Overview of the skin dielectric properties at 60 GHz.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80355-607-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-606-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-608-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"6cf0b844f6881c758c61cca10dc8b134",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Gülşen Akın Evingür and Dr. Önder Pekcan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11830.jpg",keywords:"Elasticity, Toughness, Modulus, Compression, Extension, Optical Properties, Swelling, Drying, Diffusion, Release, Transmission Loss, Sound Absorption Coefficient",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 14th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 1st 2023",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Evingür is a researcher in polymer composites and a lecturer at a maritime university. She has edited 2 books and has had 5 chapters published in international books, and 3 international and 5 national projects, respectively.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Prof. Pekcan received their Ph.D. from the University of Wyoming, United States of America, in 1974. He has more than 362 SCI articles, 26 chapters, and 10 projects and is a member Science Academy in Turkey.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"180256",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Gülşen",middleName:null,surname:"Akın Evingür",slug:"gulsen-akin-evingur",fullName:"Gülşen Akın Evingür",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180256/images/system/180256.jpeg",biography:"Gülşen Akın Evingür graduated from Physics Department at the Yıldız Technical University (YTU, İstanbul, Turkey) in 1996. She completed her Master of Science degree in 2002 at the same department. The titled of her thesis was 'Electrical Properties of Polystyrene”. She received her PhD from Physics Engineering at İstanbul Technical University in 2011. The title of the thesis was 'Phase Transitions in Composite Gels”. She worked as an Assistant Professor between 2011 and 2018, and she is currently working as an Assosciate Professor at Pîrî Reis University, Istanbul, Turkey. She has been engaged in various academic studies in the fields of composites and their mechanical, optical, electrical, and acoustic properties. She has authored more than 60 SCI articles, 92 proceedings in national and international journals, respectively. She has edited \n 2 book, and has had 5 chapters published in international books, 3 international and 5 national projects, respectively.",institutionString:"Piri Reis University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Piri Reis University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"27949",title:"Dr.",name:"Önder",middleName:null,surname:"Pekcan",slug:"onder-pekcan",fullName:"Önder Pekcan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27949/images/system/27949.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Pekcan received his MS Degree in Physics at the University of Chicago in June 1971, and then in May 1974 his PhD thesis on solid state physics was accepted at the University of Wyoming. \n\nHe started his career at Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey as Assistant Professor in 1974. Habilitation thesis on solid state physics was accepted in 1979. He became Associate Professor at Hacettepe University in 1979. \nHe visited ICTP Trieste, Italy as Visiting Scientist between June and August 1980. Between 1980 and 1981 he was a Visiting Scientist at the Technical University of Gdansk, Poland. \nHe worked as Visiting Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Canada between 1981 and 1988. \nHe was appointed as full Professor at the Department of Physics, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey and worked there between 1988 and 2005. \nHe became an Elected Member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA) in January 1995. \nHe became the Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Istanbul Technical University in 1997. \nHe received the Science Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 1998. Prof. Pekcan was elected as Member of the Council of TÜBA in 2001 and Scientific Board of TÜBİTAK in 2003, respectively. \nHe was Head of the Department of Physics, and then became Dean of School of Arts and Sciences at the Işık University between 2005 and 2008.\nHe worked as Dean at the School of Art and Sciences, Kadir Has University (2008—2012). \nNow he is Professor at the Department of Bioinformatics and Genetics, Kadir Has University. Since 2012 he is a member of Science Academy. In the last few years Prof. Pekcan’s work covers mostly the area of biopolymers and nanocomposites.",institutionString:"Kadir Has University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kadir Has University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Body area networks (BANs) are wireless communication systems that enable communications between wearable and/or implanted electronic devices.
Such systems are of great interest for various applications such as healthcare, entertainment, military, identification systems, sport, smart home, and space [1, 2]. Indeed, portable devices, incorporating antennas close to the human body, have been used for many decades by the military. Nowadays, in order to increase overall effectiveness of soldiers on the battlefield, works are undertaken to integrate wireless systems to all equipment, such as weapons, sighting systems, helmet, and so on. Besides, wearable or implanted sensors increase the ability of doctors to monitor their patients at long distance and in real time. This monitoring capability is also used in sport applications and in rescue worker interventions.
Recently, studies carried out at millimeter waves have grown rapidly. This is due to the fact that many advantages can be found in operating such systems at millimeter waves compared to microwaves. First, because of the large available spectrum (7 GHz worldwide), very high data rates can be reached (up to 5 Gb/s) [3]. Second, it provides a high level of security and low interference with adjacent networks [4]. Finally, compared to on-body devices operating at microwaves, the size of similar millimeter-wave systems is significantly reduced.
Hence, the use of millimeter wave systems for BANs will have a high impact, in particular in the defense sector (Fig. 1), where communications emanating from a dismounted soldier leads to detection, location and vulnerability to enemy attack. The high atmospheric attenuation in the 60-GHz band will lead to much higher levels of security against detection, interception and jamming. Fig. 1 illustrates a scenario of soldier-to-soldier communications for covert battlefield operation where co-located soldiers are wirelessly networked to allow high-speed communications within a cluttered urban warfare environment. Besides, every soldier is equipped with advanced technology significantly improving situational awareness, lethality and survivability such as GPS, helmet mounted display, RADAR bullet detector, etc.
In addition, millimeter wave BANs will also benefit civilian sectors such as healthcare, personal entertainment, sports training, and emergency services. In hospital, clinics, entertainment venues, and public transport, there is a need to relay personalized data to and from individuals, in confined areas, or in crowds, and the high frequency and highly directive beams from small millimeter-wave antennas will reduce interference between users and other communication equipment.
The aim of this book chapter is to provide a review of recent progresses and outstanding challenges in the field of antennas for body-centric communication at millimeter waves.
Soldier-to-soldier communications for covert battlefield operations. The black arrows represent some possible wireless links allowing data transfer from one soldier to another.
