Common indications for multiphase CT
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"890",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Rural Development - Contemporary Issues and Practices",title:"Rural Development",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues and Practices",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Development of rural areas has witnessed increasing attention globally, especially over the past three to four decades. The highpoint in the renewed global interest in the development of rural people and their environment was reached with the setting of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in the year 2000. All of the set goals are basically rural development goals. With less than four years to the deadline for the achievement of the MDGs, it is almost certain that the goals are far from being achieved in, especially, most developing countries for whom the MDGs were essentially set.\nThe struggle thus continues for rural development. As long as problems of poverty, disease, illiteracy, unemployment, poor infrastructure, environmental degradation and others persist (or increase) in rural communities, better and more result-oriented solutions to perennial and emerging problems of rural communities would be required. But rural development, in spite of the variations in thresholds of rurality among nations, is not exclusively a Third World or ‘developing countries’ process, owing to its multi-dimensionality. It is a global phenomenon that obviously requires global strategies. \nThis book not only looks at rural development from its multi-dimensional perspectives, it is also a product of the experiences and expertise of distinguished scholars across the continents. Aiming to provide a comprehensive single volume that addresses salient issues and practices in rural development, the book covers themes ranging from sustainable agriculture, biodiversity conservation, strategic environmental assessment, renewable energy, rural financial resources, assessment of protected areas to statistics for rural development policy. Other subject matters covered by the book include social marginality, land use conflict, gender, cooperatives, animal health, rural marketing, information and communication technology, micro-business, and rural economic crisis. The book is thus an invaluable source of useful information on contemporary issues in rural development for researchers, policy makers, and students of rural development and other related fields.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0461-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4301-7",doi:"10.5772/1399",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"rural-development-contemporary-issues-and-practices",numberOfPages:424,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"9967cc96f6a47491bc39e1f6feff72c4",bookSignature:"Rashid Solagberu Adisa",publishedDate:"April 20th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/890.jpg",numberOfDownloads:72499,numberOfWosCitations:44,numberOfCrossrefCitations:15,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:50,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:12,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:109,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 3rd 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 31st 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 5th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 4th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"75981",title:"Dr.",name:"Rashid",middleName:null,surname:"Solagberu Adisa",slug:"rashid-solagberu-adisa",fullName:"Rashid Solagberu Adisa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75981/images/2707_n.jpg",biography:"Rashid Solagberu Adisa teaches Agricultural Extension and Rural Development at the University of Ilorin, Nigeria. He holds B. Agric. (Hons.), M. Sc (Agricultural Extension and Rural Development), and PhD D (Rural Development) degrees. He also has Certificates in Conflict Analysis and Negotiation and Conflict Management from the United States Institute of Peace. Dr. Adisa has, since obtaining his Bachelor’s degree in 1989, been active in AE&RD activities within and outside Nigeria. His research works have been published extensively in scholarly journals within and outside Africa, and he is on the Editorial/Reviewers’ Boards of several scholarly professional journals. Dr. Adisa is an active member of notable professional associations, including the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education (AIAEE).