1. Introduction
Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensors have been studied for more than two decades because they have incomparable abilities over the pointed or multiplexed fiber-optic sensors based on fiber Bragg grating and/or inline Fabry-Perot resonator. They originated from the intrinsic fiber-optic nonlinearity in optical fibers, i.e. Brillouin scattering, and have many distinguished advantages, such as high accuracy due to the frequency revolved interrogation, multiple sensitivities of measurands (strain, temperature etc.), no dead zones of sensing location due to the distributed sensing ability, and immunity to the electro-magnetic interference. Nowadays, they have been thought as great potentials in industrial applications to smart materials and smart structures.
This chapter introduces the basic principle and recent advances of Brillouin scattering in optical fibers. The working mechanism, different interrogation techniques, difficulty or challenge of the sensing ability, and recent breakthroughs of Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensors are demonstrated, respectively.
2. Brillouin scattering in optical fibers
2.1. Principle
Light scattering phenomena in optical fibers occur regardless of how intense the incident optical power is. They can be basically categorized into two groups, i.e. spontaneous scattering and stimulated scattering[1]. Spontaneous scattering refers to the process under conditions such that the material properties are unaffected by the presence of the incident optical fields. For input optical fields of sufficient intensities spontaneous scattering becomes quite intense and stimulated scattering starts. The nature of the stimulated scattering process grossly modifies the optical properties of the material system and vice versa. Spontaneous and stimulated scattering in optical fibers are composed of Rayleigh, Raman, and Brillouin scattering processes. Each scattering process is always present in optical fibers since no fiber is free from microscopic defects or thermal fluctuations which originate the three processes. For a monochromatic incident lightwave of frequency
Brillouin scattering is a “photon-phonon” interaction as annihilation of a pump photon creates a Stokes photon and a phonon simultaneously. The created phonon is the vibrational modes of atoms, also called a propagation density wave or an acoustic phonon/wave. In a silica-based optical fiber, Brillouin Stokes wave propagates dominantly backward [2] although very partially forward[3]. The frequency (~9-11 GHz) of Stokes photon at ~1550-nm wavelength is in quantity dramatically different from or smaller by three orders of magnitude than Raman scattering (see Fig. 1) and is dominantly down-shifted due to Doppler shift associated with the forward movement of created acoustic phonons. In a polymer optical fiber, the frequency is ~2-3 GHz due to the different phonon property[4].
Figure 2 illustrates the difference between spontaneous Brillouin scattering (SpBS) and stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) in optical fibers. In principle, the SpBS (see Fig. 2(a)) is started from a noise fluctuation and influences the pump wave (
where
Taken into account the SBS power transfer between
where the sign difference between the right hands of Eq. (4) and Eq. (5) means that the pump power is reduced or depleted but the probe (Stokes) power is increased or amplified.
g(ν) is called Brillouin gain spectrum (BGS), the key phraseology to represent Brillouin scattering in optical fibers. It denotes the spectral details of the light amplification from strong pump wave to weak counter-propagating probe/Stokes wave in SBS or those of the noise-initialized scattered phonons in SpBS. The BGS is generally expressed by [8-10]
where Eq. (6) means that the BGS is the summation of all the longitudinal acoustic modes’ gain spectra and Eq. (7) corresponds to the
There are two basic methods to theoretically and numerically analyze the BGS in optical fibers [8, 11]. One method [11] is based on Bessel or modified Bessel functions for optical fibers with regular geometric and dopant distribution, such as step-index optical fibers. The other one [8] is called two-dimensional finite-element-method (2D-FEM) modal analysis of BGS for optical fibers with complicated or arbitrary distribution. The 2D-FEM modal analysis has been used to study a Panda-type polarization-maintaining optical fiber (PMF) [8], a SMF with arbitrary residual stress [12], a
The contribution of the fundamental acoustic mode to the entire BGS is basically dominant, which has a Lorentzian feature as schematically depicted in Fig. 3(a). Besides, it modulates the refractive index of optical fiber and changes the group velocity of optical fields in a profile shown in the inset of Fig. 3(a), which has been adopted for Brillouin slow or fast light[22, 23].
