3 ± 0.1) [4]. Therefore, crown lengthening may not be possible in the case of traumatic fracture or iatrogenic orthodontic extrusion due to the short root length in these teeth. Variations in root length between males and females have been reported. According to Zorba et al. [5], it was observed that root length was greater in males than in females. Haghanifar et al. [6] found similar results when comparing crown and root lengths between males and females. He found that females had longer crowns while males had longer roots.
Many authors reported that the external crown and root morphology of mandibular central and lateral incisors are similar [2, 7, 8]. Mandibular incisors usually have a single root, which is wider buccolingually than mesiodistally and tapers toward the apex. The lateral incisor root is larger than that of the central incisor in mesiodistal and labiolingual directions [8, 9]. Variation in number of roots has not been reported in literature. However, Loushine et al. [10] have found two rooted mandibular lateral incisors. However, the shape may vary from conical to round in different populations. Sexual variation in the number and shape of roots has not been reported [9]. Mandibular incisor roots are commonly reported to be straight and in rare occasions curved in the apical region. Curvature can be in the mesial, distal, labial, or lingual direction [9].
2. Internal anatomy
2.1 Introduction
Orban stated that the shape of the root canal “to a large degree, conforms to the shape of the root. A few canals are round and tapering, but many are elliptical, broad and thin” [11].
The internal anatomy of permanent mandibular incisors does not usually reproduce the simplicity of external anatomy. Its internal anatomy is complicated by the presence of lingual canals, lateral canals, isthmus, and apical deltas [12]. The pulp cavity is the central cavity within a tooth and is entirely enclosed by dentin except at apical foramen. It is divided into coronal portion (pulp chamber) and radicular portion. The pulp chamber is wide and ovoid labiolingually and it tapers incisally. The size of the pulp chamber is not constant throughout life. It decreases in size with aging as a result of secondary dentin deposition [13]. The pulp horn is well developed in this tooth. The root canal systems of these single-rooted teeth often have a single root with a single root canal. However, studies have shown that the root canal anatomy of these teeth is not simple. It may not be single and straight as it appears on the periapical radiograph. Indeed, these teeth have a high prevalence of bifurcation, second canals, lateral canals, and apical deltas which would complicate surgical and nonsurgical endodontic treatment. Mandibular incisor’s anatomy presents a challenge when an endodontic access is made, because of its small size and high prevalence of two canals. The main reason for failure in endodontic treatment of mandibular incisors is the inability to detect the presence of a second canal which can then not be prepared and filled during treatment [14]. In literature, the incidence of mandibular incisor teeth with more than one canal has been reported to range from 11 to 68% [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The differences between these morphology studies may be related to variations of examination methods, classification systems, sample sizes, and ethnic background of tooth sources. Many researchers have studied the prevalence of a second canal in mandibular permanent incisors on different populations and showed that the root canal morphology varies with race, sex, and age [20, 21, 22, 23, 24].
2.2 Shape and size of pulp cavity in permanent mandibular incisors
Routine clinical radiographs may mislead clinicians to be under an impression that all root canals are round in shape. A high prevalence of oval root canals in human teeth was reported [25, 26].
The pulp canal of the permanent mandibular central incisor is wider buccolingually than mesiodistally [9]. These dimensions are not constant along the root from the orifice till the apex. Oval canals and long oval canals are the most common canal shape seen in the coronal and middle third [27]. As we approach the apex, the canal shape becomes more rounded [28]. This canal shape morphology corresponds to the shape of the root.
2.3 Number of canals in permanent mandibular incisors
The root canal morphology of mandibular central and lateral incisors is very similar. Although they have only one root and a high prevalence of Type 1 root canal morphology, surgical and nonsurgical root canal treatment may fail in these teeth if there is a lack of awareness in their internal anatomy which is complicated by the presence of the lingual canal, bifurcation, lateral anatomy, and isthmus [17, 29]. The morphological characteristics of the root canal system were studied using a number of techniques [18, 27, 30]. The prevalence of a second canal in mandibular permanent incisors is different between populations. Vertucci [18] reported that the incidence of the presence of a second canal was 25.7% among American population, whereas the incidence in Chinese population for the mandibular central and lateral incisors was 5.71 and 27.36%, respectively [31], 30% in Saudi population [32], 26.2% in north Jordanian population [33], and 36.25% in North-East Indian population [34]. In Iranian population, the incidence of mandibular central and lateral incisors having two canals was 27.3 and 29.4%, respectively [35]. The highest incidence (63%) of a second canal in mandibular incisors has been reported in a study in Turkish population [19].
