Different carbon sources applied on BFT system (Source: adapted from [36])
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3657",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Air Traffic Control",title:"Air Traffic Control",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Improving air traffic control and air traffic management is currently one of the top priorities of the global research and development agenda. 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Adhesive bonding is a recent technology that in many applications, can replace the techniques already known in engineering, such as rivets, bolts, welds, etc. The adhesives have the advantage of being lightweight. The use of adhesives in engineering is already present in several areas, for example, aeronautics, nautical, renewable energy, mechanics, etc.
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The aquaculture industry is growing fast at a rate of ~9% per year since the 1970s [1]. However, this industry has come under scrutiny for contribution to environmental degradation and pollution. As a result, requirement for more ecologically sound management and culture practices remains fully necessary. Moreover, the expansion of aquaculture is also restricted due to land costs and by its strong dependence on fishmeal and fish oil [2,3]. Such ingredients are one of the prime constituents of feed for commercial aquaculture [4]. Feed costs represent at least 50% of the total aquaculture production costs, which is predominantly due to the cost of protein component in commercial diets [5].
Interest in closed aquaculture systems is increasing, mostly due to biosecurity, environmental and marketing advantages over conventional extensive and semi-intensive systems [6]. When water is reused, some risks such as pathogen introduction, escapement of exotic species and discharging of waste water (pollution) are reduced and even eliminated. Furthermore, because of high productivity and reduced water use, marine species can be raised at inland locations [6]. A classic example is the currently expansion of marine shrimp farms at inland location in USA, which allows local farmers market fresh never frozen shrimp in metropolitan locations with good profitability.
The environmental friendly aquaculture system called “Biofloc Technology (BFT)” is considered as an efficient alternative system since nutrients could be continuously recycled and reused. The sustainable approach of such system is based on growth of microorganism in the culture medium, benefited by the minimum or zero water exchange. These microorganisms (biofloc) has two major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds generating “
As a closed system, BFT has primordial advantage of minimizing the release of water into rivers, lakes and estuaries containing escaped animals, nutrients, organic matter and pathogens. Also, surrounding areas are benefitted by the “vertically growth” in terms of productivity, preventing coastal or inland area destruction, induced eutrophication and natural resources losses. Drained water from ponds and tanks often contains relatively high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorous, limiting nutrients that induce algae growth, which may cause severe eutrophication and further anaerobic conditions in natural water bodies. In BFT, minimum water discharge and reuse of water prevent environment degradation and convert such system in a real “environmentally friendly system” with a “green” approach. Minimum water exchange maintain the heat and fluctuation of temperature is prevented [7], allowing growth of tropical species in cold areas.
Currently, BFT has received alternate appellation such as ZEAH or Zero Exchange Autotrophic Heterotrophic System [8-10], active-sludge or suspended bacterial-based system [11], single-cell protein production system [12], suspended-growth systems [13] or microbial floc systems [14,15]. However, researches are trying to keep the term “BFT or Biofloc Technology” in order to establish a key reference, mainly after the book release “
The objective of this chapter is to review the application of Biofloc Technology (BFT) in aquaculture; and describes the utilization of biofloc biomass (also described in this chapter as “biofloc meal”) as an ingredient for compounded feeds. An addition goal is to help students, researchers and industry to clarify the basic aspects of such technology, aiming to encourage further research.
According to [18], BFT was first developed in early 1970s at Ifremer-COP (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea, Oceanic Center of Pacific) with different penaeid species including
Biofloc technology at Ifremer, Tahiti (A), Sopomer farm, Tahiti (B), Waddell Mariculture Center (C) and Israel (D) (Photos A and B: Gerard Cuzon; C: courtesy of Wilson Wasielesky; and D: courtesy of Yoram Avnimelech)
Regarding to commercial application of BFT, in 1988 Sopomer farm in Tahiti (French Polynesia) using 1000m2 concrete tanks and limited water exchange achieved a world record in production (20–25 ton/ha/year with two crops) [22, 23]. On the other hand, Belize Aquaculture farm or “BAL” (located at Belize, Central America), probably the most famous case of BFT commercial application in the world, produced around 11-26 ton/ha/cycle using 1.6 ha lined grow-out ponds. Much of know-how of running worldwide commercial scale BFT shrimp ponds is derived from BAL experience. In small-scale BFT greenhouse-based farms, Marvesta farm (located at Maryland, USA), probably is the well-known successful indoor BFT shrimp farm in USA, can produce around 45 ton of fresh never frozen shrimp per year using ~570 m3 indoor race-ways [24]. Nowadays, BFT have being successfully expanded in large-scale shrimp farming in Asia, Latin and Central America, as well as in small-scale greenhouses in USA, South Korea, Brazil, Italy, China and others (Fig 2). In addition, many research centers and universities are intensifying R&D in BFT, mostly applied to key fields such as grow-out management, nutrition, BFT applied to reproduction, microbial ecology, biotechnology and economics.