In this Section, the electromagnetic properties and modeling of the human body are investigated. First, to study the interaction of millimeter waves and the human body, the skin dielectric properties are carefully characterized. Then, the influence of the antenna feeding is investigated. Then, as the dielectric properties of the skin have been assessed, a numerical model of the human body is introduced using a Debye model. Finally, a semi-solid phantom is introduced for antenna measurement in close proximity to the body.
The primary biological targets of 60-GHz radiations are the skin and eyes. Exposure of the eyes leads to the absorption of the EM energy by the cornea characterized by a free water content of 75% and a thickness of 0.5mm. Ocular lesions have been found after high-intensity exposure of the eye (3W/cm2, 6min) [5]. However, studies performed at 60 GHz (10mW/cm2, 8h) demonstrated no detectable physiological modifications [6], indicating that millimeter waves act on the cornea in a dose-dependent manner.
Hereafter we will essentially consider the interactions with the skin as it covers 95% of the human body surface. From the EM viewpoint, human skin can be considered as an anisotropic multilayer dispersive structure made of three different layers, namely, epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous fat layer (Fig. 2). The skin also contains capillaries and nerve endings. It is mainly composed of 65.3% of free water, 24.6% of proteins, and 9.4% of lipids [7].
Schematic representation of the skin structure.
Knowledge of the dielectric properties of the skin is essential for the determination of the reflection from, transmission through, and absorption in the body, as well as for EM modeling. In contrast to frequencies below 20 GHz, existing data on the permittivity of tissues in the millimeter-wave band are very limited [8]-[11] due to some technical difficulties. In the 10–100 GHz range, the dispersive dielectric properties of the skin and biological solutions are primarily related to the rotational dispersion of free water molecules. In particular, high losses are related to the free water relaxation with the peak at 23 GHz at 33°C.
In contrast to frequencies below 20 GHz, the already-existing data on the relative permittivity of human tissues at millimeter waves are very limited. In addition, the results reported so far in the literature strongly depend on the measurement technique, the sample type (
Table 1 provides a summary of the data previously reported at 60 GHz. These results show that the literature data vary significantly from one study to another depending on the sample type. Besides, since the skin consists of approximately 65% of free water [7], its complex permittivity is strongly dispersive and temperature-dependent; this should be also taken into account for definition of an accurate skin permittivity model.
To validate our measurement technique and obtain reference data for the skin-equivalent phantom, we performed a measurement campaign on a group of volunteers using two different techniques: open-ended coaxial slim probe [12] and a new method based on heating kinetics [13]. A very good agreement is demonstrated between our measurements and Gabriel [10] and Alekseev [11] data as shown in Fig. 3.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Gandhi | \n\t\t\t8.89 – | \n\t\t\t37±0.5 | \n\t\t\tE | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Alabaster | \n\t\t\t9.9 – | \n\t\t\t23 | \n\t\t\tM | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Gabriel “wet skin” | \n\t\t\t10.22 – | \n\t\t\t37 | \n\t\t\tE | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Gabriel “dry skin” | \n\t\t\t7.98 – | \n\t\t\t32.5±0.5 | \n\t\t\tE | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Alekseev | \n\t\t\t8.12 – | \n\t\t\t32.5±0.3 | \n\t\t\tM | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Chahat et al. [12] | \n\t\t\t8.02 – | \n\t\t\t32.5±0.5 | \n\t\t\tM | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Chahat | \n\t\t\t8.4 – | \n\t\t\t32.5±0.5 | \n\t\t\tM | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Overview of the skin dielectric properties at 60 GHz.
E=Extrapolation. M=Measurement. T=theoretical value.
Comparison of our experimental result for the wrist skin permittivity (──) with Gabriel
Taking into account the very shallow penetration of millimeter waves into the skin (typically 0.5 mm at 60 GHz), using homogeneous skin-equivalent phantoms provides accurate results for the antenna / human body interaction evaluation as well as for the propagation channel characterization [28]. For the broadband analysis, dispersive models can be used. Debye model with a single relaxation time
In this equation,
The main components employed for the fabrication of a homogeneous semi-solid skin-equivalent phantom are the following:
Deionized water. Water is the main constituent of the phantom because it is also the main skin component. It primarily determines the dispersive behavior of the phantom.
Agar. It is employed for the retention of self-shaping, and its contribution to the phantom dielectric properties is negligible for small concentrations (typically below 4%).
Polyethylene powder. It is used to tune the real and imaginary parts of the phantom permittivity.
TX-151. Since the agar and polyethylene powder cannot be mixed directly, the viscosity is increased using TX-151.
Sodium azide (NaN3). It serves as a preservative.
The fabrication steps are the following. Deionized water, sodium azide, and agar are mixed in a kettle and heated on a stove, while the mixture is continuously stirred. When this liquid starts boiling, heating is stopped. TX-151 is sprinkled into the liquid and quickly mixed. Then the polyethylene powder is added into the stirred liquid. Finally, the obtained mixture is poured into a mold and cooled in the same container for a few hours to room temperature for solidification. Using alginate gel powder, molds with realistic body-specific shapes can be manufactured for the phantom fabrication as illustrated in Fig. 4.
Particular attention should be paid to the following critical points. First, to avoid variations of dielectric properties from one phantom to another, the room temperature should remain identical (in our case 20±1°C) during the fabrication and further measurements. Second, the type of polyethylene powder is important; we recommend using particles with an average diameter of 20µm and low density ~ 900–1100 kg/m3. Finally, to preserve the dielectric properties of the phantom over time, it is important to avoid water evaporation since this would result in a decrease of the permittivity. This can be for instance achieved by wrapping the phantom in a plastic film. More details regarding the phantom preparation procedure can be found in [12].
Skin-equivalent phantom representing an arm and a hand: (a) fabrication of an alginate mold; (b) alginate mold of a human arm; (c) fabrication of the phantom liquid; (d) the phantom is extracted after being cooled inside the mold; (e) final result of a realistic human arm phantom.