Rankine-Wilson and Henry [36] filled the root canals of mandibular anterior teeth with radio-opaque material, sectioned them in a horizontal plane, and exposed radiographs. They reported two canals in 40.5% of mandibular incisors. Later, Vertucci [18] studied the root canal morphology of 300 extracted mandibular anterior teeth using the clearing technique. In 30% of mandibular central incisors and in 25% of mandibular lateral incisors, there was a second canal. On the other hand, higher prevalence of a second canal in Chinese population was reported in lateral mandibular incisors 25.5% compared with 10.9% in central mandibular incisors [37].
Many researches have shown that root canal systems also vary according to gender. In Turkish population, Sert and Bayirli [19] reported the incidence of second canal in central incisors in females (70%) was higher than in males (65%). Also in Turkish population, Arslan et al. [38] found the frequency of mandibular incisors with a second root canal in males (63%) was higher than in females (35%). The differences among both studies may be due to the fact that Sert and Bayirli examined the root canal morphology in vitro, whereas Arslan et al. studied the root canal anatomy in vivo. In Chinese population, Zhengyan et al. [30] found a significant difference between sex. The result of his study showed that 9.4% of the mandibular lateral incisors in males had a second canal, whereas this value was 11.9% in females. Among Iranian population, Haji et al. [39] reported that there was no significant difference between males and females in the incidence of a second canal in mandibular incisors.
2.4 Canal configurations in permanent mandibular incisors
It has become clear that teeth have complicated root canal systems rather than simplified canals [40]. Most investigators have shown that the root canal systems for most, if not all, permanent teeth are complex and canals may branch, divide, and rejoin. In addition to the complexity of root canal anatomy, root canal morphology varies from tooth to tooth. Concerning root canal treatment, these variations in root canal morphology of permanent teeth may result in missing root canals, nonsurgical endodontic treatment failure, and a need for surgical procedures. Weine et al. [41] classified root canal systems into four basic types, but Vertucci [18] subsequently classified them into eight configurations. The Vertucci classification may give consideration to the complex reality of canal systems in a way that the Weine et al. system did not.
Weine [42] described each of the canal types as below:
Type I: Single canal from pulp chamber to apex.
Type II: Two canals leaving the chamber and merging to form a single canal short of the apex.
Type III: Two separate and distinct canals from chamber to apex.
Type IV: One canal leaving the chamber and dividing into two separate and distinct canals.
Vertucci [24] classified canal configurations into eight types as described below:
Type 1: A single canal from the pulp chamber to apex [1].
Type II: Two separate canals leaving the pulp chamber before joining short of the apex to form one canal [2-1].
Type III: One canal leaving the pulp chamber before dividing into two in the root and then merging to exit as one canal [1-2].
Type IV: Two distinct canals that extended from the pulp chamber to the apex [2].
Type V: One canal leaving the pulp chamber and dividing short of the apex into two separate distinct canals with different apical foramina [1-2].
Type VI: Two separate canals leaving the pulp chamber, merging in the body of the root, and re-dividing short of the apex to exit as two distinct canals [2-1-2].
Type VII: One canal leaving the pulp chamber, dividing and then rejoining in the body of the root, and finally re-dividing into two distinct canals short of the apex [1-2-1-2].
Type VIII: Three separate, distinct canals that extended from pulp chamber to apex [3].
