\r\n\tThis book will intend to look at different migrant patterns, voluntary and involuntary migration, over the last three centuries. What influenced people to leave their home countries, family, and friends and settle somewhere else? The book may include histories of the 19th century, consider tragedies and movements activated by political events in the 20th century, and/or look at recent events of the 21st century. Push and pull factors are important points. While most of us may be influenced in a negative way by the current happenings in Eastern Europe, the Russian invasion and resulting tragedies also demonstrate some very positive human traits – the preparedness of Ukraine’s surrounding countries to help those in need and to provide a safe place for the present. \r\n\tWhether one looks at voluntary or involuntary migration into any country, after a period of adjustment, migrants do play a positive role. The research found that migrants contribute to the economy (food, shelter, employment, tax) and enrich a country’s cultural norms. Prerequisites for successful settlements are that the host society adopts a tolerant approach and that the migrants recognize the law and the language of the host country. Nothing is ever easy or without controversy, but I am a migrant (German Australian), and life in Australia has been relatively harmonious. Issues that could be considered in the book are multicultural societies (do monocultural societies still exist?) and theories of acculturation versus integration (settlement processes). \r\n\tTwo further issues are very important in relation to human migration. There is climate change, global warming, and the environment, which clearly affect people’s movement. Small island populations are very concerned about rising sea levels. 2021 has also seen floods costing human lives: Turkey (August 2021), Brazil (December 2021), Chile (January 2021), and South India (November 2021), to name but a few. In Australia (March 2022), farms and whole townships in New South Wales and Queensland have been flooded for the second time in five years, and plans to resettle these towns are considered. Official and social media provide ample coverage of the events, which leads me to the next issue. There is today’s very important role of the media, of the official and social media. We are constantly bombarded with images of human war tragedies and flood victims. People in industrialized, western countries must be the best-informed populace. How far do the images and up-to-date TV news influence us, make us change our behavior, and perhaps even consider us more generous than we have been? \r\n\tClimate change and the media are relatively new to the human migration debate, but both issues play important parts, and some interesting discussions are appreciated. \r\n\t
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1. Introduction
The objectives for this manuscript are two-fold: (i) to specify the arsenic chemistry in soil with a special reference to rice (Oryza sativa), and (ii) to discern agronomic practices that either accentuate or diminish arsenic accumulation in rice.
2. Arsenic as a health issue and its presence in soil
The World Health Organization has established the inorganic arsenic maximum tolerable daily intake at 2 μg kg−1 body weight [1]. Inorganic arsenic intake may lead to gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, central nervous system diseases, as well as bone marrow depression and selective cancers (kidney, lung, bladder) [1, 2]. The World Health Organization and the United States Environmental Protection Agency have established drinking water standards at 10 μg As L−1. Compounding the arsenic water and food threshold levels is problematic because arsenic speciation influences arsenic toxicity, with arsenite (As(III)) being perceived as appreciably more toxic than arsenate (As(V)) [3].
Arsenic soil surface horizon concentrations vary from 0.1 to 67 mg kg−1, with a geometric mean of 5.8 mg kg−1 [4]. Among sedimentary deposits, argillaceous sediments generally have greater arsenic concentrations (trace to 13 mg kg−1) [4]. In Missouri, Aide et al. [5] measured soil arsenic concentrations in 22 pristine soil profiles and reported that the epipedons exhibited arsenic concentrations from 2 to 12 mg kg−1, whereas the argillic and cambic horizons exhibited greater arsenic concentrations, ranging from 10 to 30 mg kg−1. The source of the observed arsenic was speculated to be simply inherited in the parent material. Naturally occurring As-bearing minerals include: arsenopyrite (FeAsS), cobaltite ((Co,Fe)AsS), enargite (Cu3AsS4), erythrite (Co3(AsO4)2 8H2O), orpiment (As2S3), proustite (Ag3AsS3), realgar (AsS), and tennantite (Cu12As4S13) [3, 4].
3. Soil chemistry of arsenic and arsenic speciation
Arsenite (As(III)) exists as the hydroxyl species (H3AsO3 - H2AsO31−)), whereas arsenate (As(V)) exists as an oxyanion (H2AsO41− or HAsO42−). Arsenite and arsenate may: (i) form complexes with soil organic matter, (ii) become adsorbed onto Mn- Al- and Fe-oxyhydroxides, (iii) become adsorbed onto phyllosilicates, (iv) leach or percolate to deeper soil horizons, or (v) undergo plant uptake [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Aide et al. [6] in a soil chemistry review of arsenic in the soil environment discussed (i) arsenic acid–base chemistry, (ii) commonly occurring As-bearing minerals, (iii) thermodynamics of arsenic oxidation – reduction, (iv) arsenic adsorption onto phyllosilicates and Fe-oxyhydroxides, and (v) competitive adsorption. Plant physiology and arsenic have recently been reviewed [7, 8].
4. Arsenite and arsenate as acids
Given the arsenite’s high pKa1 of 9.2, the dominant arsenite species will be H3AsO3 [14]. H2AsO3−1 is a weak acid with a pKa2 = 12.7, thus HAsO3−2 has a small activity within the normal alkaline pH range of most soil environments. Conversely, arsenate (H3AsO4) readily deprotonates to form H2AsO4−1 (pKa1 = 2.3). Additionally, H2AsO4−1 will deprotonate to form HAsO4−2 (pKa2 = 6.8), thus H2AsO4−1 and HAsO4−2 are the dominant arsenate species in most soils. HAsO4−2 will deprotonate to form AsO4−3 (pKa3 = 11.6); however, this species will only exist in the most extreme alkaline soil environments. Monomethylarsonic acid (MMA or CH3AsO(OH)2 with pK1 = 3.6 and pK2 = 8.2) and dimethylarsenic acid (DMA or (CH3)2AsO(OH) with pK1 = 6.2) may also readily exist in soil environments [17].