Biofloc technology commercial-scale at BAL (A) and Malaysia (B), and pilot-scale in Mexico (C and D) (Photos A, B and D: Maurício Emerenciano; and C: courtesy of Manuel Valenzuela)
The particulate organic matter and other organisms in the microbial food web have been proposed as potential food sources for aquatic animals [25]. In BFT, microorganisms present a key role in nutrition of cultured animals. The macroaggregates (biofloc) is a rich protein-lipid natural source available “
The consumption of biofloc by shrimp or fish has demonstrated innumerous benefits such as improvement of growth rate [10], decrease of FCR and associated costs in feed [9]. Growth enhancement has been attributed to both bacterial and algae nutritional components, which up to 30% of conventional feeding ration can be lowered due to biofloc consumption in shrimp [29]. In reference [9] was reported that more than 29% of daily food consumed for
Grazers often observed in BFT such as flagellates protozoa (A), ciliates protozoa (B), nematodes (C) and copepods (D) (10x magnification) (Source: Maurício Emerenciano)
Regarding to maintenance of water quality, control of bacterial community over autotrophic microorganisms is achieved using a high carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) [30], which nitrogenous by-products can be easily taken up by heterotrophic bacteria [36]. High carbon to nitrogen ratio is required to guarantee optimum heterotrophic bacteria growth [14, 37], using this energy for maintenance (respiration, feeding, movement, digestion, etc), but also for growth and to produce new cells. High carbon concentration in water could supersede the carbon assimilatory capacity of algae, contributing to bacteria growth. Aerobic microorganisms are efficient in converting feed to new cell material (40-60% of conversion efficiency), rather than higher organisms that spend about 10-15% to rise in weight [16]. Bacteria and other microorganisms act as very efficient “biochemical systems” to degrade and metabolize organic residues [36]. In other words, they recycle very efficiently nutrients in a form of organic and inorganic matter (un-consumed and non-digested feed, metabolic residues and carbon sources applied as fertilizers) into new microbial cells.
The carbon sources applied in BFT are often by-products derived from human and/or animal food industry, preferentially local available. Cheap sources of carbohydrates such as molasses, glycerol and plant meals (i.e. wheat, corn, rice, tapioca, etc) will be applied before fry/post-larvae stocking and during grow-out phase, aiming to maintain a high C:N ratio (~15-20:1) and to control N compounds peaks. Also, a mix of plant meals can be pelletized (“green-pellet”) and applied into ponds [38]; or low protein diets containing high C:N ratio can also be carried out [16,33]. The carbon source serves as a substrate for operating BFT systems and production of microbial protein cells [36]. There are many considerations for its selection such as costs, local availability, biodegradability and efficiency of bacteria assimilation. In Table 1 is summarized some studies with different species and carbon source applied in BFT system.
Carbon source | Culture specie | Reference |
Acetate | [39] | |
Cassava meal | [40] | |
Cellulose | Tilapia | [12] |
Corn flour | Hybrid bass and hybrid tilapia | [41, 42] |
Dextrose | [43] | |
Glycerol and Glycerol+ | [39] | |
Glucose | [39] | |
Molasses | [9, 29, 44] | |
Sorghum meal | Tilapia | [12] |
Tapioca | [31, 45] | |
Wheat flour | Tilapia ( | [33] |
Wheat bran + molasses | [37, 46, 47] | |
Starch | Tilapia | [7, 14] |
Different carbon sources applied on BFT system (Source: adapted from [36])
Not all species are candidates to BFT. Some characteristics seems to be necessary to achieve a better growth performance such as resistance to high density, tolerance to intermediate levels of dissolved oxygen (~3-6 mg/L), settling solids in water (~10 with a maximum of 15 mL/L of “biofloc volume”, measured in Imhoff cones) [38] and N-compounds, presence of filtering apparatus (i.e. tilapia), omnivorous habits and/or digestive system adaptable to better assimilate the microbial particles.
Nursery phase is defined as an intermediate step between hatchery-reared early postlarvae and grow-out phase [48]. Such phase presents several benefits such as optimization of farm land, increase in survival and enhanced growth performance in grow-out ponds [49-51]. BFT has been applied successfully in nursery phase in different shrimp species such as
In [46] was observed that presence of bioflocs resulted in increases of 50% in weight and almost 80% in final biomass in
In grow-out, BFT has been also shown nutritional and zootechnical benefits. In [9] was estimated that more than 29% of the daily food intake of
For fish and other species, BFT also has been demonstrated encouraged results. Intensive BFT
In
The BFT has been successfully applied for grow-out, but little is known about biofloc benefits on breeding. For example, in the shrimp industry with the global spread of viruses, the use of closed-life cycle broodstock appeared as a priority to guarantee biosecurity, avoiding vertical transmissions. Moreover, such industry places a considerable interest on penaeid breeding program, often performed in closed facilities, controlling the production plan through successive generations. These programs were frequently associated with large animals, disease resistance as well as the enhancement of reproductive performance. However, nutritional problems remain unresolved [61] and alternatives should be evaluated.
As an alternative for continuous
In conventional systems breeders used to be produced in large ponds at low density. However, risks associate with accumulation of organic matter, cyanobacteria blooms and fluctuations of some water quality parameters (such as temperature, DO, pH and N-compounds) remains high and could affect the shrimp health in outdoor facilities. Once the system is stable (sufficient particulate microbiota biomass measured in Imhoff cones), BFT provides stabilized parameters of water quality when performed in indoor facilities such as greenhouses, guaranteeing shrimp health.