Although mandibular incisors are usually single-rooted teeth, their root canal system cannot be predicted not only between different populations but also between the same population, with respect to the Vertucci’s configuration. Studies reported that Vertucci’s Type I configuration has the highest prevalence among the other Vertucci configurations [43, 44, 45]. When a second canal is present, Vertucci’s Type III configuration is the most common for central and lateral incisors. Scarlatescu [46] found Type III has higher incidence than Type II, of 25 and 6.3% respectively in a Romanian population. de Almeida [47] reported that Vertucci’s Type I and III configurations represented 92% of the sample. Leoni investigated the root canal anatomy of mandibular central (n = 100) and lateral (n = 100) incisors and founded that Vertucci’s Type I (50 and 62%, respectively) and Type III (28%) were the most prevalent canal configurations in incisors [48]. However, researchers found high prevalence of Vertucci’s Type II than Vertucci’s Type III when a second canal is present. For example, Al-Qudah and Awawdeh [33] reported that the most common root canal configurations were Vertucci’s Type I, II, III, IV, and V with a prevalence of 73.8, 10.9, 6.7, 5.1, and 3.6% of mandibular central and lateral incisors respectively in a Jordanian population. Another study done in an Iranian population conducted by Yazdi and Jafari [49] using in vitro radiography, staining, and sectioning technique reported 88, 3.5, 0.5, and 8% prevalence of canal types I, II, IV, and V respectively in mandibular incisors. A similar study done by Miyashita et al. [17] among Japanese population founded central and lateral incisors with prevalence of Vertucci’s Type I, II, III and IV as 87.6, 9.3, 1.4, and 1.7% respectively. These configurations may have an implication in endodontic treatment outcome. A properly executed root canal treatment will lead to success in Type I, II, IV, and VIII canal configurations while the same treatment might lead to unfavorable treatment outcome in Type III canal configuration. Apically dividing systems like Type V, VI, and VII are the most difficult systems to prepare and obturate and may have an influence on the outcome of root canal treatment. Miyashita et al. [17] studied the relationship between canal configuration and external dimension, and found that Type II and III root canal configurations of mandibular incisors were larger in tooth length, and crown width labiolingually and mesiodistally. In cases of nonsurgical root canal procedure, disinfection and obturation of Type I and IV canal systems are relatively simple owing to that each of these configurations having definite canals with separate orifice and apex. Contrarily, Type II, III, and V systems are different because there are areas in the root where the two canals share space and others where the canals are separate. This requires an individualized procedure for preparation and filling in each of these conditions to obtain the most desirable results. Although the incidence of two separate canals is low, ribbon-like canals are detected in cases that were classified as Type I (simple root canal) based on their canal configuration, and this results in enabling the file to touch a large area of the canal walls.
2.5 Lateral canals in permanent mandibular incisors
Lateral canals are accessory canals located in the coronal or middle third of the root, extending horizontally from the main canal to the external surface of the root. Their formation is due to the entrapment of periodontal vessels in Hertwig’s epithelial root sheath or when blood vessels running from the dental sac through the dental papilla persist during calcification [50]. Lateral canals communicate with the periodontal ligament space and this increases risk of spread of periodontal disease into the pulp canal. According to their location, Vertucci classified lateral canals into coronal, middle, apical, or furcation. He observed lower occurrence of canal ramifications in the middle 11.4% and coronal 6.3% thirds compared to the apical 73.5% third [18, 24]. Recent micro-CT studies on root canal morphology of mandibular anterior teeth reported that lateral canals are rare [48, 51]. Miyashita et al. [17] reported that out of mandibular incisors with lateral branches, single lateral branch had the highest prevalence (82.2%) and multiple branches were extremely narrow. Al-Qudah and Awawdeh [33] found that there was an increasing prevalence of lateral canals toward the apical third of the root with approximately 64% occurring in the apical part of the roots. On the other hand, other studies reported that lateral canals were frequently found in the middle of the canal [34, 46]. Clinically, lateral canals are not usually visible in preoperative radiographs, but its presence can be suspected when there is a localized thickening of the periodontal ligament or a lesion on the lateral surface of the root [50]. It is also important to note that lateral canals cannot be instrumented. Its contents can only be neutralized by the action of effective irrigation with appropriate tissue dissolvent properties and antimicrobial activity solution or with the addition of use of intracanal medications.
2.6 Apical deltas in permanent mandibular incisors
Apical deltas are defined as an intricate system of spaces within the root canal that allows free passage of blood vessels and nerves from the periapical compartment to the pulp tissue [52, 53]. The apical delta is different from the accessory canal in which the main pulp canal is still distinguishable. The prevalence of apical deltas in human permanent teeth varies among populations, and the type and locations of tooth and methods of study. High prevalence of apical deltas is found in maxillary second premolars, mandibular lateral incisors, and mandibular second premolars [22]. Among American population, Vertucci [18] reported that the incidence of apical deltas was 5, 6, and 8% in the mandibular central incisors, lateral incisors, and canines, respectively. However, Çalişkan et al. [22] reported that the prevalence of apical deltas in those teeth was 9.8, 23.5 and 7.8% in a Turkish population. Apical deltas have been reported to be of great importance in endodontics because they are difficult to be instrumented during chemical-mechanical preparation. Furthermore, their long vertical extension may cause failure of the apical surgery if not involved during apical resection [54]. Gao et al. [55] reported that the median vertical distance of the apical delta was 1.87 mm with 13% of them more than 3 mm. Therefore, resection of the apical 3 mm of a root may include the whole apical delta and residual microorganisms from 87% of roots with apical delta.