5. Arsenite and arsenate as oxidation and reduction species
Wagman et al. [18] used standard free energies of formation to determine half-cell reactions for arsenate to arsenite reduction:
0.5H2AsO4−+e−+1.5H+=0.5AsOH3+0.5H2OpK=−10.84
0.5HAsO42−+e−+2H+=0.5AsOH3+H2OpK=−14.22
Using protocols from Essington [19], the predominance diagram (Figure 1) illustrates the relative stability regions for arsenite and arsenate species expected in the soil environment, ranging from pH 3 to pH 9. The Pourbaix diagram (predominance diagram) shows the transitional nature of As(V) as a proton donor and the reduction of As(V) to As(III). The demarcation of oxic, suboxic, and anoxic regimes was discussed in Essington and we note that arsenate largely exists in oxic to suboxic regimes [19]. Arsenite formation in anoxic soil environments is thermodynamically favored in increasingly acidic soil environments.
Figure 1.
Predominance diagram showing arsenic species predominance zones for given pe and pH as master variables (created by authors of this manuscript).
Arsenic reduction is mediated by the soil’s microbial population, effectively supporting electron donation from suitable organic substrates. Dissimilatory arsenate-reducing bacteria can effectively reduce arsenate to arsenite by using arsenate as a terminal electron acceptor [20, 21, 22]. Xu et al. [23] demonstrated that reduction of arsenate to arsenite post root uptake, coupled with efflux from the root to the rhizosphere, also contributes to arsenate reduction. Qiao et al. [24] employed anaerobic microcosms to demonstrate that humic substances facilitate arsenic reduction. Fulvic acid was more effective in reducing arsenic than humic acid, and humic acid was more effective in reducing arsenic than humin. As a carbon source, fulvic acid supported microbial activity and reduced fulvic acid acted as an electron shuttle to reduce Fe(III)-oxyhydroxides and As(V). Arsenic may be co-precipitated with Fe-oxyhydroxides, and the reductive dissolution of these Fe-oxyhydroxides may promote the release of arsenate, which may then be subsequently reduced to arsenite. Mn-oxyhydroxides have been implicated in the oxidation of arsenite to arsenate [25, 26, 27, 28, 29].
6. Groundwater irrigation as an arsenic source for Rice accumulation
In the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Vicky-Singh et al. [30] documented arsenic concentrations of soil surface horizons and surface and groundwater resources. They reported that tube-well water ranged from 5.3 to 17.3 μg L−1 and soil horizons ranged 1.09 to 2.48 mg kg−1, with data showing that tube well water irrigation was contributing arsenic to soil. In the Mekong Delta (Vietnam), Huang et al. [31] documented multiple groundwater samples having arsenic concentration greater than 50 μg L−1 and demonstrated that As(III) was the more abundant valance state. The historical applications of As-bearing groundwater correlated with arsenic soil accumulation. Radu et al. [28] performed a batch experiment involving pyrolusite (MnO2) to show that second order kinetics, which incorporated MnO2 concentrations, described arsenite oxidation. Subsequent arsenate adsorption was appropriate described using the Langmuir equation.
Farooq et al. [32] investigated arsenic accumulation associated with irrigation and agronomic practices in the Bengal Delta. Two different fields were irrigated with different arsenic concentrations in the groundwater, with one field planted to wheat and the other field planted to rice. These authors indicated that the more concentrated As-bearing groundwater in the rice field did not increase the arsenic soil concentrations as significantly as the wheat field, which was irrigated with less concentrated As-bearing groundwater. The authors proposed and provided evidence that greater quantities of rice plant residue, with its production of organic acids, supported arsenic diffusion to deeper soil horizons. Arsenic concentrations exceeding 10 μg L−1 appear to be more frequent in the western United States, demonstrating that the local geology is important in influencing water quality [33]. In a recent review, Mohanty [2] documented the efficacy and deficiencies of technologies involving treatment of arsenic-bearing groundwater, which may be employed to improve irrigation water quality.
7. Adsorption of Arsenite and arsenate species
Arsenite and arsenate species experience pH-dependent adsorption and co-precipitation with Fe-oxyhydroxides, most notably ferrihydrate (β-FeOOH), lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH), goethite (α-FeOOH), and hematite (Fe2O3) [3, 17]. Surface protonation of goethite (pK = −9.6) permits the interface to acquire amphoteric positive charge densities sufficient to promote monodentate or bidentate arsenite adsorption [6, 29]. Arsenite and arsenate adsorption may result in both monodentate and bidentate bonding structures [3, 10, 14, 17, 22, 34, 35, 36].
The optimal pH for arsenic adsorption depends on (i) experimental protocols, and (ii) the presence of phosphate, silicic acid, naturally occurring organic acids, and other competing anions. The optimal pH for the adsorption of arsenite on Al- and Fe-oxyhydroxides ranges from pH 7 to 10, [14, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43], whereas the optimal pH for the adsorption of arsenate on Al- and Fe-oxyhydroxides varies across the pH range of 4 to 7 [17, 37, 44, 45, 46]. Cornu et al. [13] observed an arsenate adsorption pH dependency with both kaolinite and humic acid treated kaolinite. Interestingly, Cornu et al. [13] observed that arsenate adsorption onto humic acid treated kaolinite was greater than for untreated kaolinite when the electrolyte solution was a Ca(NO3)2 media, whereas arsenate adsorption was substantial decreased on humic acid treated kaolinite in NaNO3 media. Goldberg [14] investigated arsenic adsorption on Al-oxides, Fe-oxides and reference phyllosilicates (kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite). Arsenate adsorption was pH-dependent with arsenate adsorption less evident on transition to alkaline media. Arsenate adsorption decreased above pH 9 for Al-oxides, above pH 7 for Fe-oxides and pH 5 for the reference clays. Arsenite adsorption showed a maximum adsorption near pH 8 for non-crystalline aluminum oxides and exhibited little pH dependence on non-crystalline Fe-oxides [14].