There are three basic parameters of Brillouin frequency shift (BFS, νB), Brillouin gain peak (gB0), and Brillouin linwidth (∆νB) in the main-peak BGS (i.e. the fundamental acoustic mode or
where λ0 is the light wavelength (λ0=
gB0 in Eq. (7) is determined by
where
∆νB0 in silica optical fibers with a typical value of 30~40 MHz is characteristic of SpBS. However, in the SBS process, it was theoretically proved that ∆νB strongly depends on the pump power, which is expressed as follows [5, 26]:
where
where
Eq. (13) is valid when
From Eq. (10), one could estimate that the linewidth goes gradually to zero for very high gain, which can be obtained by either increasing the pump power or the interaction length of the fiber (see Eq. (11)). A zero linewidth corresponds to acoustic oscillation with an infinite time. However, pump depletion always occurs when the single pass gain (
The experimental characterization of the phenomenon of the Brillouin linwidth’s narrowing in three SMFs are depicted in Fig. 4 [27]. When the pump power is intensified to a high value of above ∼24 dBm (∼250 mW), the Brillouin main-peak linewidth of 180-m-long SMF becomes increasing. This is because the pump power depletes much faster than its contribution to the single-pass gain
From Eq. (11), one can derivate the so-called pump threshold value of SBS originating from SpBS (also called Brillouin generator). It is given by
where
2.2. Experimental characterization
The experimental characterization of BGS in optical fibers can be implemented by two individual ways that depend on which principle of SpBS or SBS is based on. The SpBS based configuration is illustrated in Fig. 5(a). A pump wave is amplified by an erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) and its polarization is optimized by a polarization controller (PC), scrambled by a polarization scrambler (PS) or switched by a polarization switcher (PSW). It is launched through an optical coupler or circulator into the fiber under test (FUT). A weak Stokes wave with downshifted frequency around νB is backscattered towards the coupler/circulator and can be detected by three different schemes, which are depicted in Fig. 5(b). First, an optical filter (Etalon, Fabry-Perot filter or FBG) is inserted before a photo-detector (PD) so as to eliminate the influence of Rayleigh scattering on Stokes wave and spectrally analyzed by an electrical spectrum analyzer (ESA) [2, 30]. Second, Stokes wave is optically mixed with a part of the pump wave (serving as an optical oscillator) and then detected or heterodyne-detected by a high-speed PD or a high-speed balanced PD, which is directed to the ESA [31]. Third, heterodyne detection can be carried out at an intermediate frequency (IF) range by tuning the frequency of the optical oscillator or further using of a local microwave (RF) oscillator before ESA [32].
The pump-probe-based experimental configuration, depicted in Fig. 6(a), is more attractive to investigate the BGS in optical fibers (especially with very short length) since SBS process occurs and high Brillouin gain can be utilized. Two light waves from a laser unit are the optical sources: the one with larger optical frequency (
The laser unit shown in Fig. 6(a) comprises three ports (two corresponding to optical fields and the other to the revealed value of ν or a microwave/RF input), which has three different schemes as illustrated in Fig. 6(b). First, one can utilize two individual lasers under frequency/phase locking and frequency countering [33]. Second, one laser is divided into two parts. One part is amplified by an EDFA working as pump wave; the second part serving as probe wave is modulated by an electro-optic intensity modulator (EOM) to generate two sidebands working as probe wave[25]. An optical filter is inserted before launching into the FUT or laid after PD1 so as to cut off the influence of the frequency-upshifted sideband. Third, the second part can be also modulated by a single-sideband modulator [35] to get well-suppressed frequency-downshifted sideband directly serving as probe wave. There are also three schemes, depicted in Fig. 6(c), to realize the detection unit shown in Fig. 6(a). The first and simple scheme is related to the first scheme of the laser unit. A personal computer with a multi-channel data acquisition card (DAQ) can catch the value of ν and record the data of PD1 and/or PD2 so as to pick up the Brillouin signal (gain and/or loss) as a function of ν. The second and third schemes in Fig. 6(c) can be used for either the second and/or third laser unit in Fig. 6(b), respectively. For instance, a high-cost vector network analyzer provides a frequency-tuned RF signal to modulators and simultaneously detect the Brillouin signal [36]. Alternatively, the RF signal can be achieved from a microwave synthesizer and the data of PD1 and/or PD2 can be picked up by a DAQ with or without a lock-in amplifier (LIA). It is notable that the use of LIA for detection unit requires an intensity-chopping of the pump wave by an additional EOM [10] or periodic switching of upshifted or downshifted sideband at the SSBM [34], which is advantageous for characterization of very weak BGS or a short-length FUT due to its high SNR and accuracy[12, 34, 37].