According to studies performed with the blue shrimp
Regarding to shrimp broodstock management, one of the most important management procedures is related to control of solids and stocking density. High levels of solids negatively affect shrimp health, particularly with shrimp weight higher than 15g [47]. Settling solids or “biofloc volume” should be managed below than 15mL/L (measured in Imhoff cones) [38, 47]. Excess of particulate organic matter covered breeder’s gills and could limit oxygen exchange, might resulting in mortalities.
Stocking density has to be carefully managed, mainly in sub-adult/adult phase (i.e. >15g). High density or high biomass will lead to an increase in organic matter, TSS levels and N-compounds in tanks or in ponds [63]. Moreover, physical body damages are prevented at low density, improving breeder’s health. For review, a suggested stocking density is well described in [64].
For fish, no literature is available regarding BFT and application in breeders. The same trend observed in penaeid shrimp might be observed in fish. The continuous consumption of diverse microbiota (biofloc) should improve nutrients transfer, gonad formation and reproduction performance in fish. Lipid is a well-known nutrient that plays a key role in reproduction of aquatic species. In tilapia, breeders fed with crude palm oil based-feed (n-6 fatty acid rich source) presented high concentration of acid arachidonic or “ARA” (C20:4 n-6) in gonads, eggs and larvae of tilapia as compared to fish oil or linseed oil-based feeds [65]. As a result, better reproductive performance was observed in terms of higher total number of eggs per fish, larger gonad sizes, shorter latency period, inter spawning interval and higher spawning frequency. ARA is an essential fatty acid crucial in reproduction, acting as hormone precursor [66]. In the study [33] was found high ARA content in biofloc harvested in tilapia culture freshwater tanks. Bioflocs in freshwater bioreactors contained high ARA content using glucose and glycerol as a carbon source [67]. These findings suggested that biofloc (according its nutritional profile, for review see section 5.0) might positively influence the reproductive performance in fish, supplying nutrients for gonad development, possibly also enhancing larval quality
Spawning performance of
Biofloc can be a novel strategy for disease management in contrast to conventional approaches such as antibiotic, antifungal, probiotic and prebiotic application. The “natural probiotic” effect in BFT could act internally and/or externally against, i.e., to
Internally, bacteria and its synthesized compounds could act similar to organic acids and might be effective bio-control agents, also given beneficial host’s microbial balance in the gut [68]. The regular addition of carbon in the water is known to select for polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) accumulating bacteria and other groups of bacteria that synthesize PHA granules. The microbial storage product poly-ß-hydroxybutyrate (PHB), a biodegradable polymer belonging to the polyesters class, is only one compound of a whole family of polyhydroxyalkanoates. PHB is produced by a widely variety of microorganisms such as
Such granules are synthesized under conditions of physiological and nutrient stress, i.e., when an essential nutrient like nitrogen is limited in the presence of an excess carbon source [68]. When these polymers are degraded in the gut, they could have antibacterial activity similar to short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) or organic acids. The breakdown of PHA inside the gastrointestinal tract can be carried out via chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis [70].
Chemical hydrolysis can be carried out by treating the polymers with, i.e., NaOH, in which could significantly accelerate its digestibility [70]. On the other hand, enzyme hydrolysis is generally carried out by extracellular depolymerases activities which are widely distributed among bacteria and fungi, acting as a preventive or curative protector against
The working mechanism of PHAs with respect to their antibacterial activity is not well understood [68]. As they could act similarly to SCFA, some studies speculated the working mechanism by (i) reduction of pH, in which antibacterial activity increases with decreasing pH value [71]; (ii) inhibiting the growth of pathogenic bacteria by interference on cell membrane structure and membrane permeability, as well as instability of internal protons balance, lowering ATP and depletion of cellular energy [72]; and (iii) down-regulate virulence factor expression and positively influence the gut health of animals [73]. Further research is need to maximizing PHA content in bioflocs applied, i.e., for fish/shrimp feed, characterizing and analyzing their bio-control efficacy in different host-microbe systems [68].
Externally, the working mechanism of biofloc microorganisms against pathogens seems to be by competition of space, substrate and nutrients. Some essentials nutrients such as nitrogen are required by both groups (i.e. heterotrophic bacteria
Number of total ectoparasites in gills and ectoderm’s mucous of fry tilapia reared under BFT limited water-exchange condition (FLOC) and conventional water-exchange system (CW) after 60 days (more details in [
Aquaponics is a sustainable food production system that combines a traditional aquaculture with hydroponics in a symbiotic environment. The water is efficiently recirculated and reused for maximum benefits through natural biological filtration and recirculation. The waste that is excreted by aquatic species or uneaten feed is naturally converted into nitrate and other beneficial nutrients in the water. Those nutrients are then absorbed by the vegetables and fruits in a “natural fertilization way”.
Aquaculture species including fish, crayfish, freshwater prawns or shrimp are usually reared in tanks and the water directed into separated race-ways of hydroponics vegetables. A worldwide well-known aquaponics system was successfully developed by University of Virgin Islands (Fig 6). Typical plants raised in aquaponics include lettuce, chard, tomato, fruits such as passion fruit, strawberry, water melon, etc.; and a large variety of spices. Size of aquaculture tanks varies according aquatic species/vegetables demand and usual shapes includes round, square or rectangular tanks.