Jackson and Miller [17] evaluated various concentrations of phosphate (pH 3 and 7) to extract arsenite, arsenate, dimethylarsinic acid, and monoethylarsonic acid adsorbed onto goethite and non-crystalline Fe-oxyhydroxides. Phosphate was demonstrated to displace arsenite and arsenate. Khaodhiar et al. [47] prepared iron oxide coated sand (Fe2O3) to show that arsenate adsorption was strongly adsorbed at acidic to slightly acidic pH values and adsorption decreased with increasing pH. Grafe et al. [35] investigated arsenite and arsenate adsorption on goethite and observed that arsenate adsorption decreased gradually and continuously from pH 3 to pH 11. Arsenite adsoption was shown to have a maximum adsorption at pH 9. The influence of either fulvic acid or humic acid addition resulted in a reduction in adsorption for both arsenite and arsenate.
Sulfate, carbonate, and dissolved organic matter have been shown to be relatively less effective than phosphate in displacing arsenic [37]. Using goethite as the bonding surface, Luxton et al. [34] showed that silicic acid (H4SiO4) was able to effectively displace arsenic. Swedlund and Webster [48] demonstrated that H4SiO4 may displace arsenite from ferrihydrate. Zhang and Selim [39] observed arsenic desorption by phosphate, whereas Xu et al. [43] documented arsenic phosphorus-induced desorption from crystalline and non-crystalline aluminum oxides. Smith and Naidu [46] provided data on the kinetics of arsenic desorption, illustrating the importance of studies to understand the equilibrium is rarely achieved in natural systems.
Yamamura et al. [20] amended soils with As(V) laden Fe oxyhydroxides with solution supplemented with either lactate or acetate. After 40 days, there was a greater arsenic release rate in lactate amended systems, suggesting that lactate is a suitable carbon source and both dissimilatory metal(loid) reducers and anaerobic fermenters support arsenic extraction. Razzak et al. [49] documented oxidation–reduction processes in groundwater support simultaneous release of iron and arsenic, thus demonstrating that groundwater irrigation may be an effective arsenic source.
8. Influence of iron plaque on Rice roots and its effect on arsenic uptake
Aquatic plants frequently show accumulations of iron and manganese coatings (Fe-plaque) on root systems, commonly attributed to more oxidized soil conditions in the root rhizosphere leading to ferrous to ferric ion production and subsequent hydrolysis to a Fe-Mn oxyhydroxide status. Many researchers have investigated whether Fe-plaque on rice root systems act as a preferential adsorption site for arsenic, thus limiting the potential for arsenic accumulation in plant organs [12, 43, 50, 51, 52]. Most authors acknowledge that the degree of arsenic adsorption by Fe-plaque and the protection afforded towards limiting arsenic accumulation in plant tissue is dependent on (i) soil pH, (ii) the soils oxidation oxidation–reduction status of the bulk soil and the rhizosphere, (iii) the microbial composition, (iv) the quantity of Fe-plaque present on the rice roots, (v) the stage of growth of the rice plant, (vi) the arsenic flux towards the root system and (vii) the presence of competing anionic species in the adsorption processes.
Dong et al. [50] observed that Fe-Mn plaque formation on rice roots was increased because of inoculation with Fe/Mn-oxidizing bacterial strains. The activity of bacterial strains, in combination with exogenous ferrous iron, significantly decreased As and Cd uptake in rice. Interestingly the untreated check showed the following rice plant arsenic concentrations: 354 mg kg−1 for roots, 14.2 mg kg−1 for stem (culm), 24.4 mg kg−1 for leaf, and 0.81 mg kg−1 for brown rice. Conversely, the bacterial strains plus exogenous Fe(II) showed the following rice plant organ arsenic concentrations: 259 mg kg−1 for roots, 13.0 mg kg−1 for stem (culm), 19.2 mg kg−1 for leaf, and 0.72 mg kg−1 for brown rice.
9. Arsenic and plant physiology
Arsenic may limit rice growth and development [1]. Finnegan and Chen [7] and Sharma et al. [8] each reviewed the plant physiology of arsenic on plant growth and development. These authors discussed evidence that arsenite and arsenate are taken up by root cells, but arsenate is rapidly reduced to arsenite. Cellular disruption may be caused by both arsenite and arsenate; however, the mechanisms are distinctly different.
Arsenite is dithiol reactive and readily binds and potentially inactivates selective cysteine containing enzymes and dithiol co-factors. As(III) enters root cells via aquaporin (nodulin26-like intrinsic proteins) and xylem export to stems may occur. Arsenite may bind from one to three sulfhydryl groups, influencing the physiologic behavior of transcription factors, signal transduction proteins, proteolytic proteins, metabolic enzymes, redox regulatory enzymes, and structural proteins. The binding of As(III) to thiols may constitute the main detoxification pathways [7, 8]. Arsenate may replace Pi in critical biochemical reactions: (i) glycolysis, (ii) oxidative phosphorylation, (iii) phospholipid metabolism, (iv) DNA and RNA metabolism, and (v) cellular signaling [7, 8]. Both arsenite and arsenate may increase oxidative stress by inducing the production of reactive oxygen species; that is, the production of superoxide (O2•−), hydroxyl radical (•OH), and peroxide (H2O2). Glutathione (a tripeptide with linkage between the carboxyl group of the glutamate side-chain and cysteine) is an antioxidant that assists in preventing reactive oxygen species from disrupting cellular function. Ascorbate may also limit reactive oxygen species damage [7, 8].