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Ilorin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"449",title:"Sustainable Management Practices",slug:"business-economics-sustainable-management-practices"}],chapters:[{id:"35752",title:"Rural Development in the Twenty-First Century as a Global Necessity",doi:"10.5772/49098",slug:"introductory_chapter_rural_development_in_the_twenty_first_century_as_a_global_necessity",totalDownloads:4506,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Rashid Solagberu Adisa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/35752",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/35752",authors:[{id:"75981",title:"Dr.",name:"Rashid",surname:"Solagberu Adisa",slug:"rashid-solagberu-adisa",fullName:"Rashid Solagberu Adisa"}],corrections:null},{id:"34412",title:"Sustainable Agriculture – A Panacea for Achieving Biodiversity Conservation and Rural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa?",doi:"10.5772/29004",slug:"sustainable-agriculture-could-it-be-the-panacea-for-achieving-biodiversity-conservation-and-rural-de",totalDownloads:3495,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Simon M. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"43704",title:"Computed Tomography in Abdominal Imaging: How to Gain Maximum Diagnostic Information at the Lowest Radiation Dose",doi:"10.5772/55903",slug:"computed-tomography-in-abdominal-imaging-how-to-gain-maximum-diagnostic-information-at-the-lowest-ra",body:'Computed Tomography (CT) was first introduced as a medical device in the 1970’s, and has since become a ubiquitous imaging tool. Recent technical advances including faster scan times, improved spatial resolution, and advanced multi-planar reconstruction techniques have led to the application of CT for the evaluation of numerous anatomic abnormalities and disease processes. Approximately 3 million CT scans were performed annually in the United States in 1980, but by 2008 that number had grown to 67 million and it continues to rise. [1] Over two-thirds of all medical radiation is attributable to CT, with 75% of CT scans being performed in the hospital setting. Approximately 40% of CT scans are of the head/neck/spine, 10% of the chest, 47% of the abdomen/pelvis, and the remainder of the extremities or as a procedural tool. [2, 3, 4]
Increasing awareness of medical radiation has paralleled the increase in CT usage with permeation into the popular and scientific press. This has resulted in an emphasis by several organizations on reducing overall medical radiation exposure without compromising diagnostic accuracy and usefulness. Despite this increased awareness and attention, the significance of the increased radiation exposure to the population caused by CT remains unclear. High levels of ionizing radiation exposure are known to increase cancer risk [5, 6, 7] but the data for lower doses of radiation, like those seen during medical imaging (including CT), is less clear and remains controversial. [8, 9, 10] Therefore, in the absence of clarity on this topic, the American College of Radiology (ACR), Health Physics Society (HPS) and other interested organizations have adopted the principles of
Several strategies to reduce CT-associated radiation have been attempted. One strategy is to vet CT as the appropriate diagnostic test with preferential use of other imaging modalities such as ultrasound and MRI when able, particularly in pediatrics, and to limit the CT examination to the anatomic area in question. A second strategy involves optimizing scanning parameters (such as kVp, pitch and mA) in order to reduce exposure in all patient populations. [13, 14, 15] If CT is felt to be necessary, applying optimized technical parameters and limiting the scan area can substantially reduce radiation exposure and result in dose reductions as high as 65%. [12, 15] These important techniques are described in other chapters of this book and are not our focus. Rather, we will concentrate on an important, but potentially overlooked source of unnecessary medical radiation, namely, multiphase examinations. We will discuss how multiphasic examination should be used in abdominal imaging with an emphasis on utilizing the minimum number of phases that will suffice for the clinical indication. [16]
The different phases that are possible with state-of-the-art CT scanners are myriad and include scanning before and after contrast administration, delayed imaging, venous and arterial phases, and several others (table 1). Specific patterns of contrast enhancement or evolution of findings over time can dramatically aid in diagnosis in abdominal pathology, thus justifying these additional phases in some patients. However, additional phases should only be necessary in very specific clinical indications, and should be used judiciously as each phase will result in additional radiation. If these additional phases are performed for a specific examination with the same technical parameters as the original phase, which is often the case, the radiation dose is multiplied by the number of phases making it important that the phases performed are clinically indicated and relevant.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tIdentify calcifications\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tN/A\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | ||||
Angiography | \n\t\t\tEvaluate vascular anatomy | \n\t\t\t15-35 sec | \n\t\t|||
Arterial phase | \n\t\t\tEarly | \n\t\t\tArterial structures | \n\t\t\t15-35 sec | \n\t\t||
Late | \n\t\t\tHypervascular tumors | \n\t\t\t15-35 sec | \n\t\t|||
Portal venous phase | \n\t\t\tMajority of routine imaging is performed with this phase. Provides excellent solid organ visualization | \n\t\t\t60-90 sec | \n\t\t|||