Aquaponics system at University of Virgin Islands
Nowadays, BFT have been successfully applied in aquaponics. The presence of rich-biota (microorganisms of biofloc) and a variety of nutrients such as micro and macronutrients originated from un-eaten or non-digested feed seems to contribute in plant nutrition. A well-known example of biofloc and aquaponics interaction was also developed by UVI. However, the application of BFT in aquaponics needs particular attention, mainly on management of solid levels in water (for review, see [28]). High concentration of solids may cause excessive adhesion of microorganism on plants roots (biofilm), causing its damage, lowering oxygenation and poor growth. Filtering and settling devices are often needed (Fig 7).
Scheme of worldwide well-known UVI Aquaponics System
The cost of diets in several animal cultures is predominantly due to the cost of protein component [75]. In the case of aquaculture, its massive expansion in the last decades has begun to face some important limitations like increasing prices of fishmeal, a raw material prime component of aquaculture diets. However, pressure caused in natural stocks (over-fishing) has depleted fishmeal production and, as a consequence, continuous increase in prices has been observed [76]. Moreover, growth of aquafeed industry (driven by an increase in fish/shrimp demand as the global population continues to growth), the competition with other animal cultures (such as swine and poultry) and differences in fishmeal quality also collaborated with increase in prices of fishmeal. The quality attributed to fishmeal includes high palatability, high content of digestible protein, highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) and minerals.
In this context, alternatives should be evaluated opposing this non-optimism scenario. Aquaculture industry needs to investigate alternative source of proteins to replace less sustainable ones. Candidates of protein sources might have good digestibility, palatability, energy content, low ash content and present a well-balanced essential amino acids profile (EAA) [77].
In the past years, BFT has been emerged not only as promising alternative to grow-out system, but also as a method to obtain protein for compounds diets originated from its diverse microbiota. Collected in tanks/ponds [46, 62] or produced in bioreactors [17, 39, 67] biofloc (Fig 8) is a raw material to produce “biofloc meal”. In bioreactors, biofloc production can clean up effluent waters from aquaculture facilities, converting dissolved nutrients into single-cell protein [78]. Usually, two types of bioreactors have been employed: sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) and membrane batch reactors (MBRs), both controlling ammonia, nitrite and suspended solids with great efficacy (for review of bioreactors and its employ, see Kuhn et al 2012). Moreover, excess of solids removed from culture tanks or ponds and/or concentrated into solid removal devices [28] could also be a recyclable source of biofloc for biofloc meal production. This sustainable approach of protein source is getting more attention in the aquaculture industry. The microbial particles can provide important nutrients such as protein [33, 46], lipids [10, 37], aminoacids [80] and fatty acids [33, 67, 81].
Biofloc meal (also called “single-celled” protein), added to compounded feed is currently focus of intensive research in nutrition fields [17, 78]. However, to produce this protein ingredient some processes are required such as drying, milling and storage. In this context, nutritional characteristics could be affected (by i.e. temperature during drying), which the “native” properties could be altered.
Nutritional composition of biofloc differs according to environmental condition, carbon source applied, TSS level, salinity, stocking density, light intensity, phytoplankton and bacteria communities and ratio, etc. Regarding to age of bioflocs, in “young” biofloc heterotrophic bacteria is mainly presented as compared to “old” biofloc dominated by fungi [79]. In biofloc particles, protein, lipid and ash content could vary substantially (12 to 49, 0.5 to 12.5 and 13 to 46%, respectively; Table 2). The same trend occurs with fatty acids (FA) profile. Essential FA such as linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6 or LA), linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3 or ALA), arachidonic acid (C20:4 n-6 or ARA), eicosapentanoic acid (C20:5 n-3 or EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6 n-3 or DHA), as well as sum of n-3 and sum of n-6 differ considerably between 1.5 to 28.2, 0.04 to 3.3, 0.06 to 3.55, 0.05 to 0.5, 0.05 to 0.77, 0.4 to 4.4 and 2.0 to 27.0% of total FA. Type of carbon source, freshwater or marine water and production of biofloc biomass (in bioreactors or culture tanks) definitely influence the FA profile (Table 3 and 4). Vitamin and amino acids profile from biofloc produced in large-scale commercial bioreactors [82] in given in Table 5.
Biofloc particle (10x magnification) (Source: [
Information is still scarce about how microorganisms profile and its nutritional composition could impact animal growth. However, is already known that microorganisms in biofloc might partially replace protein content in shrimp diets, although were not always the case [10, 88]. Recent studies determined how reducing the protein content of diet would affect growth performance of shrimp reared in biofloc conditions. In the study [15] was found that at least 10% of protein content in pelletized feed can be reduced when
43.0 | - | 12.5 | - | 26.5 | [27] |
31.2 | - | 2.6 | - | 28.2 | [83] |
12.0 - 42.0 | - | 2.0 - 8.0 | - | 22.0 - 46.0 | [84] |
31.1 | 23.6 | 0.5 | - | 44.8 | [10] |
26.0 - 41.9 | - | 1.2 - 2.3 | - | 18.3 - 40.7 | [80] |
30.4 | - | 1.9 | 12.4* | 38.9 | [85] |
49.0 | 36.4 | 1.13 | 12.6 | 13.4 | [17] |
38.8 | 25.3 | <0.1 | 16.2 | 24.7 | [78] |
28.8 - 43.1 | - | 2.1 - 3.6 | 8.7 - 10.4 | 22.1 - 42.9 | [86] |
30.4 | 29.1 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 39.2 | [37] |
18.2-29.3 | 22.8-29.9 | 0.4-0.7 | 1.5-3.5 | 43.7-51.8 | [47] |
18.4-26.3 | 20.2-35.7 | 0.3-0.7 | 2.1-3.4 | 34.5-41.5 | [87] |
28.0-30.4 | 18.1-22.7 | 0.5-0.6 | 3.1-3.2 | 35.8-39.6 | [62] |
Proximate analysis of biofloc particles in different studies.