Other metabolic consequences of arsenic include: (i) chloroplast shape irregularities and reduction of chlorophyll content, (ii) altered carbohydrate metabolism involving sucrose and starch, (iii) reduced micronutrient uptake, (iv) altered ATP synthesis, (v) altered stomatal conductance, (vi) altered lipid metabolism and the integrity of cellular membranes [8]. Belefant-Miller and Beaty [53] observed the plant distribution of arsenic in rice plants might influence “straighthead”. Yan et al. [54] identified soil arsenic bioavailability is associated with “straighthead” disorder in rice. Lim et al. [55] reviewed the effect of arsenic compounds on plant growth. In a subsequent review, Kofronova et al. [56] focused on arsenic physiology in hyperaccumulating plants and documented the following research outcomes: (i) arsenic interfered with basic cellular metabolism, including carbohydrate metabolism in photosynthesis, (ii) arsenite and arsenate were xylem transported, (iii) arsenate reduction was associated with arsenate reductase and arsenite interacted with glutathione for passage into the cell’s vacuole, (iv) arsenate interfered with cell wall physiology, decreased ribulose-1,5 biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, and competed with phosphorus in oxidative phosphorylation. Arsenite interfered with hormonal physiology and restricted pigment system II and chlorophyll functioning.
In a greenhouse project, Jung et al. [57] amended soil at arsenic rates of 0 (untreated check), 25, 50 and 75 mg As kg−1. The 50 mg As kg−1 amended level inhibited shoot growth. Chauhan et al. [58] observed that the presence of increased heavy metal activity and arsenic availability reduced the activity of key soil enzymes, suggesting that bacterial diversity and microbial functioning were impaired.
10. Phytoremediation of arsenic impacted soils
Considerable research has focused on the subtropical fern Pteris vittata as an effective phytoremediation species for arsenic removal from impacted soils [59, 60]. In a two-year study, Lei et al. [59] observed that P. vittata effectively removed soil accumulated arsenic; however, the study highlighted the need to assess arsenic atmosphere deposition to ascertain the proper arsenic removal capacity. Rahman et al. [61] performed solution culture and soil container greenhouse trials involving Pteris multifida to assess this species efficacy to hyperaccumulate arsenic. P. multifida was able to accumulate arsenate. P. multifida also was more suitable for non-tropical climate than Pteris vittate. Yang et al. [60] performed a greenhouse trial to assess the influence of monoammonium phosphate and citric acid amendments to improve the efficacy of Pteris vittate to hyperaccumulate arsenic. Both monoammonium phosphate and citric acid augmented the phytoremediation efficacy of P. vittata.
11. Soil amendments and their efficacy in reducing Rice arsenic accumulation
Numerous rice researchers have documented the effectiveness of soil amendments to mitigate rice arsenic accumulation. Toor and Haggard [44] and Wu et al. [62] investigated the effectiveness of phosphate, whereas Li et al. [63], Wei et al. [64] and Swedlund and Webster [48] each investigated the effectiveness of silicon (Si). Wei et al. [64] evaluated several Si-bearing products to evaluate their efficacy to increase rice yield and reduce rice uptake of arsenic, lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). The Si-bearing materials increased rice yield and reduced root to shoot transfer of As, Pb and Cd. Zou et al. [65] and Gemeinhardt et al. [66] investigated the effectiveness of ferrous sulfate, demonstrating that Fe2+ oxidation and Fe-oxyhydroxide synthesis in the rhizosphere may provide a substrate for arsenic adsorption. Wu et al. [62] investigated biochar modified with Fe compounds as soil amendments to reduce arsenic bioavailability, with Fe-oxyhydroxide-sulfate showing promise as an effective amendment by reducing arsenic extraction with NaHCO3.
The application of phosphorus amendments in greenhouse pot culture experiments with wheat in dry cultures and rice in flood cultures revealed that phosphorus applications increased arsenic concentrations in both the wheat and rice experiments [67]. Thin film diffusive gradient technology showed that arsenic release from the soil’s solid phase was augmented by phosphorus competition. Kaur et al. [68] documented that selenium was effective in reducing arsenic uptake. Arsenic concentrations were lowered in the roots, straw, and seed because of the selenium amendments. Future research is desired to explore selenium as an effective soil amendment to reduce arsenic rice accumulation. Wang et al. [69] showed promise that microalgae in paddy fields could sequester arsenic prior to rice root uptake, thus limiting arsenic accumulation in rice.
12. Irrigation management to limit Rice arsenic accumulation
Irrigation management of rice has been extensively studied to determine if restricted water application may result in reduced arsenic uptake [70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75]. In Missouri, Aide et al. [71], in a two-year rice study, investigated two irrigation regimes involving delayed flood and furrow irrigation on silt loam and clayey soils to assess arsenic uptake. Across both years and soil-types, rice total arsenic uptake was substantially reduced in rough rice seed for the furrow irrigated regime. Aide and Goldschmidt [72] in a two-year project involving 20 rice varieties similarly demonstrated that furrow irrigated rice had dramatically reduced arsenic concentrations in paddy (rough) rice compared to delayed flood irrigated rice. All furrow irrigated rice had rough rice total arsenic concentration below 0.1 mg kg−1, with 17 of the 20 rice varieties having less than 0.05 mg As kg−1. The mean arsenic concentrations for the delayed flood rice regime were approximately 0.28 mg As kg−1.