The measured dielectric properties of the skin-equivalent phantom and skin are compared in Fig. 5. The dielectric properties of the proposed phantom are within ±10% of the measured skin permittivity. Table 2 compares the dielectric properties of the phantom measured using the coaxial probe and the heating kinetics technique [13] to those of the reference values provided by Gabriel
Dielectric properties of the skin-equivalent phantom compared to those of skin [
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Reference value (Gabriel | \n\t\t\t7.98 – | \n\t\t\t_ | \n\t\t\t0.38 | \n\t\t\t0.48 | \n\t\t
Phantom (coaxial probe) | \n\t\t\t7.4 – | \n\t\t\t7.3% - | \n\t\t\t0.39 | \n\t\t\t0.45 | \n\t\t
Phantom (heating kinetics) | \n\t\t\t8.3 – j10.8 | \n\t\t\t4% - | \n\t\t\t0.38 | \n\t\t\t0.49 | \n\t\t
The dielectric properties of the proposed phantom (using two different techniques) compared to those of the reference data provided by Gabriel
To further confirm the reliability of this phantom, we performed SAR measurement using a high-performance thermal imaging camera (FLIR SC500, FLIR Systems, Wilsonville, OR, USA) and the measurement set-up shown in Fig. 6a. The SAR assessment methodology is described in Fig. 6b. The temperature dynamic, recorded using the IR camera, is fitted to the one-dimensional bio-heat transfer equation [12]. The fitting procedure is performed by minimizing the standard deviation value varying the incident power density (IPD). Once the IPD value has been determined, the SAR can be found (Fig. 6b). The simulated and measured SAR results are in excellent agreement (Fig. 6) which confirms the accuracy of this phantom.
(a) SAR measurement set-up. (b) SAR assessment methodology from the temperature rise. (c) Simulated and measured SAR results.
At microwaves, it is widely accepted that antennas placed in close proximity to a lossy medium experience strong power absorption, radiation pattern distortion, shift in resonance frequency, and changes in the input impedance, e.g. [1],[19]-[21]. Therefore, when placed close to the human body, wearable antennas need to be designed to operate in a robust way so that the influence of the body on the antenna performance is minimized. Patch antennas have been identified as one of the best solutions for off-body communications [1]. These are simple and low-cost structures, and their radiation at broadside allows maximizing radiations at the opposite side of the human body while reducing radiation towards the body.
At millimeter waves, the electromagnetic coupling between antennas and the human body as well as possible perturbations of antenna characteristics due to the body remain almost unexplored. In addition, in this frequency range, a particular attention must be paid to the power absorbed in the body since this absorption is very localized.
In this Section, the interactions between the human body and millimeter wave antennas, optimized for off-body communications, are studied numerically and experimentally. First, requirements for wearable antennas for off-body communications are briefly outlined. Then, the influence of the antenna feeding is investigated. Then, a four-patch antenna array is designed and characterized numerically and experimentally both in free space and on the skin-equivalent phantom described in the previous section. SAR and incident power density distributions on the phantom are determined using the methodology presented in [12]. Finally, in order to study the capabilities of the integration into textiles, a similar four-patch antenna array is designed and fabricated on a fabric.
Wearable antennas have to be as compact as possible to be integrated with the transceiver. They have to be efficient with minimal power absorption inside the human body that behaves as a highly lossy dispersive dielectric material at millimeter waves. The antennas also have to be light weight and, in some particular cases, conformable to the human body shape. Because of the high atmospheric attenuation at 60 GHz and limitations on the radiated power, medium-gain antennas (~12dBi) are often required [14]. Indeed, in controlled environments, line-of-sight (LOS) channels can be efficiently exploited using medium-gain passive antennas, whereas directive beam steering antennas are desirable for non-line-of-sight (NLOS) channels so as to comply with the power link budgets [14]-[18]. In our studies, we only consider LOS scenarios and thus restrict our consideration to passive medium-gain antennas.
The influence of the antenna feeding is investigated when the antenna is placed on the human body. At lower frequencies, patch antennas have been presented as the best solution for off-body communications. However, at millimeter waves, the influence of spurious waves due to the feeding lines on radiating patterns cannot be neglected. That is why, multilayer antenna designs are generally considered in order to overcome this issue.
The interaction with the human body and two types of patch antennas is studied: (1) a linearly-polarized antenna and (2) a linearly-polarized aperture coupled patch antenna. These antennas are printed on a 0.127mm-thick RT Duroid 5880 substrate (
A simple patch antenna is optimized to achieve a maximum gain at 60 GHz. The dimensions are given in Fig. 7. The reflection coefficient and radiation patterns are studied numerically in free space and on the human body when the antenna is placed at 1mm above the phantom. For the numerical modeling, a parallelepipedic 10 × 100 × 100 mm3 phantom is used and a Debye model has been used to express the complex permittivity
The reflection coefficient is very slightly affected by the human body (Fig. 8) and the radiation pattern remains stable at the opposite side of the human body, whereas the backward radiations are highly reduced in H-plane (Fig. 9). These results demonstrate that microstrip patch antennas are only slightly sensitive to the human body proximity at 60 GHz.
Microstrip patch antenna at 60 GHz.
Simulated reflection coefficient of the microstrip patch antenna. ── In free space.
Simulated radiation pattern of the microstrip patch antenna. ── In free space.
Fig. 10 shows the configuration of the aperture-coupled patch antenna (ACPA). The slot is optimized to 0.26 × 1 mm² for maximum coupling with a stub length of 0.34 mm. In order to consider the easiness of implementation, a 0.2-mm-thick ground plane is employed. The antenna consists of a patch with optimized dimension of 1.33×1.24 mm² on a 0.127-mm-thick RT Duroid 5880 substrate. Low thickness and low-permittivity substrate are used for reducing surface waves.
The reflection coefficient
Aperture coupled patch antenna. (a) 3D and (b) 2D schematic representation of the antenna model and dimensions.
Simulated reflection coefficient of the aperture coupled patch antenna. ── In free space.
Simulated radiation pattern of the aperture coupled patch antenna. ── In free space.