Also, recent studies have been demonstrated that fishmeal in shrimp diets can be partially replaced by other protein sources under biofloc conditions or by biofloc meal. In [90] was evaluated two fishmeal replacement levels (40 and 100% of replacement) by other ingredients (soyabean meal and viscera meals) in diets for
Regarding to biofloc meal production, one bottleneck seems to be the large amount of wet biofloc biomass required to produce 1kg of dry biofloc meal. Estimative indicates that biofloc plug in 1L settling cones contained only 1.4% of dry matter [14]. The reference [17] indicated that 1 kg of microbial floc could be produced per 1.49 kg of sucrose in bioreactors. Certainly more research is needed on this field. On the other hand, other applications of biofloc meal in animal industry should be evaluated, mainly considering its nutritional profile and relatively low costs as compared to other protein sources (i.e. fishmeal) [17]. In aquaculture, biofloc meal could be included into broodstock pelletized feed, prior or after eyestalk ablation. Further research is encouraged in this field.
C14:0 | 0.10 | 0.60 | 0.80 | 0.45 | 1.43 | 0.69 | 0.61 | 0.43 | |
C15:0 | 0.15 | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.30 | 0.31 | 0.31 | 0.17 | 0.26 | |
C16:0 | 2.2 | 17.0 | 26.0 | 15.0 | 6.06 | 8.01 | 6.34 | 8.86 | |
C16:1 | 4.0 | 3.7 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 6.61 | 2.61 | 1.61 | 1.54 | |
C17:0 | 0.05 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.14 | 0.68 | |
C18:0 | 0.5 | 4.0 | 7.1 | 6.0 | 2.37 | 4.82 | 3.94 | 6.27 | |
C18:1 n-7 | 1.5 | 3.0 | 1.9 | 2.7 | 3.96 | 1.72 | 2.71 | 4.19 | |
C18:1 n-9 | 1.8 | 19.0 | 30.0 | 18.0 | 3.34 | 7.26 | 8.12 | 12.05 | |
C18:2 n-6 (LA) | 5.0 | 19.0 | 28.2 | 11.0 | 1.91 | 17.24 | 11.95 | 21.87 | |
C18:3 n-3 (ALA) | 0.04 | 0.5 | 0.45 | 2.0 | 0.23 | 0.99 | 0.20 | 0.21 | |
C20:0 | - | 0.10 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.06 | 0.34 | 0.33 | 0.49 | |
C20:1 n-9 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.15 | 0.10 | 0.25 | 0.20 | 0.06 | 0.02 | |
C20:3 n-6 | 0.15 | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.55 | 0.36 | 0.15 | 0.04 | |
C20:4 n-6 (ARA) | 0.7 | 0.3 | 0.15 | 0.20 | 0.77 | 0.87 | 0.17 | 0.06 | |
C20:5 n-3 (EPA) | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.25 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.19 | 0.12 | |
C22:6 n-3 (DHA) | 0.05 | - | 0.07 | 0.05 | 0.18 | 0.06 | 0.18 | 0.10 | |
∑ Saturated | 22.08 | 22.99 | 35.35 | 22.45 | 10.76 | 14.85 | 11.53 | 16.99 | |
∑ Monounsaturated | 8.16 | 26.22 | 35.45 | 27.15 | 16.51 | 14.21 | 12.5 | 17.8 | |
∑ n-3 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.7 | 0.65 | 1.04 | 2.02 | 0.60 | 0.43 | |
∑ n-6 | 7.0 | 20.0 | 27.0 | 12.0 | 4.03 | 19.03 | 12.27 | 21.97 | |
Type of water | freshwater | freshwater | freshwater | freshwater | freshwater | freshwater | marine | marine | |
Carbon source | Acetate | Glycerol | (Glycerol+ | Glucose | Glucose | Glycerol | Glucose | Glycerol | |
Collection | bioreactors | bioreactors | bioreactors | bioreactors | bioreactors | bioreactors | bioreactors | bioreactors | |
Reference | [39] | [67] |
Fatty acid profile of biofloc (produced in experimental bioreactors) using different carbon source in marine water and freshwater
2.02-2.48 | 13.8-16.1 | 5.4-6.2 | ||
0.70-0.77 | 1.1-1.5 | 1.1-1.3 | ||
17.88-19.10 | 45.4-53.5 | 48.7-49.3 | ||
7.15-7.74 | 9.9-15.3 | 16.5-21.6 | ||
- | 0.7 | 0.9-1.0 | ||
6.24-7.27 | 3.4-3.5 | 3.7-4.5 | ||
11.05-11.28 | - | - | ||
8.51-10.08 | 8.8-9.2 | 7.7-10.8 | ||
15.38-16.68 | 1.5-2.5 | 2.2-2.6 | ||
0.65-0.73 | 2.0-2.3 | 2.2-3.3 | ||
0.87-1.44 | 0.2-0.4 | 0.4 | ||
0.74-0.80 | 0.3-0.4 | 0.5 | ||
0.40-0.46 | 0.2 | 0.2 | ||
3.11-3.55 | 0.3-0.4 | 0.3-0.4 | ||
0.39-0.46 | 0.3-0.5 | 0.5 | ||
0.74-0.77 | 0.2-0.4 | 0.3-0.4 | ||
30.2-34.92 | 67.6-73.0 | 61.5-61.9 | ||
28.10-29-38 | 19.7-25.0 | 28.3-30.5 | ||
1.38-1.91 | 2.8-3.4 | 3.2-4.4 | ||
23.5-25.81 | 2.0-3.0 | 2.7-3.1 | ||
freshwater | marine | marine | ||
Wheat flour | molasses | molasses | ||
Tilapia tanks | shrimp tanks | shrimp tanks | ||
[33] | [87] | [62] |
Fatty acid profile of biofloc (collected in tanks) using different carbon source in marine water and freshwater
3.82 | |
3.60 | |
6.36 | |
8.04 | |
2.81 | |
1.46 | |
3.38 | |
5.06 | |
4.34 | |
1.41 | |
0.55 | |
3.29 | |
2.77 | |
2.82 | |
0.25 | |
3.11 | |
0.98 | |
2.83 | |
3.52 | |
83.3 mg/kg | |
7.7 mg/kg | |
39.0 mg/kg | |