Aide demonstrated that furrow irrigation, involving three rice varieties in 2018 [75] and six varieties in 2019 [73], resulted in substantially smaller arsenic concentrations in rice straw and rough rice seed than delayed flood. Aide [74] in a review of water availability and research involving water-restricting irrigation regimes in Egypt, India and Eastern Asia demonstrated that alternate wetting and drying irrigation frequently was water conserving and limited arsenic uptake. Many of the research citations documented rice yields that were comparable to traditional irrigation regimes; however, additional research remains to be performed to provide consistency in yield attainment. An additional benefit of reduced irrigation of rice was a reduction in methane emission, a potent greenhouse gas [70].
Carrijo et al. [76] performed a compelling rice meta-study involving 56 studies comparing continuous flood with alternate wetting and drying (introduction of unsaturated soil water conditions), with most of the studies derived from Asia. They defined and partitioned alternate wetting and drying irrigation regimes into “safe” or “mild” (where the soil water matric potential was equal to or smaller than −20 kPa) and “severe” (where the soil water matric potential was below −20 kPa). The meta study documented the following: (i) the presence of unsaturated soil water conditions imposed during the entire growing season depressed rice yields, whereas unsaturated soil water conditions prior to either heading only (vegetative) or post heading (reproductive) only demonstrated little to zero yield loss, (ii) in most cases mild or safe alternate wetting and drying do not depress rice yields, whereas severe alternate wetting and drying showed yield reductions, (iii) yield losses were more significant in low organic matter soils or soils having alkaline pH levels, (iv) compared to the continuous flood system the alternate wetting and drying systems exhibited smaller water use rates and where mild alternate wetting and drying was practiced the water use efficiency was greater.
In China, He et al. [77] compared rice growth characteristics and yields in flood and non-flood systems and documented that rice root length density, leaf dry weight, shoot dry weight, and root activity were greater in the non-flood irrigation system at mid-tillering. Yields were typically greater in the flood system across all treatments. In California, Li et al. [78] investigated several alternate wetting-drying irrigation systems with respect to continuous flood. The alternate wetting and drying were imposed at panicle initiation or 50% heading, with various degrees of drying established for each crop growth stage. At crop maturity total arsenic concentrations were greatest for the root system (14.8 mg As kg−1), whereas straw arsenic concentrations were 0.64 mg As kg−1. The arsenic concentrations in the root systems were primarily associated with Fe-plaque. Grain arsenic concentrations, when compared to continuous flood, were 57% redcued for brown rice and 63% reduced for polished rice. As the driest alternate wetting-drying episode, rice grain exhibited 78% less DMA and 40% less inorganic arsenic when compared to continuous flood. In California, Carrijo et al. [79] observed rice irrigation involving continuous flood and three alternate wetting and drying irrigation regimes with differences in drying severity (low, medium (−71 kPa) and high (−154 kPa) and three timings of the drying episodes (panicle initiation, booting and heading. Imposition of the medium and high drying episodes decreased arsenic uptake by 41 to 61%. The booting and heading drying episodes showed better arsenic mitigation responses.
13. Prospects and research needs
Arsenic accumulation in rice is a substantial global concern [1, 4, 6]. The soil chemistry of arsenic accumulation in rice is rapidly being elucidated; however, studies have yet to develop consistent desirable outcomes with respect to irrigation technology, soil amendments, phytoremediation, and yield maintenance. Alternate wetting and drying and furrow irrigation are competing irrigation regimes, with research showing substantial reductions in arsenic accumulation. However, rice yield maintenance, implementing reliable nitrogen fertilization practices, and providing effective weed management programs remain problematic, especially when food security and traditions may be compounding realities. Water scarcity and climate change provide both opportunities and setbacks to altering irrigation methods [80].
The understanding of rice physiology and arsenic is beginning to be formulated. Das et al. [81] illustrated the importance of biochemical relationships involving ascorbate-glutathione cycle and thiol metabolism to support reducing yield suppression in arsenic impacted rice. Wu et al. [82] showed the promise of arsenic-phosphate interactions involving phosphate transporter expression in rice. Thus, understanding arsenic root uptake at the cellular membrane level and its subsequent movement within the plant, combined with rice breeding and cultivar selection, remain clear avenues of research to reduce the human daily uptake of arsenic.
The prospect of reducing arsenic uptake rests with a global effort to: (i) produce cultivars that restrict arsenic uptake to root cells and exude arsenic to the rhizosphere, and (ii) alter irrigation practices to provide sufficient intervals of oxic soil environment to mitigate arsenic bioavailability. These approaches will also provide other environmental advantages, including water conservation and reduced methane emission [83].