2.7 Intercanal anastomosis in permanent mandibular incisors
A thin communication can occur between two or more canals in the same root or between vascular elements in tissues [56]. Green [23] described this corridor as a “ribbon shaped passage.” He found this corridor in 22% of mandibular incisors. An isthmus is formed when an individual root projection is unable to close itself off. Any root that contains two root canals has the potential to contain an isthmus [57]. It may contain tissue remnants and necrotic debris, which participate in microorganisms’ growth resulting in root canal treatment failure [58]. Therefore, knowledge of the root canal anatomy is essential for complete cleaning of the root canal and successful endodontic treatment [11]. Isthmus classification was described by Hsu and Kim et al. [59]. They classified isthmus into five types: Type I—two canals with no notable communication; Type II—a hair-thin connection between the two main canals; Type III—differs from Type II because of the presence of three canals instead of two; Type IV—an isthmus with extended canals into the connection; and Type V—there is a true connection or wide corridor of tissue between two main canals. Mauger reported that isthmus was present in 20% of the teeth at the 1-mm level, 30% at 2 mm, and 55% at 3 mm [27]. Estrela et al. [60] demonstrated high prevalence of both partial and complete isthmii in mandibular lateral incisors (47.6%) compared with mandibular central incisors (33.3%). On the other hand, Arslan et al. [38] found a low incidence (3.7%) of intracanal communication among Turkish population. A similar study done by Haghanifar [61] found the prevalence of complete isthmus in the mandibular anterior teeth ranged from 3 to 5%.
2.8 Anatomy, number, and position of apical foramina in permanent mandibular incisors
As a result of large width of the root canal buccolingually than mesiodistally, mandibular incisors have oval and flattened canals [25]. The overall prevalence of long oval root canals in the apical region in mandibular incisors is >50% [25]. When using rotary files, these oval-shaped canals are a challenge for proper shaping of the canal. This is because rotary instrumentation cannot touch all the canal walls, leaving behind untouched area. To improve mechanical apical debridement, the use of instruments up to an ISO size 100 is required to avoid leaving untouched area on the buccal and/or lingual walls of the canal [62]. However, using files with large taper or tip may cause lateral or apical perforation of the root as the root has a narrower diameter in the mesiodistal direction. Therefore, it stresses the use of good chemical disinfection protocol on these teeth. Canals are considered as oval, long oval, and flattened when the ratio between the maximum and the minimum cross-sectional diameter is <2:1, 2–4:1, and >4:1, respectively. Apical foramina are the main apical opening of the root canal. It is the main exit of the root canal onto the external root surface. Variation in the number and position of apical foramina is especially seen in mandibular incisors with two canals. The apical foramen coincides with the anatomical apex in 17–52.2% of the cases [19, 22, 33, 57, 63].
A number of studies (17.33%) reported that the position and the number of the apical foramen vary according to the race. Al-Qudah and Awawdeh [33] reported that more than half of the roots (52.2%) had centrally located foramina and 47.8% had laterally located foramina. Apical deltas were observed in only eight teeth (1.8%), and among mandibular incisors with two canals, single foramen was more prevalent than two apical foramina. Miyashita et al. [17] reported that only 3% of the mandibular incisors containing two canals had two foramina. He also found that 67.9% of mandibular incisors with curved root had eccentrically located foramina toward the labial direction and none of the canals were curved lingually.
According to Walker [63], the distance between the apical foramen and the most apical end of the root ranges between 0.2 and 2.0 mm. The diameter of the apical foramen of mandibular incisors has been reported to be as 262.5 μm.
2.9 Anomalies in permanent mandibular incisors
Anomaly (Gk, anomalos; irregular) is a deviation from what is regarded as normal [64]. These abnormalities may occur, in terms of size or shape, to either crown or root. WHO listed the following dental anomalies: concrescence, fusion, gemination, dens evaginatus, dens in dente, dens invaginatus, enamel pearls, macrodontia, microdontia, peg-shaped teeth, taurodontism, and tuberculum paramolare [65]. Anomalies of permanent mandibular incisors regarding the crown and root shape are extremely rare. However, few case reports have registered anomalies associated with mandibular incisors. As an example, dens invaginatus, a deep surface invagination of the crown or root, which is lined by enamel and resulting from the invagination of the enamel organ into the dental papilla during odontogenesis, can be seen in these teeth [66]. Dens invaginatus has been classified into three categories according to the depth of invagination and communication with the periapical tissue or periodontal ligament [67].