12.0 mg/kg | |
29.8 IU/kg |
Example of vitamin and amino acids profile from biofloc produced in large-scale commercial bioreactors [82].
Biosecurity is a priority in aquaculture industry. For example, in shrimp farming, considerable impact of disease outbreaks during the past two decades greatly affected the operational management of shrimp farms worldwide [10]. Infected PLs and incoming water seem to be the main pathway for pathogen introduction. This scenario forced farmers to look for more biosecure culture practices to minimize the risk associated with exposure to pathogens [2]. Biofloc technology brings an obvious advantage of minimizing consumption and release of water, recycling
Biofloc technology will enable aquaculture grow towards an environmental friendly approach. Consumption of microorganisms in BFT reduces FCR and consequently costs in feed. Also, microbial community is able to rapidly utilize dissolved nitrogen leached from shrimp faeces and uneaten food and convert it into microbial protein. These qualities make minimal-exchange BFT system an alternative to extensive aquaculture. Microorganisms in biofloc might partially replace protein content in diets or decrease its dependence of fishmeal.
Related to biofloc meal and its perspectives, the study [17] detected initial estimates of cost for producing a metric ton of biofloc meal is approximately $400 to $1000. The same authors cited that global soymeal market varied approximately from $375 to $550/metric ton from January 2008 through May 2009. During the same time period, fishmeal varied approximately from $1000 to $1225, suggesting feasibility on replacement of either soybean and/or fish meal by biofloc meal. Moreover, generated from a process that cleans aquaculture effluents [17, 39] biofloc meal production avoids discharge of waste water and excessive damage to natural habitats [4]. This ingredient seems to be free of deleterious levels of mycotoxins, antinutritional factors and other constituents that limit its use in aquafeeds [79]. Large-scale production of biofloc meal for use in aquaculture could result in environmental benefits to marine and coastal ecosystems, as the need for wild fish as an aquafeed ingredient is reduced [79, 92].
Sensorial quality of BFT products is also an important issue. BFT may bring higher profit if fresh non-frozen shrimp/fish is sold to near-by market, mainly at inland locations. These advantages certainly should be more explored and niche markets achieved, contributing to social sustainability.
The authors would like to thank CONCYTEY (Consejo de Ciencia y Tecnología del Estado de Yucatán), Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior-CAPES, Brazilian Ministry of Education (PhD grant number 4814061 provided to the primary author) and Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología-CONACyT, México (grant 60824) for research support. The authors also would like to thank Wilson Wasielesky, Yoram Avnimelech and Manuel Valenzuela for photos courtesy and Miguel Arévalo, Maite Mascaró, Elsa Noreña, Santiago Capella, Adriana Paredes, Gabriela Palomino, Korynthia Aguiar, Moisés Cab, Nancy Aranda Cirerol, Concepción Burgos, Manuel Valenzuela and all staff of Programa Camarón-UMDI for their contribution towards researches performed at UMDI-UNAM cited in this chapter.
Root canal treatment is one type of endodontic treatment. To understand endodontic treatment, it is important to know about the anatomy of the tooth. The lack of knowledge regarding morphological and anatomical variations of the root canal system can result in failure to identify all root canals and lead to inadequate instrumentation and consequent failure of the endodontic treatment.
\nThe external and internal morphological features of roots are variable and complex, and several classifications have been proposed to define the various types of canal configurations that occur commonly. Improvements in nondestructive digital image systems, such as cone-beam and micro-computed tomography, as well as the use of magnification in clinical practice, have increased the number of reports on complex root canal anatomy [2, 12].
\nInside the tooth, under the white enamel and the hard layer of the dentin, there is a soft tissue called the pulp. The pulp contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue and creates the surrounding hard tissues of the tooth during development (Figure 1).
\nAnatomy of the tooth.