\n',keywords:"arsenite, arsenate, phytoremediation, irrigation efficiency, soil amendments",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82451.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82451.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82451",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82451",totalDownloads:0,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 3rd 2021",dateReviewed:"May 20th 2022",datePrePublished:"June 29th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 29th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Arsenic uptake in rice (Oryza sativa) is recognized as a global health emergency, requiring the development of agronomic protocols to reduce human exposure to rice having elevated arsenic concentrations. Recent rice-arsenic investigations have centered around numerous agronomic approaches, including: (i) rice breeding and cultivar selection, (ii) altering irrigation water applications to reduce arsenic soil availability, (iii) application of soil amendments which either support arsenic adsorption on iron-plaque or provide antagonistic competition for root uptake, and (iv) phytoremediation. Given that rice cultivars vary in their arsenic accumulation capacity, this manuscript review concentrates on the influences of water management, soil amendments, and phytoremediation approaches on arsenic accumulation. Water management, whether alternating wetting and drying or furrow irrigation, provides the greatest potential to alleviate arsenic uptake in rice. Phytoremediation has great promise in the extraction of soil arsenic; however, the likelihood of multiple years of cultivating hyperaccumulating plants and their proper disposal is a serious limitation. Soil amendments have been soil applied to alter the soil chemistry to sequester arsenic or provide competitive antagonism towards arsenic root uptake; however, existing research efforts must be further field-evaluated and documented as producer-friendly protocols. The usage of soil amendments will require the development of agribusiness supply chains and educated extension personnel before farm-gate acceptance.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82451",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82451",signatures:"Michael Aide and Indi Braden",book:{id:"10952",type:"book",title:"Soil Science - Emerging Technologies, Global Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Science - Emerging Technologies, Global Perspectives and Applications",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael Thomas Aide and Dr. Indi Braden",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10952.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-521-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-520-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-522-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Aide",slug:"michael-aide",fullName:"Michael Aide"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Aide",fullName:"Michael Aide",slug:"michael-aide",email:"mtaide@semo.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185895/images/system/185895.jpg",institution:{name:"Southeast Missouri State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"269287",title:"Dr.",name:"Indi",middleName:null,surname:"Braden",fullName:"Indi Braden",slug:"indi-braden",email:"isbraden@semo.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaEVQA0/Profile_Picture_1582202023092",institution:{name:"Southeast Missouri State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Arsenic as a health issue and its presence in soil",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Soil chemistry of arsenic and arsenic speciation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Arsenite and arsenate as acids",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Arsenite and arsenate as oxidation and reduction species",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Groundwater irrigation as an arsenic source for Rice accumulation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Adsorption of Arsenite and arsenate species",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Influence of iron plaque on Rice roots and its effect on arsenic uptake",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Arsenic and plant physiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Phytoremediation of arsenic impacted soils",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. Soil amendments and their efficacy in reducing Rice arsenic accumulation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"12. Irrigation management to limit Rice arsenic accumulation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"13. Prospects and research needs",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Tuli R, Chakrabarty D, Trivedi PK, Tripathi RD. Recent advances in arsenic accumulation and metabolism in rice. Molecular Breeding. 2010;26:307-323'},{id:"B2",body:'Mohanty D. Conventional as well as emerging arsenic removal technologies-a critical review. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 2017;228:381. DOI: 10.1007/s11270-017-3549-4'},{id:"B3",body:'Miretzky P, Cirelli AF. Remediation of arsenic-contaminated soils by iron amendments: A review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 2010;40:93-115'},{id:"B4",body:'Kabata-Pendias A. Trace Elements in Soils and Plants. N.Y: CRC Press; 2001'},{id:"B5",body:'Aide MT, Beighley D, Dunn D. Soil profile arsenic concentration distributions in Missouri soils having cambic and argillic soil horizons. 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International Journal of Applied Agricultural Research. 2018;13:1, 8'},{id:"B76",body:'Carrijo DR, Lundy ME, Linquist BA. Rice yields and water use under alternate wetting and drying irrigation: A meta-analysis. Field Crops Research. 2016;203:173-180. DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2016.12.002'},{id:"B77",body:'He HB, Yang R, Wu LQ , Jia B, Ma FY. The growth characteristics and yield potential of rice (Oryza sativa) under non-flooded irrigation in arid region. The Annals of Applied Biology. 2016;168:337-356. DOI: 10.1111/aab.12267'},{id:"B78",body:'Li C, Carrijo DR, Nakayama Y, Linguist BA, Green PG, Parikh SJ. Impact of alternate wetting and drying irrigation on arsenic uptake and speciation in flooded rice systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2019;272:188-198'},{id:"B79",body:'Carrijo DR, Li C, Parikh SJ, Linquist BA. Irrigation management for arsenic mitigation in rice grain: Timing and severity of a single soil drying. Science of the Total Environment. 2019;649:300-307. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.216'},{id:"B80",body:'Aide MT, De Guzman C. Nexus of climate change and USA mid-south rice (Oryza sativa L.) production. Geoscience and Environmental Protection. 2020;8:211-231. DOI: 10.4236/gep.2020.812013'},{id:"B81",body:'Das S, Majumder B, Biswas A. Modulation of growth, ascorbate-glutathione cycle and thiol metabolism in rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. MTU-1010) seedlings by arsenic and silicon. Ectoxicology. 2018;27:1387-1403. DOI: 10.1007/s10646-018-1994-5'},{id:"B82",body:'Wu C, Wang Q , Xue S, Pan W, Lou L, Li D, et al. Do aeration conditions affect arsenic and phosphate accumulation and phosphate transporter expression in rice (Oryza sativa L.)? Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2018;25:43-51. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7976-3'},{id:"B83",body:'LaHue GT, Chaney RL, Adviento-Borbe MAA, Linquist BA. Alternate wetting and drying in high yielding direct-seeded rice systems accomplishes multiple environmental and agronomic objectives. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2016;229:30-39'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Michael Aide",address:"mtaide@semo.edu",affiliation:'