The SAR are compared for the microstrip patch antenna and ACPA for an antenna/body spacing
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Peak SAR (W/kg)1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t279 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t11485 | \n\t\t
Peak gain (dBi) | \n\t\t\t6.01 | \n\t\t\t6.03 | \n\t\t\t6.22 | \n\t\t\t6.70 | \n\t\t
Efficiency (%) | \n\t\t\t79.31 | \n\t\t\t74.44 | \n\t\t\t84.58 | \n\t\t\t77.67 | \n\t\t
Peak SAR, gain, and efficiency for the microstrip patch antenna and ACPA. 1For an incident power of 1W
Two patch antennas have been compared numerically in free space and on a skin-equivalent phantom. For the microstrip antenna and ACPA, the influence of the human body is very weak, and their performances remain stable. However, the SAR resulting from the ACPA is 41 times higher compared to that obtained with the microstrip antenna. Therefore, it is highly recommended to avoid aperture coupled feeds. If it is necessary, the feeding line could be sandwiched between two substrates with top and bottom grounds [23].
To satisfy the criteria summarized in Section 3.1 and following the conclusions drawn in Section 3.2, a microstrip-fed four-patch single-layer antenna array has been chosen [24]. It is printed on a thin RT Duroid 5880 substrate (
Patch single-layer antenna array at 60 GHz [
The antenna reflection coefficient
In addition, the radiation patterns in E-and H-planes are plotted in Fig. 15 at 60 GHz. The gain was measured by the comparison method with a 20-dBi standard horn, and the directivity is found from a 3D radiation pattern measurement. It can be seen in Fig. 15 that front radiations remain very slightly affected.
The backward radiation was measured separately in both configurations. Whereas the measured level on the phantom is mainly reduced in the
At this frequency, the measured gains in free space and on the phantom equal 11.8 dBi (±0.3dB) and 11.9 dBi (±0.3dB), respectively. This demonstrates the small effect of the phantom presence. At 60 GHz, the measured directivity was assessed to be equal to 13.9 dBi (±0.3dB) and 14.1 dBi (±0.3dB), respectively. Comparison of the measured directivities with the measured gains leads to antenna efficiencies of 62% and 60%, respectively. This efficiency value is typical in V-band for this kind of antennas and could be further improved, for instance using a fused quartz substrate [25] instead of RT Duroid 5880. Whereas the antenna efficiency at microwaves can be strongly affected by the body presence even for patch antennas [1], it is found here that it remains stable in V-band.
Measured reflection coefficient of the antenna. ——– In free space. ××× On the skin-equivalent phantom.
Measured normalized radiation patterns at 60 GHz in
SAR and IPD distributions at 60 GHz. (Left) Numerical results for the antenna on the skin. (Right) Measurements on the skin-equivalent phantom.
Textile antennas at millimeter waves could be of great interest for many applications. However, on-textile fabrication process is very challenging at these frequencies, especially due to the roughness of the textile surface and the size of textile fibers and electrotextiles with respect to the geometrical dimensions of the metallic patterns.
It was demonstrated in [29] that commercial textiles can be used as antenna substrates at millimeter waves. Some results are presented here showing a 60-GHz textile-based antenna for off-body wireless communications with the ability to be bent and deformed into an arbitrary shape. A simple, but representative patch antenna array is fabricated using an ad-hoc manufacturing process. Compared to the antenna presented in Section 3.3, this results in a highly flexible antenna.
The fabrication process of millimeter-wave textile antennas has been presented in [29] and [31] (Fig. 17). The first step (Fig. 17a) consists in placing an electrotextile layer (e.g.
Hence, using a laser machine (ProtoLaser S, LPKF, OR, USA) operating at 1064nm with a pulse duration of 7.5ns and a spot size equals 25 μm, the laser parameters were optimized. A laser fluence of 24.4 mJ/cm2 with three cycles on the surface of the substrate has been used for the copper foil ablation (repetition rate=75 kHz, power=16.0 W) without affecting the textile substrate. These fabrication conditions lead to a geometrical accuracy of about 10 μm. It is worthwhile to underline that the accuracy reported so far with two conductive fabrics, namely knitted P130 and woven Nora fabric, is only about ±0.5mm and ±0.15mm, respectively [32]. Finally, the last step (Fig. 17c) consists in manually removing the unwanted parts of the copper foil from the surface of the textile.
Main technological steps for the manufacturing of printed circuits and antennas on textiles in V-band.
Whereas in most fabrication processes reported so far, the metallic part is cut separately and then adhered to the dielectric layer, cutting out the desired pattern directly on the dielectric layer avoids additional discrepancies. Example of manufactured microstrip antennas and lines are shown in Fig. 18. The devices are very flexible and the pattern quality (dimensions, sharpness of the edges) is very satisfactory (Fig. 18).
Examples of fabricated textile antennas and microstrip lines.
The choice of a substrate thickness, dielectric constant εr and loss tangent tanδ is essential when it comes to millimeter waves in order to avoid losses and also to enhance the efficiency. The methodology employed to retrieve the dielectric properties of any textile layer is explained here. As an example, this methodology is applied to a 0.2 mm-thick cotton woven fabric extracted from a shirt. Its permittivity and loss tangent are determined in V-band as explained below. The devices under test have been manufactured using the fabrication process described in Section 3.4.1.
The characterization technique is simple and straightforward and consists in two parts:
First, the relative permittivity is retrieved using the open-stub technique. To this end, we have designed a transmission line loaded by an open-ended parallel stub (Fig. 18b) whose length
Second, the loss tangent is estimated through a differential measurement in transmission of two matched 50-Ω microstrip lines of different lengths (Fig. 18c). This enables determination of the total insertion loss (Fig. 19b), and tan
The best agreement between simulations and experiments is obtained with
The insertion loss of a 50-Ω microstrip line printed on a 0.2mm-thick textile is about 1.6 dB/cm, which is quite important compared to conventional substrates such as RT Duroid 5880, fused quartz and alumina [29]. However, these substrates are not as flexible as textiles. For a fair comparison, we should consider a flexible substrate such as PDMS where the insertion losses are much more important (~3 dB/cm for a 0.2mm-thick PDMS) [30].
a) Transmission coefficient
The fabricated textile patch antenna operating at 60 GHz is shown in Fig. 20a. For measurement purpose, it is integrated with a V-connector. The flexibility of the antenna is demonstrated in Fig. 20b. The antenna was optimized to operate at 60 GHz using CST Microwave Studio. The reflection coefficient and radiation pattern of the textile antenna have been characterized in free space and on a parallepipedic skin-equivalent phantom (10×100×100 mm3). The complex permittivity of the phantom equals that of human skin within the maximum error of 10% in the 57-64 GHz range [12].