Figure 7(a) depicts a high-accuracy experimental setup of pump-probe SBS-based BGS characterization by use of SSBM and LIA for a short-length FUT [37]. An EDFA is inserted after the SSBM to increase the probe power, which is aimed to reduce the impact of Rayleigh scattering or splicing/crack induced reflection of the pump wave in the FUT. The optical lights after a circulator include the following components:
where
where
If
where
The demodulated electric amplitude via a LIA at
where the part of
which is independent on the pump level, but just determined by the probe power of
2.3. Pump depletion effect
As mentioned above (see Fig. 4), pump depletion effect influences the linewidth of pump-probe-based BGS. Early in 2000 [38], it was first observed that the spectrum broadening and hole burning occurs in a SBS generator (i.e. noise-started spontaneous Brillouin scattering). The reason was thought as the waveguide interaction among different angular components of the pump and backscattered Stokes signals. Besides, during the application of SBS-based amplifier, two coherent optical waves with precise frequency difference equal to Brillouin frequency shift are launched into optical fibers; then a frequency-scanned weak signal could suffer non-uniform amplification if the two waves’ powers are too high [39, 40]. In SBS-based distributed fiber optical sensor, which will be introduced in
Assuming that CW probe wave,
where
Further introduce the injected power ratio between pump and probe waves, defined as
The critical condition of the spectral hole burning phenomenon can be theoretically expressed by:
By numerically solving Eqs. (24)-(26), one can interpret the critical condition by two different ways: (1) the critical position
Figure 8(c) and 8(d) illustrates the measured BGS under different pump power for two different positions (in the middle and at the far end, respectively) of a 50-m-long dispersion compensated fiber (DCF). The probe power is fixed at 9.8 dBm. At the far end, the BGS [see Fig. 8(d)] rises with the power increased but always preserves the Lorentz shape. While in the middle, the experimental result [see Fig. 8(c)] is in a qualitative accordance with the numerical analysis [see Fig. 8(a)]. The Brillouin gain keeps rising with the increase of optical power, while the peak at the local Brillouin frequency shift seems to be saturated gradually and a hollow starts appearing when it reaches ~20 dBm, which is just the spectral hole burning phenomenon. The hollow in the BGS may introduce great errors to pump-probe-based Brillouin distributed sensors since it disables the peak-searching of the Brillouin frequency shift.
The pump power leading to the BGS saturation is approximately characterized as the critical pump power (for instance, 21.3 dBm at z=30 m). The measured critical powers for two positions (
3. Brillouin–based distributed sensors
3.1. Sensing of measurands
The first report of Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensors [43] was based on the same principle as that of optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) or Raman based OTDR (ROTDR) technique as a non-destructive attenuation measurement technique for optical fibers. In that proposal [33], SBS process was performed by injecting an optical pulse source and a continuous-wave (CW) light into two ends of FUT. When the frequency difference of the pulse pump and CW probe is tuned offset around νB of the FUT, the CW probe power experiences Brillouin gain from the pulse light through SBS process. Similarly like the case of OTDR, the SBS distributed measurement could measure attenuation distribution along the fiber having no break from an interrogated optical power as a function of time, but it has much higher signal-to-noise ratio (more than ~10 dB) than OTDR due to SBS high gain. Later, Horiguchi and co-researchers found that this non-destructive can be extended into
where ν
The nowadays telecom optical fibers (ITU-T G.651, G.652, G.653, and G.655) mostly have GeO2-doped fiber cores [46] and pure-silica (or other-doped-silica) cladding. Naturally, the GeO2 doping induces the reduction of the longitudinal acoustic velocity in GeO2-doped core
The longitudinal acoustic velocity
For convenience, we introduce a normalized strain coefficient (
Each three parts in the right sides of Eq. (31) and Eq. (32) are determined by relative change rates in
Strict experimental characterization on a series of optical fibers with different GeO2 concentration is depicted in Fig. 11 [49]. The BFS has linear dependence on the GeO2 concentration in the fiber’s core (i.e.-87.3 MHz/mol%), which corresponds to ν
The normalized strain and temperature coefficients defined in Eq. (31) and Eq. (32) were characterized by repeating the BGS measurement under different applied strain and temperature change. It shows a linear dependence of
3.2. Sensing of location
Besides the sensing of measurands (see Eq. (29)), the mapping of spontaneous or stimulated Brillouin scattering process (not just non-destructive attenuation measurement [43]) is another key issue to realize distributed optical fiber sensing [52-54]. Two different mapping ways, as schematically illustrated in Fig. 12, were proposed. One is to repeat the localized BGS in scanned positions along the FUT; the other is to repeat the Brillouin interaction under different frequency offset.