Type 1: The invagination ends as a blind sac confined to the crown.
Type 2: The invagination extends apically beyond the external CEJ, ending as a blind sac and never reaching the periapical tissues.
Type 3: The invagination extends beyond the CEJ and a second “apical foramen” is found in either the periapical tissues or the periodontal ligament.
The prevalence of this anomaly has been found to range from 0.25 to 5.1% of the population [66]. More commonly, dens invaginatus occurs in the maxillary permanent lateral incisors. Also, it may occur in maxillary central incisors, premolars, canines, and molars. It usually occurs unilaterally, but bilateral cases have also been reported [68]. Occurrence of dens invaginatus in mandibular teeth is very rare. When it occurs in mandibular incisors, the central incisor has a higher incidence compared with lateral incisor [69, 70].
Talon cusp is also a rare developmental anomaly defined as an additional cusp that projects predominantly from the labial or lingual surface of primary or permanent anterior teeth [71]. Mellor and Ripa [72] named this anomaly “talon cusp” as it resembles the shape of an eagle’s talon. Talon cusp was classified by Hattab [73] as follows:
Type 1: True talon cusp—this is a morphologically well-delineated additional cusp that prominently projects from the palatal surface of a primary or permanent anterior tooth and extends at least half the distance from the CEJ to the incisal edge.
Type 2: Semi talon cusp—this is an additional cusp of size a millimeter or more but extending less than half the distance from the CEJ to the incisal edge.
Type 3: Trace talon—this is enlarged or prominent cingula and their variations (i.e., conical, bifid, or tubercle-like).
Radiographically, the talon cusp may appear typically as a V-shaped radiopacity, starting from the cervical third of the crown. Most of the talon cusps occur in the maxillary lateral incisors (55%), followed by maxillary central incisors (32%) and maxillary canines (9%) [71]. Although it is rarely seen in mandibular teeth [74], Gündüz and Celenk [43] studied the site distribution of talon cusp among Turkish population and found only 3% of talon cusp was seen in the mandibular right central incisors.
Another rare developmental anomaly that has been reported to occur in mandibular central incisor is “Gemination” [75]. It is a rare anomaly that arises when the tooth bud of a single tooth attempts to divide. The structure most often presents as two crowns, either totally or partially separated, with a single root and one root canal [76]. In the anterior region, gemination can cause poor esthetic appearance due to irregular morphology. In addition, these teeth are more susceptible to periodontal disease and caries, if deep groove is present [77, 78].
Fusion is another developmental anomaly which can occur in these teeth. Contrary to gemination, fusion is defined as the union of two or more separately developing tooth germs during odontogenesis, when the crown is not yet mineralized at the dentinal level, yielding a single large tooth [79]. Depending on the stage of development at the time of union, the pulp might be merged or separated [80]. Fusion is more frequently seen in primary dentition, but it may occur in both dentitions. If it occurs in permanent dentition, the vast majority of permanent teeth fusion cases are seen in maxillary teeth. Although, the incidence of fusion of mandibular incisors is rare, mandibular central incisors have been reported to fuse with a supernumerary tooth [81] and bilaterally with the adjacent lateral incisor [82].
It should be emphasized that special attention is required during root canal treatment owing to the abnormal morphology of the crown and the complexity of the root canal system in fused teeth.
3. Clinical recommendation relevant to the mandibular incisors’ anatomy
Mandibular incisors are prone to endodontic treatment as a result of several reasons. Due to their location in the jaw, they are prone to traumas that result in tooth fracture which may necessitate root canal therapy. Moreover, their proximity to the opening of the sublingual and submandibular ducts increases the incidence of dental caries as a result of lingual deposition of calculus. Therefore, an accurate knowledge of the external and internal anatomy of these teeth is an essential prerequisite to carry out root canal treatment. They often have two canals that are buccolingually located and the lingual canal usually is missed. Therefore, the dentist should extend the access preparation in lingual direction to locate the lingual canal which is usually below the cingulum. In case of two canals, Type II canal is the most prevalent configuration where the buccal canal is the most straight and easiest to be located. Consequently, it is recommended to instrument and fill these canals till the apex whereas the lingual canal merges with the labial canal. Presence of an isthmus may complicate the root canal disinfection as it may contain tissue remnants and necrotic debris, hence irrigation and activation are very essential to overcome these anatomical difficulties.