Department of Agriculture, Southeast Missouri State University, USA
Department of Agriculture, Southeast Missouri State University, USA
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Public health nurses are to perform health promotion and disease prevention work on an individual and population level. By identifying how features of different discourses are constructed and maintained, combining linguistics tools and social science perspectives, the purpose was to provide an understanding of the health promotion and disease prevention discourse in the public health nursing curriculum to reveal governmental strategies for public health nursing education in a time of transition. Fairclough’s three‐dimensional model of critical discourse analysis that consists of the analytical dimensions social events, social practices, and social structures was carried out. There is a linguistic‐discursive dialectic between the dimensions. The analysis revealed four discourses in the curriculum text: a contradictory health promotion and disease prevention discourse; a paternalistic meta‐discourse; a hegemonic individual discourse; and a hegemonic discourse for interdisciplinary collaboration. The results indicate a hegemonic disease prevention discourse, while the health promotion discourse being more disguised. The analysis revealed how language functions ideologically, and in line with the sociolinguistics, how the role of the language in the curriculum text can have consequences for the social work of public health nurses.",book:{id:"5726",slug:"sociolinguistics-interdisciplinary-perspectives",title:"Sociolinguistics",fullTitle:"Sociolinguistics - Interdisciplinary Perspectives"},signatures:"Berit Misund Dahl",authors:[{id:"195508",title:"Dr.",name:"Berit Misund",middleName:null,surname:"Dahl",slug:"berit-misund-dahl",fullName:"Berit Misund Dahl"}]},{id:"59744",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74625",title:"Advantages of Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Multidimensional Research Findings",slug:"advantages-of-bilingualism-and-multilingualism-multidimensional-research-findings",totalDownloads:3562,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Bilingualism and multilingualism are often perceived and considered as a problem or a major challenge to individual and/or societal development. In most instances, the only advantage recognized for the bilingual individual is the ability to use two or more languages. Beyond that, monolingualism seems more attractive, and monolinguals especially those speaking a language of wider communication seem quite content with their lot, often adopting a condescending attitude toward minority native speakers of a mother tongue who in addition have to acquire their language. Adepts of the ideology of monolingual habitus (one nation, one language) have tended to consider multilingualism and linguistic diversity as a curse and an obstacle to nation building. This chapter argues against the above ideology through a compendium of empirical evidence of advantages of individual bilingualism, societal multilingualism, and linguistic diversity of nations that emerge from research findings in the last several decades.",book:{id:"6201",slug:"multilingualism-and-bilingualism",title:"Multilingualism and Bilingualism",fullTitle:"Multilingualism and Bilingualism"},signatures:"Evelyn Fogwe Chibaka",authors:[{id:"220564",title:"Dr.",name:"Fogwe Evelyn",middleName:null,surname:"Chibaka",slug:"fogwe-evelyn-chibaka",fullName:"Fogwe Evelyn Chibaka"}]},{id:"55107",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68636",title:"Time-Series Analysis of Video Comments on Social Media",slug:"time-series-analysis-of-video-comments-on-social-media",totalDownloads:1400,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this study, we propose a method to detect unfair rating cheat caused by multiple comment postings focusing on time-series analysis of the number of comments. We defined the videos that obtained a lot of comments by unfair cheat as ‘unfair video’ and defined the videos which obtained without unfair cheat as ‘popular video’. Specifically, our proposed method focused on the difference of chronological distributions of the comments between the popular videos and the unfair videos. As the evaluation result, our proposed method could obtain higher accuracy than that of the baseline method.",book:{id:"5726",slug:"sociolinguistics-interdisciplinary-perspectives",title:"Sociolinguistics",fullTitle:"Sociolinguistics - Interdisciplinary Perspectives"},signatures:"Kazuyuki Matsumoto, Hayato Shimizu, Minoru Yoshida and Kenji\nKita",authors:[{id:"195756",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazuyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsumoto",slug:"kazuyuki-matsumoto",fullName:"Kazuyuki Matsumoto"}]},{id:"56149",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69879",title:"Experimental Approaches to Socio‐Linguistics: Usage and Interpretation of Non‐Verbal and Verbal Expressions in Cross‐ Cultural Communication",slug:"experimental-approaches-to-socio-linguistics-usage-and-interpretation-of-non-verbal-and-verbal-expre",totalDownloads:1321,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Social context shapes our behavior in interpersonal communication. In this chapter, I will address how experimental psychology contributes to the study of socio-linguistic processes, focusing on nonverbal and verbal processing in a cross-cultural or cross-linguistic communicative setting. A systematic review of the most up-to-date empirical studies will show: 1) the culturally-universal and culturally-specific encoding of emotion in speech. The acoustic cues that are commonly involved in discriminating basic emotions in vocal expressions across languages and the cross-linguistic variations in such encoding will be demonstrated; 2) the modulation of in-group and out-group status (e.g. inferred from speaker’s dialect, familiarity towards a language) on the encoding and decoding of speaker’s meaning; 3) the impact of cultural orientation and cultural learning on the interpretation of social and affective meaning, focusing on how immigration process shapes one’s language use and comprehension. I will highlight the significance of combining the research paradigms from experimental psychology with cognitive (neuro)science methodologies such as electrophysiological recording and functional magnetic resonance imaging, to address the relevant questions in cross-cultural communicative settings. The chapter is concluded by a future direction to study the socio-cultural bases of language and linguistic underpinnings of cultural behaviour.",book:{id:"5726",slug:"sociolinguistics-interdisciplinary-perspectives",title:"Sociolinguistics",fullTitle:"Sociolinguistics - Interdisciplinary Perspectives"},signatures:"Xiaoming Jiang",authors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang"}]},{id:"58318",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72599",title:"Innovative Multilingual CAPTCHA Based on Handwritten Characteristics",slug:"innovative-multilingual-captcha-based-on-handwritten-characteristics",totalDownloads:1007,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Completely Automated Public Turing Test to Tell Computers and Humans Apart (CAPTCHA) is