First, the simulated and measured reflection coefficient is represented in Fig. 21. A frequency shift of only 2.5% is observed between computed and simulated results. It could be due to a change in the substrate permittivity and under-or over-etching of the microstrip line. Whereas at microwave frequencies patch antennas experience shift in resonance frequency [1], it can be seen that the reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna is immune from the human body proximity.
Measured radiation patterns in free space and on the homogeneous phantom were measured at 60 GHz. It was observed that the radiation pattern is very slightly affected by the phantom. The simulated and measured gains equal 4.3 dBi and 4.2 dBi, respectively. On the phantom, the maximum gain is decreased by 0.2 dB and 0.7dB in simulation and in measurement, respectively. Hence, whereas at microwaves patch antennas could be highly affected in terms of gain and efficiency [1], at millimeter waves the antenna performances remains unchanged.
Photography of the fabricated patch antenna with a V-connector.
Reflection coefficient of the wearable patch antenna.
A microstrip-fed four-patch single-layer antenna array printed on the 0.2mm-thick textile has been designed (Fig. 22a) [29]. The array is fed by a 15.2mm-long microstrip line to avoid too strong reflections from the V-connector (Fig. 22). In practice, as textiles are more lossy than classical substrates, it is recommended to reduce the access line length as much as possible. Whereas the antenna could be fed using a central probe, (as shown in Fig. 22b), the microstrip feed line is the easiest solution to perform measurements on textile. We will discuss the impact of this microstrip line in terms of loss and distortion of the radiation pattern. The fabricated antenna integrated with a V-connector is shown in Fig. 23.
Its reflection coefficient
Layout of the microstrip antenna array printed on textile. (a) Antenna fed using a long microstrip line. (b) Antenna fed using a central coaxial probe.
Measurement set-up on the skin-equivalent phantom for a distance between the ground plane and the phantom equal to
Reflection coefficient of the microstrip antenna array printed on textile.
The radiation patterns in E-and H-planes were measured in IETR’s millimeter-wave anechoic chamber. The gain was measured by the comparison method with a 20-dBi standard horn, and the directivity is found from a 3D radiation pattern measurement. The co-polarization components measured in E-and H-planes at 60 GHz are in a good agreement with the computed ones (Fig. 25). In E-plane, the non-symmetry of the co-polarization component is attributed to the spurious radiation of feeding lines whose width is larger compared to standard substrates at millimeter waves like RT Duroid 5880 (see Section 3.3), or other commonly used substrate such as fused quartz or Alumina. The main characteristics of these three different substrates are compared in [29] with those of the textile used here. These data show that textile exhibits higher loss and that feeding lines are larger.
The simulated cross-polarization level remains lower than –20 dB at broadside in E-and H-planes. As expected and as already noticed in many previous papers (e.g. [24]), the measured values are much higher due to reflections and scattering on the V-connector and metallic support (Fig. 25b).
Besides, simulations have shown that the V-connector also affects the gain and directivity; therefore, for comparison purpose, these results are given for both configurations (i.e. with and without connector). The cross-polarization level could be further improved using a multilayer antenna design, e.g. [25]. However, as explained in Section 3.2, the latter is not recommended for on-body applications due to the relatively high SAR levels.
The effect of the central microstrip line exciting the antenna array has been investigated numerically comparing the radiation patterns of the proposed array (Fig. 22a) and those of a coaxial-fed array (Fig. 22b) [29]. These results (not shown here) demonstrate that the increase of the cross-polarization levels and side lobe levels in E-plane is due to the main feed line.
In addition, the gain, directivity and efficiency of these two antennas have been characterized (Table 4). High losses are experienced in the feed line (about 3.3 dB). In order to increase the antenna gain and efficiency, the feed line could be shortened or even suppressed (Fig. 22b).
Finally, the antenna performance (i.e. reflection coefficient and radiation) was tested after a number of hand washing cycles. The antenna was measured before and after washing when fully dried; its performance remained unchanged. However, to extend the life duration of the antenna, the authors would recommend waterproofing the whole antenna.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Microstrip-fed array (Fig. 22a) | \n\t\t\t8.6 | \n\t\t\t8.0 | \n\t\t\t12.1 | \n\t\t\t11.9 | \n\t\t\t45 | \n\t\t\t41 | \n\t\t
Coxial-fed array (Fig. 22b) | \n\t\t\t11.9 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t13.1 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t75 | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t
Comparison of antenna performances in terms of gain, directivity and efficiency.
Normalized radiation patterns in co-and cross-polarization at 60 GHz. ── Simulation in free space. —■— Measurement in free space. --- Measurement on a skin-equivalent phantom.
Based on computed and measured results, antennas operating at millimeter-waves are very slightly sensitive to the human body. Besides, guidelines regarding the type of antennas, minimizing the interactions with the body, are provided. The feeding of the antenna is a critical point and aperture-coupled microstrip line-fed patch antennas should be avoided since it results in significantly higher body absorptions. A good alternative would be to use an aperture-coupled stripline-fed patch antenna instead.
Finally, textile antennas at millimeter-wave have been demonstrated with encouraging results. The textile can be accurately characterize and employed as antenna substrate. The textile antenna prototypes, fabricated using a simple and commercially compatible fabrication process, demonstrate excellent flexibility capabilities which would simplify the integration in clothes.