\n',keywords:"morphology, mandibular incisors, variation, root canal",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65806.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65806.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65806",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65806",totalDownloads:1178,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 2nd 2018",dateReviewed:"January 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"September 11th 2019",datePublished:"January 22nd 2020",dateFinished:"February 22nd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"A clear understanding of dental root anatomy, external and internal, is an essential prerequisite to all dental procedures. In periodontology, the external root morphology has been proven to have a clinical significance in the predisposing factors of periodontal diseases. Orthodontic literature shows the importance of radicular anatomy in orthodontic mechanics through the concept of anchorage. The significance of internal root anatomy has been emphasized by studies demonstrating that variations in canal geometry before cleaning, shaping, and obturation procedures had a greater effect on the outcome than the techniques themselves. The mandibular central incisor is the smallest tooth in the mouth, but the buccolingual dimension of its root is very large. This tooth is usually single-rooted; however, the root canal system of this group is unpredictable. The incidence of two canals has been reported as low as 0.3% and as high as 45.3%. The wide range of variation reported in literature regarding the prevalence of a second canal has been related to methodological and racial differences. This chapter will summarize the morphological aspects of the root canal anatomy published in the literature of the anterior mandibular teeth. This will provide precious knowledge regarding root canal morphology and its variation among populations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65806",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65806",signatures:"Mohammed A. Aldawla, Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal and Ahmed A. Madfa",book:{id:"8837",type:"book",title:"Human Teeth",subtitle:"Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",fullTitle:"Human Teeth - Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",slug:"human-teeth-key-skills-and-clinical-illustrations",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan and Farid Bourzgui",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8837.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-840-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-839-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-522-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",email:"ahmed_um_2011@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",institution:null},{id:"281125",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Aldawla",fullName:"Mohammed A. Aldawla",slug:"mohammed-a.-aldawla",email:"mohdaldawla@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"281126",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulbaset A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mufadhal",fullName:"Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal",slug:"abdulbaset-a.-mufadhal",email:"dr.obad99@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. External root morphology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Internal anatomy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Introduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Shape and size of pulp cavity in permanent mandibular incisors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Number of canals in permanent mandibular incisors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Canal configurations in permanent mandibular incisors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Lateral canals in permanent mandibular incisors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6 Apical deltas in permanent mandibular incisors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7 Intercanal anastomosis in permanent mandibular incisors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.8 Anatomy, number, and position of apical foramina in permanent mandibular incisors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.9 Anomalies in permanent mandibular incisors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3. Clinical recommendation relevant to the mandibular incisors’ anatomy",level:"3"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ozaki T, Satake T, Kanazama E. 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Endodontic Topics. 2005;10(1):3-29'},{id:"B58",body:'Kim S. Color Atlas of Microsurgery in Endodontics. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company; 2001'},{id:"B59",body:'Y-y H, Kim S. The resected root surface. The issue of canal isthmuses. Dental Clinics of North America. 1997;41(3):529-540'},{id:"B60",body:'Estrela C, Rabelo LEG, de Souza JB, Alencar AHG, Estrela CR, Neto MDS, et al. Frequency of root canal isthmi in human permanent teeth determined by cone-beam computed tomography. Journal of Endodontics. 2015;41(9):1535-1539'},{id:"B61",body:'Haghanifar S, Moudi E, Madani Z, Farahbod F, Bijani A. Evaluation of the prevalence of complete Isthmii in permanent teeth using cone-beam computed tomography. Iranian Endodontic Journal. 