There are three different mapping or position-interrogation techniques, including time domain [33, 52-56], frequency domain [57, 58], and correlation domain [59-61]. Regarding the injection ways of optical fields, there are two opposite groups, i.e. analysis versus reflectometry. The analysis is two-end injection based on SBS; while the reflectometry is one-end injection based on SpBS. Comparably, the analysis has much higher SNR than the reflectometry. Note that there is an additional method between analysis and reflectometry, called one-end analysis [55, 62, 63]. Its only difference from the traditional (two-end) analysis is the one-end injection and its SBS process occurs between the forward pump and the backward probe wave that is reflected at the far end of FUT.
The basic principle of time-domain sensing technique is the “time-of-flight” phenomenon in FUT. For two-end or one-end analysis, named Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) [33, 52, 54], one of pump and probe waves is pulsed in time and the other is continuous wave (CW). Subsequently, they are successively interacted along the FUT during the time-of-flight of the pulsed wave. In contrast, for one-end reflecometry, called Brillouin optical time domain reflectometry (BOTDR) [53, 56], the pump wave is pulsed in time and the SpBS Stokes wave is reflected along the FUT during the pump’s time-of-flight. The basic experimental configuration of BOTDR or BOTDA can be simply carried out in Fig. 5 or Fig. 6, respectively. The required modification is to insert an optical pulse generator (for example, an electro-optic intensity modulator driven by an electric pulse generator). The spatial resolution (∆
where
There are two kinds of correlation-domain sensing techniques, nominated Brillouin optical correlation domain analysis (BOCDA) [59, 60] and Brillouion optical correlation domain reflectometry (BOCDR) [61, 64]. Both of them originate from the so-called synthesis of optical coherence function (SOCF) [65, 66]. Nevertheless, the SOCF in BOCDA or BOCDR is generated between the pump and probe waves or between the pump-scattered Stokes wave and the optical oscillator, respectively. In experiment, the BOCDR and BOCDA can be executed by substituting a distributed feedback laser diode (DFB-LD) driven by a function generator (such as in a sinusoidal function) for the light source in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, respectively. Thanks to the current-frequency transferring effect of DFB-LD [67], the optical frequencies of the light sources are simultaneously modulated also in a sinusoidal function. Subsequently, the optical frequency offset between pump and probe or between scattered Stokes and optical oscillator changes with time as well as position, deviating from the preset constant frequency offset around the BFS νB. Only at some particular locations (called correlation peaks), the frequency offset is maintained as the constant frequency offset because of the in-phase condition so that the local SBS interaction or the beating of the local Stokes and oscillator is
where
Because of the difference of the physical pictures between time domain and correlation domain, their sensing performance is different. For example, the spatial resolution of BOTDA/BOTDR was typically limited to be ~1 m by the lifetime of acoustic phonons (10 ns) and the nature of intrinsic Brillouin linewidth. However, BOCDA/BOCDR is of CW nature free from this limitation, and their spatial resolution can be ~cm-order [60, 68] or even ~mm-order [69]. Since BOTDA/BOTDR carries out the whole mapping of BGS along the FUT during the time-of-the-flight while BOCDA/BOCDR realizes the distributed sensing by sweeping the modulation frequency (or correlation peak), the sensing speed is different. The entire sensing speeds for both BOTDA/BOTDR and BOCDA/BOCDR are time-consuming due to the tuning of pump-probe frequency offset, averaging of mapping, and signal processing of data fitting. However, the sensing position of BOCDA/BOCDR can be random accessed [59, 61], and the dynamic sensing with high speed at the random accessed position is possible [70, 71]. The detailed difference of other performances will be described in
4. Challenges in Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensors
4.1. Simultaneous measurement of strain and temperature
As explained in
Practical applications of Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensors require a method to effectively discriminate them by use of two intrinsic parameters (denoted by y1 and y2) in one sensing fiber. Their changes (∆y1 and ∆y2) depend on simultaneously the applied strain (∆
where
It is obvious to know that the condition that the strain and temperature can be successfully distinguished is determined by
In fact, the Brillouin-based distributed sensing system always suffer a measurement uncertainty (∆y1 and ∆y2), which is in a linear proportional relation with the discrimination errors in strain (∆
A possible solution using one fiber is to monitor two acoustic resonance peaks at different orders of Brillouin gain spectrum (BGS) in a specially-designed optical fiber [13, 37, 76, 77]. So far, this method cannot ensure accurate discrimination because all the acoustic resonance frequencies exhibit similar behaviors in their dependences on strain and temperature (see Fig. 11) [49]. There is another kind of method reported for discrimination that relies on the possibility that the peak amplitude and BFS of the BGS could have quantitatively different dependences on strain and temperature [78-81]. Its accuracies is not sufficient (e.g., several degrees Celsius and hundreds of micro-strains), which is mainly due to the low signal-to-noise ratio in the BGS peak-amplitude measurement particularly for distributed sensing where troublesome noise from non-sensing locations is accumulated.