The endodontist removes the inflamed or infected pulp, carefully cleans and shapes the inside of the root canal, and then fills and seals the space. The endodontically treated tooth will receive a crown or other restoration to protect and restore it to full function [21].
\nA canal is considered well obturated when a radiopaque mass is visualized on the radiographs, being homogeneous and continuous, without voids, adapted to the lateral walls, terminating near the radiographic apex, namely 0.5–1 mm [16].
\nThe principal stages of endodontic treatment are as follows (Figure 2):
The endodontist examines and takes a radiograph of the tooth using X-rays and then administers local anesthetic. After the tooth is numb, the endodontist places a small protective sheet called a “dental dam” over the area to isolate the tooth and keep it clean and free of saliva during the procedure.
The endodontist makes an opening in the crown of the tooth. Very small instruments are used to clean the pulp and the root canals.
After the space is cleaned and shaped, the endodontist fills the root canals with a biocompatible material, usually a rubberlike material called gutta-percha. The gutta-percha is placed with an adhesive cement to ensure complete sealing of the root canals. In most cases, a temporary filling is placed to close the opening. The temporary filling will be removed by the dentist before the tooth is restored [3].
In the end of the treatment, the tooth will need a crown or other types of restoration to protect and restore it to full function.
Important stages of endodontic treatment.
The main purpose of endodontics is the total elimination or significant reduction of bacteria and their products by combining root canal system instrumentation with chemical cleaning and filling with an inert material in order to maintain or to restore the health of periradicular tissues. Endodontic treatment aims to eliminate inflamed pulpal tissue, to clean and to obturate the canals. The sealing material must be inert, biocompatible, and stable to fill the spaces left by the pulp tissues.
\nDuring the chemical-mechanical preparation, endodontic instruments promote the mechanical removal of microorganisms. The mechanical instruments remove products, and tissues aided by a chemical substance that, in addition to maximizing the removal of debris through the mechanical action of the flow and reflux, can also exert a significant chemical effect, as long as it has an antimicrobial action.
\nThe mechanical action of instrumentation and irrigation is able to reduce the amount of microorganisms and degenerate tissue within the root canal system. However, the use of irrigating solutions (auxiliary chemical) with antibacterial activity significantly increases the efficacy of the preparation in terms of infection control.
\nRemaining for a longer time inside the root canal, an intracanal medicament with antibacterial action has a greater chance of reaching areas not affected by instrumentation. Thus, by exerting its antibacterial action, it can contribute to the reduction of the endodontic microbiota.
\nRoot canals are usually sealed using a solid material (usually gutta-percha). Although gutta-percha presents antibacterial activity, attributed to the zinc oxide component of the cones, such activity is discrete and unlikely to have any value inside the root canal system [13].
\nIn fact, disinfected channels should be filled to eliminate void space that would have the potential to be infected or reinfected. Chemomechanical preparation of the root canal includes both mechanical instrumentation and antibacterial irrigation, and this is principally directed toward the elimination of microorganisms from the root canal system [15]. A variety of instruments and techniques have been developed and described for this critical stage of root canal treatment. Since their introduction in 1988, nickel-titanium rotary instruments have become a mainstay in clinical endodontics because of their exceptional ability to shape root canals with potentially fewer procedural complications. The safe clinical use of nickel-titanium instruments requires an understanding of the alloys as their mechanical properties and their correlation to canal anatomy [24].
\nPhotodynamic therapy is a treatment modality that was initiated in 1900. Recently, several papers advocated its use for root canal treatment. The concept of photodynamic inactivation requires microbial exposure to either exogenous or endogenous photosensitizer molecules, followed by visible light energy, typically wavelengths in the red-infrared region. This causes the excitation of the photosensitizers, resulting in the production of some reactive oxygen species that react with intracellular components and consequently produce cell inactivation and death. This therapy is suggested as effective to antimicrobial intracanal, being a clinical treatment for periapical lesions [14].
\nMicroorganisms play an important role in the etiology and maintenance of pulp and periapical infections. It is now known that more than 300 species of bacteria inhabit the oral cavity; however, the number of bacterial species present in the root canals ranges from 1 to 12, with a predominance of strict anaerobes. The use of irrigating solutions during biomechanical preparation is important for the cleaning and elimination of microorganisms present inside the root canal system [18, 20, 25].
\nIn the process of root canal preparation, irrigation of the root canal is an essential element. There are five main benefits to using these irrigation solutions during root canal cleaning:
Wetting of the walls of the canal
Elimination of microorganisms
Dissolution of organic matter
Removal and softening of the teeth
Cleaning of areas inaccessible by mechanical instruments
The ideal irrigating solution should exhibit potent antimicrobial action, have the ability to dissolve organic material, be lubrificating, have low surface tension, and have no cytotoxic effects on periradicular tissues. Sodium hypochlorite is a halogenated compound used as an irrigating solution. It is an effective antimicrobial agent and solvent of organic matter and has low surface tension, and its effectiveness becomes larger when its concentration increases; however, the higher the concentration, the higher the possibility of toxic effect on the periapical tissues. Chlorhexidine is also a halogenated compound and has broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, substance and low toxicity but does not have the property to dissolve organic matter. Although sodium hypochlorite is considered the best irrigating solution, it cannot dissolve inorganic particles and prevent smear layer formation during root canal instrumentation [6]. Demineralizing agents are recommended as adjuvants in the endodontic treatment of the root canal system. It is very important that the professional has the knowledge of the chemical properties of irrigating solutions to select and use them in the best possible way and in each particular case [10].