2017;12(4):426'},{id:"B62",body:'Versiani MA, Pécora JD, de Sousa-Neto MD. Flat-oval root canal preparation with self-adjusting file instrument: A micro–computed tomography study. Journal of Endodontics. 2011;37(7):1002-1007'},{id:"B63",body:'Walker R. The root canal anatomy of mandibular incisors in a southern Chinese population. International Endodontic Journal. 1988;21(3):218-223'},{id:"B64",body:'Mosby I. Mosby’s Medical Dictionary. St. Louis: Mosby; 2006'},{id:"B65",body:'Organization WH. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004'},{id:"B66",body:'Hülsmann M. Dens invaginatus: Aetiology, classification, prevalence, diagnosis, and treatment considerations. International Endodontic Journal. 1997;30(2):79-90'},{id:"B67",body:'Oehlers F. Dens invaginatus (dilated composite odontome): I. Variations of the invagination process and associated anterior crown forms. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology. 1957;10(11):1204-1218'},{id:"B68",body:'Mupparapu M, Singer S. A rare presentation of dens invaginatus in a mandibular lateral incisor occurring concurrently with bilateral maxillary dens invaginatus: Case report and review of literature. Australian Dental Journal. 2004;49(2):90-93'},{id:"B69",body:'Siraci E, Gungor HC, Cehreli ZC. Dens invaginatus and talon cusp co-occurring in a mandibular central incisor: A case report. Journal of Dentistry for Children. 2008;75(2):177-180'},{id:"B70",body:'Nagaveni NB, Umashanikara KV, Vidyullatha B, Radhika NB. Permanent mandibular incisor with multiple anomalies-report of a rare clinical case. Brazilian Dental Journal. 2011;22(4):346-350'},{id:"B71",body:'Davis P, Brook A. The presentation of talon cusp: Diagnosis, clinical features, associations and possible aetiology. British Dental Journal. 1986;160(3):84-88'},{id:"B72",body:'Mellor JK, Ripa LW. Talon cusp: A clinically significant anomaly. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology. 1970;29(2):225-228'},{id:"B73",body:'Hattab F. Talon cusp in permanent dentition associated with other dental anomalies: Review of literature and reports of seven cases. Journal of Dentistry for Children. 1996;6:368-376'},{id:"B74",body:'Tulunoglu O, Cankala D, Ozdemir R. Talon’s cusp: Report of four unusual cases. Journal of the Indian Society of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry. 2007;25(1):52'},{id:"B75",body:'Beltrán V, Leiva C, Valdivia I, Cantín M, Fuentes R, BELTRÁN V, et al. Dental gemination in a permanent mandibular central incisor: An uncommon dental anomaly. International Journal of Odontostomatology. 2013;7(1):69-72'},{id:"B76",body:'Alvarez I, Creath C. Radiographic considerations for supernumerary tooth extraction: Report of case. ASDC Journal of Dentistry for Children. 1995;62(2):141-144'},{id:"B77",body:'Grover P, Lorton L. Gemination and twinning in the permanent dentition. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, and Oral Pathology. 1985;59(3):313-318'},{id:"B78",body:'Türkaslan S, Gökçe HS, Dalkız M. Esthetic rehabilitation of bilateral geminated teeth: A case report. European Journal of Dentistry. 2007;1(3):188'},{id:"B79",body:'Velasco LFL, FBd A, Ferreira ES, LEL V. Esthetic and functional treatment of a fused permanent tooth: A case report. Quintessence International. 1997;28(10):677-680'},{id:"B80",body:'Brook A, Winter G. Double teeth. A retrospective study of ‘geminated’ and ‘fused’ teeth in children. British Dental Journal. 1970;129(3):123'},{id:"B81",body:'Sachdeva G, Malhotra D, Sachdeva L, Sharma N, Negi A. Endodontic management of mandibular central incisor fused to a supernumerary tooth associated with a talon cusp: A case report. International Endodontic Journal. 2012;45(6):590-596'},{id:"B82",body:'Prabhakar AR, Kaur T, Nadig B. Bilateral fusion of permanent mandibular incisors with Talon’s cusp: A rare case report. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. 2009;13(2):93'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mohammed A. Aldawla",address:"mohdaldawla@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Conservative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Sana’a University, Yemen
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Abdulbaset A. Mufadhal",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Conservative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Sana’a University, Yemen
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Conservative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Sana’a University, Yemen
Department of Conservative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Thamar University, Yemen
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Moreover, the use of antimicrobial in companion animals (pets) received little attention and is not currently regulated in comparison with what happens in livestock; for this reason, the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in 165 different Enterococcus strains isolated from dogs (subjected to previous antibiotic treatment(s) or not) was determined. For each strain, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against 9 different antibiotics was assessed. While all isolated strains were susceptible to vancomycin, high resistance frequency toward erythromycin, rifampicin, enrofloxacin, and tetracycline was detected. Enterococcus faecium strains isolated from the previously treated dogs demonstrated more resistance to tetracycline compared to the control ones. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. 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