Whereas off-body communications appear to be a good solution at millimeter waves, on-body communications might be more challenging. In particular, significant shadowing effect from the human body is expected to make non-line-of-sight communications very difficult if not impossible. In [34], an on-body scenario has been numerically investigated in terms of propagation and demonstrates that short-range communications are achievable. The propagation issues are out of the scope of this Chapter; the readers can refer to the following papers for more details [33]-[35]. A few antennas optimized for on-body communications have been presented in the literature so far [31],[36],[37]. This Section will emphasize on the antenna performances in close proximity to the body.
On-body antennas should be as compact as possible to be integrated with a transceiver. As for off-body antennas, they have to be light weight and possibly conformable to the human body shape. Because of the high attenuation related to the propagation on a lossy dielectric (i.e. human body), medium-gain antennas (~12dBi) are required. The radiation pattern should be maximized toward the direction of propagation to minimize losses and make end-fire antennas excellent solutions. As the power is directed toward the body surface, absorptions inside the human is of uppermost concern.
A compact planar and flexible Yagi-Uda antenna covering the 57-64 GHz range designed for on-body communications is presented. The antenna is characterized in free space in terms of reflection coefficient, radiation pattern, and efficiency. The effect of the human body on the antenna characteristics is studied numerically and experimentally using a skin-equivalent phantom. The antenna performances are also studied under bending conditions. An on-body scenario is numerically investigated in terms of propagation.
High gain antenna is required for a line-of-sight path of human body dimensions. Furthermore, the maximum of the radiation pattern should be tangential to the body surface in order to reduce radiation off the body and thus minimizing interference among different BANs. Hence, a low-profile high-gain antenna with an end-fire radiation pattern printed on a 0.254mm-thick RT Duroid 5880 substrate (
Layout of the printed Yagi-Uda antenna. Dimensions are in mm. (a) Three dimensions view. (b) Top layer.
Manufactured antenna with a V-connector.
The reflection coefficient
The radiation patterns in
The antenna efficiency defined as the measured gain over the computed directivity equals to 86% at 60 GHz. It is in agreement with the simulated efficiency which equals 92%.
Measured and simulated reflection coefficient of the antenna in free space. --- Measurement. ── Simulation.
Measured and simulated radiation patterns in free space at 60 GHz in (a)
As it is difficult to keep the antenna flat in wearable applications, antenna performances under bending conditions is an important factor to be examined. The reflection coefficient and the
The chosen radius represents extremely severe test. The
Measured and simulated radiation pattern for
Bending antenna in the
Measured reflection coefficient of the bent antenna mounted on semi-cylindrical foam. --- Flat. ──
The antenna characteristics are assessed when placed on a skin-equivalent phantom (Fig. 33) in terms of reflection coefficient, radiation pattern, gain, and efficiency. The measured reflection coefficients of the antenna mounted on the phantom at different antenna/body spacing
Antenna on the skin-equivalent phantom.
The measured radiation patterns in both
Here, the radiation pattern is titled because of reflections occurring at the air/phantom interface. A tilt of 10° and 21° is observed for an antenna/body spacing of 5.6mm and 2mm, respectively. The simulated and measured gains and the simulated efficiency are summarized in Table 5 for different antenna/body spacing. The efficiency decreases with
Measured reflection coefficient of the antenna array on the homogeneous phantom. — Free space. ▪▪▪▪▪ On phantom with
Measured and simulated radiation patterns on the skin-equivalent phantom at 60 GHz. —■— Measured co-pol. ── Computed co-pol. ── Measured cross-pol.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t12.1 | \n\t\t\t11.8 | \n\t\t\t92.2 | \n\t\t
5.6 | \n\t\t\t15.1 | \n\t\t\t15.2 | \n\t\t\t74.9 | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t13.6 | \n\t\t\t13.6 | \n\t\t\t68.2 | \n\t\t
Antenna gain and efficiency for different antenna/body spacing.
A compact planar Yagi-Uda antenna covering the 57-64 GHz range has been designed for on-body communications. The effect of the human body on the antenna characteristics has been studied numerically and experimentally using a skin-equivalent phantom. It was shown that the distance between the antenna and the human body has a strong impact on the antenna performances. The antenna was also studied under bending conditions demonstrating satisfactory performances. The same antenna has been successfully optimized and fabricated on textile [31].
Challenges and progress in antennas and their interaction with the human body in body-centric scenarios at millimeter-wave frequencies have been presented in this Chapter. Recent progress in manufacturing and modeling experimental phantoms has been discussed. These phantoms play a key role in characterizing the antenna performance in close proximity to the human body.
As far as off-body communications are concerned, it was shown that the feeding type is an important factor since it can strongly influence absorption in the human body. In addition, performances of patch antenna arrays in close proximity to the human body have been evaluated showing very slight impact on the antenna performance. Besides, a textile patch antenna array, operating at millimeter waves, was successfully demonstrated using a commercially-available textile. An accurate and low-cost fabrication process has been introduced. Research work should now be focused on the interconnections between textile antennas and Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits (RFIC) since this issue has not been tackled yet.
Finally, as end-fire antennas appear to be the best solution for on-body communications, a Yagi-Uda antenna has been investigated. It appears that the antenna radiation pattern is strongly affected by the separation between the antenna and the human body. This antenna is robust against bending which is an important asset if this antenna would be implemented on textile as shown in [31]. Other antenna designs for on-body communications were introduced in [38].
While these results are promising, millimeter-wave wireless systems still have considerable challenges to overcome to enable mass commercialization. First, mm-wave wireless must address challenging RF impairments such as fast fading and delay spread conditions making demodulation and equalization particularly difficult with reasonable architectures and complexities. Second, millimeter-wave transceivers require giga-samples per second (GS/s) scale data-converters with considerable resolutions leading to high power consumption (even in advanced technology nodes). Finally, mm-wave schemes must prove themselves competitive with advanced and adaptive modulation and channel coding schemes (256 QAM and beyond) like 802.11ac 5th generation WiFi that can also reach high data rates (6.77 Gbit/s nominal) while being built upon existing wireless hardware and infrastructure in the 5.83 GHz ISM band.