a kind of test which is commonly used by different websites on the Internet to differentiate between humans and automated bots. Most websites require users to pass the CAPTCHA before signing up or filling out most forms. CAPTCHA today is even used on some mobile applications to provide a higher security level that can protect websites and mobile applications against malicious attacks by automated bots and spammers. The technique essentially relies on employing the human recognition ability, which is not available in automated bots or machines, through leveraging the handwriting characteristics in designing CAPTCHA. The novelty of the technique proposed in this work is that it adopts handwritten characters of four different languages (English, Arabic, Spanish, and French) to generate handwritten multilingual CAPTCHA text. The technique was duly tested and the initial experiments’ results for the technique have shown a promising security level that each of the techniques would provide.",book:{id:"6201",slug:"multilingualism-and-bilingualism",title:"Multilingualism and Bilingualism",fullTitle:"Multilingualism and Bilingualism"},signatures:"Maha Hamad Aldosari",authors:[{id:"208127",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Maha",middleName:"Hamad",surname:"Aldosari",slug:"maha-aldosari",fullName:"Maha Aldosari"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54872",title:"The Characteristics of Language Policy and Planning Research: An Overview",slug:"the-characteristics-of-language-policy-and-planning-research-an-overview",totalDownloads:3564,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter has been compiled to provide an overview of the language policing and planning (LPP) field, particularly for new researchers who would like to pursue their MA or PhD. It aims to explore the following: the genesis of LPP from the 1950s to date, type of research questions pertinent to the field, methodology that can be applied, substantial literature review and case studies that have been carried out in LPP, ethnography of language policy and planning, the historical analysis approach and authorities in the field of LPP such as Hornberger, Johnson and Ricento.",book:{id:"5726",slug:"sociolinguistics-interdisciplinary-perspectives",title:"Sociolinguistics",fullTitle:"Sociolinguistics - Interdisciplinary Perspectives"},signatures:"Prashneel Ravisan Goundar",authors:[{id:"195526",title:"Mr.",name:"Prashneel",middleName:"Ravisan",surname:"Goundar",slug:"prashneel-goundar",fullName:"Prashneel Goundar"}]},{id:"59744",title:"Advantages of Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Multidimensional Research Findings",slug:"advantages-of-bilingualism-and-multilingualism-multidimensional-research-findings",totalDownloads:3562,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Bilingualism and multilingualism are often perceived and considered as a problem or a major challenge to individual and/or societal development. In most instances, the only advantage recognized for the bilingual individual is the ability to use two or more languages. Beyond that, monolingualism seems more attractive, and monolinguals especially those speaking a language of wider communication seem quite content with their lot, often adopting a condescending attitude toward minority native speakers of a mother tongue who in addition have to acquire their language. Adepts of the ideology of monolingual habitus (one nation, one language) have tended to consider multilingualism and linguistic diversity as a curse and an obstacle to nation building. This chapter argues against the above ideology through a compendium of empirical evidence of advantages of individual bilingualism, societal multilingualism, and linguistic diversity of nations that emerge from research findings in the last several decades.",book:{id:"6201",slug:"multilingualism-and-bilingualism",title:"Multilingualism and Bilingualism",fullTitle:"Multilingualism and Bilingualism"},signatures:"Evelyn Fogwe Chibaka",authors:[{id:"220564",title:"Dr.",name:"Fogwe Evelyn",middleName:null,surname:"Chibaka",slug:"fogwe-evelyn-chibaka",fullName:"Fogwe Evelyn Chibaka"}]},{id:"54552",title:"Language Evolution, Acquisition, Adaptation and Change",slug:"language-evolution-acquisition-adaptation-and-change",totalDownloads:1988,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the twenty‐first century, there are between 6000 and 8000 different languages spoken in the world, all of which are in a continuous state of evolving, by inter‐mixing or stagnating, growing or contracting. This occurs through changes in the population size of the people who use them, the frequency and form of their use in different media, through migration and through inter‐mixing with other languages. As Stadler et al. argue, human languages are a ‘culturally evolving trait’ and when it occurs language change is both sporadic and robust (faithfully replicated) and the main established variants are replaced by new variants. Only about 200 of these disparate languages are in written as well as spoken form, and most, except the popular ones like Mandarin, Spanish, English, Hindi, Arabic, Portuguese, Bengali, and Russian, are in decline of use. But how did language itself evolve and come to be the most important innate tool possessed by people? The complex issue of language evolution continues to perplex because of its associations with culture, social behaviour and the development of the human mind.",book:{id:"5726",slug:"sociolinguistics-interdisciplinary-perspectives",title:"Sociolinguistics",fullTitle:"Sociolinguistics - Interdisciplinary Perspectives"},signatures:"Luke Strongman",authors:[{id:"189739",title:"Dr.",name:"Luke",middleName:null,surname:"Strongman",slug:"luke-strongman",fullName:"Luke Strongman"}]},{id:"57928",title:"Aspects and Dimensions of Bilingualism and Multilingualism in Europe",slug:"aspects-and-dimensions-of-bilingualism-and-multilingualism-in-europe",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter aims to explore certain aspects and dimensions of bilingualism and multilingualism, with a focus on Europe. The issues analyzed are the following: languages coming into contact due to conquest or colonization, bilingualism and multilingualism as a reflection of political trends and contemporary lifestyles, official languages, and heritage languages. The field of language education is also treated, when it comes to the benefits of being bilingual and multilingual, which are also analyzed from the perspective of evolutionary psychology, with the claim that knowledge of several languages ensures survival and better living conditions. The conclusions are that bilingualism and multilingualism are a necessity and an inevitable phenomenon in today’s Europe, especially due to migration and due to the need of adapting to and accepting other cultures. 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The focus of this book chapter is to succinctly present the sociolinguistic aspects of language choice and use of multilingual speakers in various domains. Besides, concepts such as bilingualism and multilingualism and their dynamics in the field of sociolinguistics have been critically been reviewed and presented from the theoretical and empirical perspectives. Further, some of the relevant issues related to language choice and use in multilingual speech communities in different parts of the globe are reviewed and included. 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She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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