4.2. System limitation of time-domain or correlation-domain technique
There are several system limitations in time-domain BOTDA/BOTDR and correlation-domain BOCDA/BOCDR, which comes from their individual sensing techniques. For example, BOTDA/BOTDR suffers a typical limitation of spatial resolution (~1 m) mainly determined by the linewidth of BGS or the lifetime (~10 ns) of acoustic phonons. Narrower pulse width corresponding to higher spatial resolution according to Eq. (33) weakens the acoustic phonons due to the lifetime of the acoustic phonons and leads to broader BGS as well as lower frequency accuracy due to the convolution between the intrinsic BGS and broader spectrum of the pulse [82, 83]. Moreover, although the time-of-the-flight feature of BOTDA/BOTDR is suitable for long distance sensing, the nature of pump depletion and fiber transmission loss confines the maximum of measurement range within several tens of kilometers [84].
On the other hand, BOCDA/BOCDR can provide extremely high spatial resolution of cm order or mm order with a cost of system complexity. However the correlation-domain sensing nature means that there intrinsically exist periodic correlation peaks in the fiber. Besides, the nominal definitions of spatial resolution and measurement range (see Eq. (34) and Eq. (35)) show that they both depend on the modulation frequency and thus they are in a tradeoff relation with each other [59]. The accumulation of the entire BGS along the FUT corresponding to the measured BGS at the sensing location should include a high-magnitude background of the BGS at the uncorrelated positions, which makes it difficult achieve large range of strain or temperature since higher strain or temperature change shifts the measured BGS closer to the background. As introduced in
5. Advances in Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensors
5.1. Concept of Brillouin dynamic grating
Dynamic grating can be generated by use of gain saturation effect in rare-earth-metal-doped optical fibers [85-87] or stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) process in optical fibers [88-93] and even in a photonic chip [94]. Dynamic grating is more advantageous for certain applications than fiber Bragg grating (FBG) [95] because it can be dynamically constructed using two coherent pump waves while FBG is static after fabrication. In comparison, the SBS-generated dynamic grating, also called Brillouin dynamic grating (BDG), is superior to the saturation gain grating due to its elasto-optic nature and lack of quantum noise [1]. In addition, the BDG is much easier to experimentally characterize [88, 90-93] while the saturation gain grating needs sophisticated double lock-in detection [86].
Up to date, there are various methods to generate BDG in optical fibers, which are schematically compared in Fig. 13 [93]. The basic principle of BDG in optical fibers is quite similar, which is shown in Fig. 13(a). Two coherent optical waves, i.e. the pump and probe (or Stokes) waves in the SBS process, are launched from the two opposite ends of optical fibers. When their optical frequency offset (
where
The method of BDG generation and detection can be classified into two different cases, which depends on the used optical fibers. In the first case of polarization maintaining fiber (PMF) [88-90] or few-mode fiber (FMF) [91] (see Fig. 13(b)), the BDG generation is separated from the BDG detection by use of orthogonal polarization states or different optical modes, respectively. The phase-matching condition means that the BFS of the BDG generation and detection should be unique as Eq. (39), which results in a frequency difference determined by the PMF’s birefringence (
where
As shown in Fig. 13 (c), the BDG in a SMF [92] or dispersion shifted fiber (DSF) [93] can be generalized into the second case. If the readout wave with the optical frequency of
where
where
In comparison, the method based on a PMF is more attractive because the BDG generation and readout are oriented and separated in two orthogonal polarization states [88-90]. The frequency-deviation property provides an additional degree of freedom to precisely characterize the birefringence according to Eq. (28). Figure 14 depicts the optical spectra of the BDG reflection measured by an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA), including four components (leaked pump and probe waves, BDG reflected wave, and Rayleigh scattered wave from left to right). The BDG property is qualitatively confirmed by the great enhancement of the third component (BDG reflected wave), since it is transferred from weak SpBS to strong SBS process under the assistance of the BDG generated by pump and probe waves. The frequency deviation can be roughly estimated to be 44.0 GHz by a wavelength meter, which gives the birefringence value of 3.28*10-4. However, the resolution is limited to about 1*10-6 due to 0.1 GHz-level resolution of the wavelength meter.