This work was supported by French National Research Agency (ANR) under Grant ANR-09-RPDOC-003-01 (Bio-CEM project), by Labex CominLabs (ANR program "Investing for the Future" ANR-10-LABX-07-01) and Brittany Region under ResCor/BoWi project and by National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS), France. Part of this work was performed using HPC resources from GENCI-IDRIS (grant 2013-050779).
Probiotic microorganisms have been extensively studied for their beneficial effects in not only maintaining the normal gut mucosa but also protection from allergens, pathogens, and toxins [1, 2]. The gastrointestinal tract (GI) and its associated microbiota is a complex system that allows for the digestion and absorption of critical nutrients. Additionally, the presence of the commensal bacteria leads to the development and regulation of the mucosal immune system [3]. It is believed that 60% of all fecal matter mass in humans consists of bacteria and that there are between 1010 and 1012 colony-forming units per gram of intestinal content in the colon [4]. The intestinal epithelium is a physical and biochemical barrier that seeks to protect mammalian cells from infection and injury from contaminants such as toxins, pathogenic bacteria, commensal bacteria, and even other luminal contents. Specialized intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) are able to sense and respond to these stimuli with appropriate responses such as increasing their barrier function to activation of anti-pathogenic immune mechanisms [3].
The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) in 2014 agreed on a consensus definition of probiotics based on the previous Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization (WHO) definition. ISAPP defines probiotics as ‘live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host” [5]. Probiotics have been used for the treatment of
Though
The major defensive mechanism of the gut is the intestinal barrier which maintains epithelial integrity and to protect the host from the environment. In defense of this barrier, there exists the mucous layer, antimicrobial peptides, secretory IgA and the epithelial junction adhesion complex [14]. Disruption of these defense mechanisms allows for the bacteria and food antigens to reach the submucosa, which can induce an inflammatory response potentially leading to the intestinal disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease [15, 16].
The most common probiotic strains used are
In regards to maintenance of the gut epithelial barrier, one can upregulate the genes important for this process [21]. Lactobacilli treatment has been shown to affect several genes including E-cadherin and β-catenin that affect adherence cell junctions in a cell culture model. The phosphorylation and abundance of adherence junction proteins including PKCδ [22] has been seen with Lactobacilli treatment. The probiotic
Another method to promote epithelial barrier function may be to increase mucin production thereby leading to increased barrier function as well as exclusion of pathogens and toxins. There have been contradictory data for both
Prebiotics and their beneficial effects on human health have been of interest in recent years because of their perceived safety since they are derived from dietary products. The definition of prebiotics has changed somewhat from their initial description in 1995 by Glenn Gibson and Marcel Roberfroid [32]. Today, the general consensus is that “dietary prebiotics” are “selectively fermented ingredients that results in specific changes in the composition and/or activity of the gastrointestinal microbiota, thus conferring benefit(s) upon host health” [33]. There are many types of prebiotics but they can be segregated into the following groups [33]: (1) fructans, (2) galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), (3) starch and glucose-derived oligosaccharides, (4) other oligosaccharides, and (5) non-carbohydrate oligosaccharides.
Fructans, such as inulin and fructose-oligosaccharides (FOS)/oligofructose, generally have a linear chain of fructose with a β(2 + 1) linkage usually with terminal glucose units with a β(2 + 1) linkage with variable degrees of polymerization (DP) [33, 34, 35, 36]. GOS is the product of lactose extension that can be classified into two subgroups: (i) excess galactose at C3, C4 or C6 and (ii) derived from enzymatic trans-glycosylation [33]. The product of the enzymatic trans-glycosylation is a mixture of tri-to pentasaccharides with galactose known as trans-galacto-oligosaccharides (TOS) [37, 38]. In addition, there are GOSs derived from lactulose, an isomer of lactose, as well as raffinose family of oligosaccharides (RFO) [33, 37]. Starch that is resistant to the upper gut digestion is known as resistant starch (RS) and is considered a prebiotic along with polydextrose (glucose-derived oligosaccharide) [39, 40]. Pectin derived oligosaccharides (POS) are derived from an extension of galacturonic acid or rhamnose [33]. The carboxyl groups of POS can be modified with methyl esterification as well as acetylated at C2 or C3. Additionally, many different types of sugars (i.e. arabinose, galactose, and xylose) or ferulic acid can be linked to the side chains of POS [41, 42]. Though most of the accepted compounds defined as prebiotics are carbohydrates, there are some non-carbohydrate compounds that are recommended to be classified as prebiotics, i.e. cocoa-derived flavanols [33, 43].
How do prebiotics affect human health? What mechanism(s) are involved? Since prebiotics are derived from dietary products, they provide the metabolic energy for the gut microbiota. This means that they can affect the composition and function of these microorganisms. For example, GOSs can stimulate the growth of
In addition to feeding the gut microbiota, the fermentation of prebiotics can generate metabolites such as short chain fatty acids (SCFA) (i.e. lactic acid, butyric acid, and propionic acid) that have dramatic effects not only on the intestinal environment but can affect distant organ sites as well as the immune system. SCFAs decrease the pH of the gut that can alter the composition of the microbiota [45, 46]. A pH unit decrease affects acid sensitive species such as
Bacterial pathogens are microorganisms that have the ability to cause disease due to their specialized virulence factors or that can arise from a dysbiosis such as from antibiotic treatment that can eliminate the normal healthy flora of the gut leading to opportunistic infections from commensals or normally non-pathogenic organisms.
Some of the best-known bacterial pathogens are
One important growth restriction system on the part of hosts/intestinal flora is the sequestration of iron, which is absolutely required for growth. For example,
Probiotic strains have been shown to induce the release of defensins, small peptides/proteins active against bacteria, fungi, and viruses but also are able to stabilize the gut barrier from epithelial cells. Host cells are able to mount as a first line of defense against pathogens increased production of antimicrobial proteins (AMPs) such as α- and β-defensins, cathelicidins, C-type lectins and ribonucleases. Many of these proteins disrupt the cell wall structures of the bacterial membrane either through enzymatic (i.e. lysozyme, phospholipase A2) or non-enzymatic mechanisms (i.e. pore formation by defensins and cathelicidins) [56, 57, 58].