\nRoot canal obturation signals the complementary and expressive action of endodontic triad such as coronary opening, cleaning conformation of the radicular canal, and endodontic sealing. This underscores the concept of the elimination of gaps within the channels. Technically, the objectives of obturation consist in sealing root canal system with an inert and antiseptic material offering protection to the periapical tissues [1]. The radicular canal system has a very complex internal anatomy which should be considered with special attention during the treatment, since many studies reveal that there is a wide variety of accessory lateral channels, isthmuses, particularly in the third medium and apical root.
\nThe success of nonsurgical endodontic treatment is based on the complete elimination of all debris from the root canal system, sealing the root canal system with a suitable material. The action of the endodontic instruments, however, occurs only in the main channel not covering all the root canal system. The use of a chemical substance during the action of the instrumentation is very important, facilitating the instrumentation and the entry into the largest number of accessory channels.
\nAccording to some authors, about 60% of endodontic failures should be due to the improper sealing of radicular system [4, 5]. The obturation of the root canal promotes the apical repair process. The mechanical procedures of this step should provide biocompatibility for periapical tissues especially in the selection of sealing material. The purpose of endodontic filling is to seal all entry and exit of possible infiltrations into the root canals. It should promote hermetic apical sealing, and all the stages of endodontic treatment cannot cause damage for the periapical tissues [8].
\nThe success of endodontic treatment is related to several factors such as correct therapeutic indication, careful execution of the preparation technique, three-dimensional filling, and aseptic chain maintenance and preservation. Thus, the failure of conventional endodontic treatment usually stems from factors related to the technique, pre-existing pathology, and/or systemic factors. In many cases are observed that, even though the root canals are perfectly obturated, a persistent infection occurs. Such failures are probably related to resistant bacteria or to organic aspects of the patient. The main indicators of failure of conventional endodontic treatment are the presence of persistent apical lesion and painful post-symptomatic symptomatology. When the first intervention does not achieve the expected result, conventional endodontic retreatment should be the first option to correct any failures (such as microbial persistence in the root canal system as a consequence of inadequate aseptic control, insufficient access, and cleaning or inadequate sealing). If the infection persists, the surgical procedure may be indicated [23]. Parendodontic surgery is a therapeutic resource in the treatment of persistent conditions that affect the periapical tissues, being, for example, indicated for the resolution of cases not solved by conventional endodontic treatments. The technique used may vary according to the anatomical characteristics and local etiological factors. There are several modalities of parendodontic surgeries: urgency, exploratory and restorative, corrective, and apical. Periapical curettage is a very important procedure, since it provides the removal of infected, contaminated, and necrotic pathological tissues. The histopathological analysis of the biological material removed by curettage is fundamental for the definition of a correct diagnosis for the disease. Such procedure can promote drainage of secretions and pain relief, besides contemplating anatomical alterations, iatrogenic problems, traumatisms, endo-periodontal defects, and failures in the previous treatment. It also promotes the possibility of circumventing issues such as the need to provide material for biopsies. Modern endodontic surgery techniques incorporate ultrasonic tips and biocompatible root-end filling materials that are associated with the use of high-power magnification and illumination from an operative microscope [7, 9]. Modern techniques allow for easier identification of root apices, smaller osteotomies, and shallower resection angles that preserve cortical bone and root length [17]. Improved identification of anatomic structures allows dentists to better clean and seal the root surface, thus improving surgical therapy. This type of endodontic microsurgery has demonstrated a high success rate compared with traditional techniques [11, 22, 23].
\nThe lack of knowledge regarding morphological and anatomical variations of the root canal system can result in inadequate instrumentation and consequent failure of the endodontic treatment. The treatment of root canal is so important, together with irrigation to eliminate the microorganisms in the interior of the canals. The obturation is another very important stage in the endodontic treatment, sealing all spaces that could exist in the radicular system. All new options of rotatory instruments can improve the results of instrumentation and have to be known by the professionals.
\nAll publications on this website are published under the Open Access model, without any subscription, registration, or access fees required from the user or his/her institution. In accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative's (BOAI) definition of Open Access, users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, and link to the full text versions of all Chapters. To read more about our Open Access Statement click here.
\n\nFor Editorial Policies for journals please consult individual journal pages.
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\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
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\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
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An analysis of regime shift index reveals that the worldwide TC activity experienced four significant abrupt changes during 1960–2014, including (i) an abrupt increase/decrease in the eastern North Pacific (ENP)/western North Pacific (WNP) in the early 1970s, (ii) an abrupt increase in the ENP and WNP in the early 1980s, (iii) an abrupt increase in the North Atlantic and ENP in the middle 1990s, and (iv) an abrupt decrease in the WNP and western South Pacific in the late 1990s. Three of them are identified concurrent with a significant CRS. The possible influence of a CRS on the abrupt change of TC activity in various genesis regions is addressed. We demonstrate that a CRS induced time mean state shift results in a rapid change in the large-scale dynamic and thermodynamic conditions, which substantially contributes to the abrupt change of TC activity in various genesis regions. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{},testimonialsList:[]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/44409",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"44409"},fullPath:"/chapters/44409",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()