Most recently, a heterodyne detection was demonstrated to straightforwardly characterize the physical BDG property in a high-delta PMF [96]. Figure 15(a) summarizes a 3D distribution of the heterodyne-detected electronic spectra between the BDG reflection and the readout wave while scanning the pump–probe frequency offset (ν1 or
5.2. Complete discrimination of strain and temperature
As mentioned in
The first, but most successful, application of the BDG in a Panda-type PMF was demonstrated for complete discrimination of strain and temperature responses for Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensing applications [89]. Figure 16 shows the basic experimental configuration of the high-precision BDG characterization, which can be used to precisely measure the birefringence of a PMF and to completely discriminate strain and temperature. The BDG generation is based on the pump-probe scheme, which is also the high-accuracy BGS characterization shown in Fig. 7(a). The BDG measurement is realized by the lock-in detection of the BDG reflection since the BDG is periodically chopped due to the chopping of the pump wave. The birefringence-determined frequency deviation defined in Eq. (40) is characterized within a standard error of ∆
The principle of the complete discrimination is based on the dependence of the BFS on strain and temperature as introduced in Eq. (29) and the orthogonal dependence of the birefringence (
where
where
In contrast, when an axial strain ∆
Consequently, the birefringence-determined frequency deviation (∆
where ∆
By jointly considering the BFS (νB) and the frequency deviation (∆
where ∆
In physics, the two phenomena/quantities, i.e. the νB and ∆
For distributed discrimination of strain and temperature, the localized BDG generation and readout in the PMF should be firstly proved to be effective. A correlation-based continuous-wave technique based on the BOCDA system [99] is used for random access and a pulse-based time-domain technique based on the BOTDA system [100] is employed for continuous access. It was found that the generation and readout waves based on the BOCDA system should be synchronously frequency-modulated because of the dispersion properties of all four waves (see Fig. 19) [112], including pump and probe waves, readout wave and acoustic wave (BDG as well).
The preliminary success of distributed discrimination of strain and temperature was realized by use of several lasers based on the BOCDA system [113] or the BOTDA system [114]. In [113], all pump, probe, and readout waves are synchronously modulated in frequency by sinusoidal functions to the two laser diodes. The measurement range of the distributed BGS and BDG is commonly given by the neighboring correlation peaks of the BOCDA system as defined in Eq. (35). Although the spatial resolution of the BGS measurement is still given by Eq. (34), that of the BDG reflection was thought to be determined by the BDG bandwidth (∆fyx) as follows:
The feasibility of distributed discrimination of strain and temperature was experimentally demonstrated with 10-cm spatial resolution. The
One-laser-based Brillouin correlation-domain distributed discrimination system [112] by use of the sideband-generation technique was recently demonstrated to overcome the frequency fluctuation among the free-running lasers for pump, probe, and readout waves, and thus improve the accuracy of distributed discrimination of strain and temperature. Figure 21 represents the experimental setup. A 40-GHz intensity modulator (IM2) laid after the laser diode is driven by a radio frequency synthesizer (RF2 at νRF2) with a proper dc bias so as to generate double sidebands with suppressed carrier (DSB-SC). The optical filtering (FBG and tunable band-pass filter) is used to separate the two sidebands for the BDG generation and readout. By control of the RF1 (similar to Fig. 16), the BFS can be precisely measured and then fixed; by tuning of the RF2, the BDG reflection can be also precisely characterized; by simply change of the modulation frequency of the one laser diode, the location of the BGS and BDG can be swept for distributed measurement.