The effect of commensal and probiotic bacteria on the host immune system is complex and not fully understood. It is believed that the effect of probiotic bacteria in modulating the immune system lies with its potential interactions with the host innate immune system by activating pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognize common structures called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) shared by the vast majority of pathogens. Of note are the potential interactions with toll-like receptors (TLRs), extracellular C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), and intracellular nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs) that recognize PAMPs such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), peptidoglycan, lipoprotein, flagellin, and CpGDNA. Activation of these receptor complexes will activate multiple downstream signaling pathways that may induce a pro- or anti-inflammatory response. Dysregulation of the pro-inflammatory response has been implicated in Crohn’s disease with human intestinal inflammation as well as human autoinflammatory disease [59]. However, expression levels of some of these PRRs are low in immune cells therefore the ability to rapidly induce the expression of the PRRs such as NLRP3 in response to PAMP stimuli are absolutely critical in the defense against potential pathogens [60, 61, 62, 63, 64].
In 1969, Greenberg [65] described the phenomena that
Lactobacilli and bifidobacteria have been shown to inhibit a broad range of pathogens including
Lactobacilli have been shown to produce bacteriocins that are active against some foodborne pathogens [79]. Additionally production of various metabolites and low molecular weight products by probiotics have been shown to have antimicrobial and antifungal properties such as low molecular weight species, deconjugated bile acids, and cyclic dipeptides among others [80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85].
The production of antimicrobial substances such as lactic and acetic acid is one example of probiotics making the host environment hostile for pathogens.
In order to cause disease for foodborne botulism, BoNTs must first be able to survive in the intestinal lumen, bind to and translocate through the intestinal epithelium to reach the bloodstream [95]. Once in the bloodstream, BoNTs bind to peripheral cholinergic neurons to cleave SNAREs and block exocytosis of neurotransmitters hence leading to flaccid muscle paralysis. Similar to other classic A-B chain toxins, the heavy chain (B chain) of BoNTs bind to carbohydrate and protein receptors on their target cell while the light chain (A chain) has the enzymatic function. Therefore, there are two potential therapeutic pathways to block BoNT intoxication: (1) blocking binding/translocation at the intestinal epithelium/target cells and (2) degradation or inactivation of the toxin It has been shown that pre-treatment with probiotics (
Another mechanism to inactivate bacterial toxins would to be to subject them to proteolysis thus rendering them inactive.
Studies in using probiotics as a treatment for a diverse set of diseases ranging from colorectal cancer, traditional gastrointestinal diseases (i.e. IBS/IBD/RCDI), as well as non-gastrointestinal diseases such as arthritis, autism, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson’s among others [99] has been undertaken. In this chapter, we will focus mainly on the effect probiotic and/prebiotic treatments on gastrointestinal diseases.
The therapeutic potential of prebiotics has been investigated for some gastrointestinal disorders. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a gastrointestinal disease characterized by chronic pain and altered bowel movements with no clear cause. Crohn’s disease, a chronic relapsing inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract. For both conditions, it has been speculated that a shift in the gut microbiota population lays at the foundation of these diseases. It has been shown that the
Therefore, prebiotics were hypothesized as a potential therapeutic because of its known properties to stimulate the growth of beneficial bacteria. In regards to IBS, the results were unclear for 4 clinical trials. Two clinical trials had no improvement [102, 103] whereas two studies using FOS and GOS showed an improvement in IBS symptoms [104, 105]. In the case of Crohn’s disease, one study showed improvement [106] while two did not [107, 108]. As reviewed in [109], their analysis of available studies indicated that generally, the conclusions were supportive of probiotic treatment for IBS, however, the exact beneficial strains to be used were unclear. The caveats from these studies were the variabilities in the type of prebiotic(s) used, the dosage, time of supplementation, and patient disease stage. As has been used in the treatment of recurrent
The recurrent infection in humans with recurrent
Another area of medical use that prebiotics may impact is on the health of preterm neonates. These babies are at significant risk of developing the severe gastrointestinal condition necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), a life-threatening condition. Studies have shown that FOS and GOS prebiotics can help prime the growth of gut bacteria such as
The successful use of probiotics in treating acute infectious diarrhea (AID) in children is well documented and accepted treatment therapy [119]. It has beneficial effects for children at risk (i.e. hospital acquired diarrhea) and should be used early after onset of symptoms. Its usage, however, in healthy populations as a preventive measure to prevent diarrhea in day care centers and communities is currently unknown and not advised.
It has been shown that
The development of synthetic oligosaccharide-based mimics such as Synsorb (inert silica particles-linked to synthetic oligosaccharides) have been developed against a variety of toxins including: Stx1/2-Gb3, Stx2e-Gb4, Ctx-GM1, LT-GM1, epsilon toxin–GM2, TcdA-Lewis X and Lewis Y, botulinum neurotoxin- GD1a, GT1b,
STEC gastroenteritis has not been traditionally treated with probiotics/FMT as has been seen with acute gastroenteritis and RCDI. There has been a plethora of evidence suggesting the role of probiotic strains in having an antimicrobial effect on STEC but the effects were dependent on the strain(s) used as reviewed in [126]. Additionally, recombinant receptor mimics have been targeted against STEC [98].
In the three studies that mimicked human digestive conditions,
Though there have been many successful and safe uses of probiotics for treatment of multiple conditions, there have been reported side effects linked to their usage especially in vulnerable populations [130]. As reviewed in [131], there has been movement toward using extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from probiotic strains (both Gram-negative and Gram-positive) to deliver the same beneficial effects as from using the probiotic strains themselves. There are many different pathways that EVs utilize including bacteria-bacteria communication, affecting host microbial interactions, host immune system, increasing tight junction function, and decreasing inflammatory responses from TLR signaling [131].
It has been shown that the development of gastrointestinal disease is due to an imbalance in the host response (physical, commensal microbiota, adaptive/innate immune systems) to bacterial infections. There has been an increasing accumulation of evidence (
This work was funded by the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Program project NP108, CRIS 2030-42000-049-00D.
The authors have no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. 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