Figure 22 shows the higher stability and accuracy (several MHz) of the one-laser scheme when compared to the two-laser scheme (several hundreds of MHz) both under no averaging process. Note that the one-laser scheme can also provide higher speed in the measurement of BGS and BDG and simpler measurement without sophisticated synchronization. Its distributed discrimination of strain and temperature was confirmed with the spatial resolution of ~10 cm and measurement range of ~5 m, which is depicted in Fig. 23 when the fiber was heated from 25 oC to 30 oC or/and the strain (
In order to overcome the tradeoff between the spatial resolution and measurement range always existing in the BOCDA system, a temporal gating [115] or a dual frequency modulation scheme [116] with a simple modification in Fig. 21 was used to elongate the measurement range of distributed discrimination of strain and temperature. For temporal gating scheme, the pulse modulation of RF2 makes the frequency-modulated pump, probe and readout waves optically pulsed in time and only one of the multiple correlation peaks are effectively generated in the FUT. For dual frequency modulation scheme, two sinusoidal functions are combined together to simultaneously modulate the optical frequencies of the pump, probe and readout waves. The greater modulation frequency ensures the higher spatial resolution while the lower modulation frequency realizes the longer measurement range. A 20 times [115] or 7 times [116] enlargement of the ratio between the measurement range and the spatial resolution was successfully demonstrated. It is expectable to achieve Brillouin optical correlation-domain distributed discrimination of strain and temperature having both a higher spatial resolution (better than 10 cm) and a longer measurement range (better than 1,000 m) by combining the dual frequency modulation scheme with the temporal gating scheme, which is now under study. Most recently, an apodization method under the assistance of intensity modulation was proposed to suppress the sidelobe of SOCF and enhance the spatial resolution of the strain-temperature discrimination by 4.5 times [117].
5.3. System improvement of sensing techniques
Many works have been involved in improving the system performance of BOTDA/BOTDR and BOCDA/BOCDR in terms of spatial resolution, measurement range, sensing speed and accuracy. In 1995, Bao
Although BOTDA and BOTDR are excellent for long sensing range (such as kilometers or tens of km), they still suffer the physical limitation of maximum range due to the nature of fiber loss and/or the Brillouin depletion effect. There are two typical methods, i.e. Raman-assisted BOTDR[138-140] or Raman-assisted BOTDA[141-145] and coded BOTDR[146] or coded BOTDA[147-151], to improve the poor SNR and achieve a very long sensing range. The best performance of the sensing range (longer than 120 km) [152, 153] with an acceptable spatial resolution (1 m or 2 m) has been renovated by combination of Raman assistance and coding although the system becomes extremely complicated. Most recently, specially-designed EDFA repeaters were used to extend the sensing measurements of BOTDA to more than 300 km [154]. Some efforts were also made to study the influence of Brillouin depletion on the maximum range of BOTDA [41] and to avoid it to some extent by use of Stokes together with anti-Stokes wave as Brillouin probe [155, 156].
BOCDA and BOCDR systems have natural advantages of high spatial resolution without any dependence on the acoustic lifetime and random programmable accessibility of the sensing location. Except for the great innovation of Brillouin optical correlation-domain distributed discrimination of strain and temperature introduced in
6. Conclusions
We have presented an essential overview of Brillouin scattering in optical fibers and Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensors. Started from the basic principle of Brillouin scattering in optical fibers, the basic mechanism of Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensors (linear dependence of Brillouin frequency shift on strain and temperature) and the two different groups of Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensors (time domain: BOTDA/BOTDR; correlation domain: BOCDA/BOCDR) were described in detail. The difficulties and challenges of how to simultaneously sense strain and temperature were demonstrated and the physical limitation of the sensing abilities (spatial resolution, measurement range, accuracy etc.) were introduced, respectively. Finally, we summarized recent advances of this field towards the solutions to those difficulties and challenges.
It is valuable to address that Brillouin based distributed optical fiber sensors are nowadays in a high technical level, which have been attracting industrial companies to commercialize for structural health monitoring in civil structures, aerospace, energy (gas, oil) pipeline, and engineers (power supply).
Acknowledgments
This work was partially supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 61007052 and 61127016), Shanghai Pujiang Program (Grant No. 12PJ1405600), and by the State Key Lab Project of Shanghai Jiao Tong University under Grant GKZD030033. Professor Kazuo Hotate at the University of Tokyo and Professor Zuyuan He at Shanghai Jiao Tong University are gratefully acknowledged for their contributions in many relevant works presented in this chapter.
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