Venous Imaging | \n\t\t\tEvaluate for venous thrombosis | \n\t\t\t180 sec | \n\t\t|||
Delayed | \n\t\t\tCholangiocarcinoma | \n\t\t\t10-15 minutes | \n\t\t|||
Adrenal adenoma | \n\t\t\t10-15 minutes | \n\t\t||||
Extravasation (i.e. active bleeding) | \n\t\t\t7-10 minutes | \n\t\t||||
Renal | \n\t\t\tCorticomedullary phase | \n\t\t\tIdentification of renal cortical abnormalities | \n\t\t\t70 sec | \n\t\t||
Nephrogenic phase | \n\t\t\tCharacterization and improved visualization of renal masses | \n\t\t\t100-200 sec | \n\t\t|||
Excretory phase | \n\t\t\tEvaluation of the renal collecting system | \n\t\t\t10 min | \n\t\t
Common indications for multiphase CT
Multiphase CT examinations are extremely useful in a certain subset of patients. The temptation in a busy practice is to perform CT with a “one size fits all” approach such that physicians will not miss the opportunity to completely characterize even the most unexpected findings. This approach usually means utilizing multiphase scans in all patients to cover multiple potential scenarios. Since most patients do not benefit from additional phases, this practice results in unnecessary radiation in the majority of patients. The dose-multiplication effect of these unnecessary phases can be dramatically reduced or eliminated with individual tailoring of CT exams to the specific clinical scenario. [16]
In an attempt to address this issue, the American College of Radiology (ACR) has developed evidence and expert opinion-based appropriateness criteria matching scanning protocols for various clinical conditions. [17] Unfortunately, the criteria often do not address the most appropriate phase for use in a specific clinical scenario, but rather allude to a “CT Abdomen and Pelvis with IV contrast”. Therefore, identification of the most appropriate phases requires a literature review to identify scenarios when additional phases can be expected to add additional useful information. Our approach is to perform single phase imaging (generally the portal venous phase) unless there is specific literature or recommendations to support additional phases. Thus, for the indications addressed by the ACR appropriateness criteria, a portal venous phase is the most likely recommendation. For each indication in the appropriateness criteria, the varying imaging modalities are ranked, but they generally do not discuss the use of different phases in CT. They define 1 as being the least appropriate study for the given indication and 9 as being the most appropriate. Similarly, the Royal College of Radiology has also developed guidelines for the same purpose and these guidelines have many similarities to, but are not identical to the ACR guidelines [18]. For the purposes of this discussion, we will attempt to describe utilization patterns for CT phases that are supported by the medical literature and while these recommendations are partially based upon the ACR guidelines, we also recommend that physicians become familiar with medical literature supporting the use of multiphasic CT.
The majority of CT imaging in the head, chest and extremities are performed with single-phase imaging and won’t be specifically addressed. However, abdominal imaging is associated with many potential uses for multiple-phase imaging and will be discussed in detail. The majority of abdominal and pelvic CT’s can be performed using a single-phase, but the evaluation of some tumor types (hepatic/pancreatic/renal), the urinary collecting system, and trauma patients among others, may be best performed with multiple phases which is described in more detail below.
In discussing the numerous phases and indications for CT, it should be noted that best patient care requires individualized CT protocols based upon each patient’s specific symptoms, pathology, and underlying co-morbidities. Although labor intensive, this provides the highest likelihood of an accurate diagnosis with the lowest necessary radiation dose. The following discussion will provide a basic outline of current best practice, but not all clinical scenarios can be accounted for. Note that the ACR appropriateness criteria can be found on the ACR website (http://www.acr.org/ac).
Non-contrast CT scans Figure 1a (left) and 1b (right) are of limited use for the differentiation of soft tissue structures. However, materials like blood, calcium (renal stones, vascular atherosclerosis), bone, and pulmonary parenchyma are highly visible and can usually be adequately assessed with non-contrast CT. For example, in the abdomen and pelvis, there are several indications for non-contrast imaging. These include: evaluation of renal calculi; assessment for gross intra-abdominal hemorrhage; and post-endostent volume measurements. In addition, non-contrast images are often obtained in conjunction with contrast enhanced images in evaluating potential renal transplant donors and in the evaluation of the pancreas (in combination with contrast phases). Of note, dual-energy CT and the development of virtual “non-contrast” images may ultimately obviate the combination scans. Additionally, CT angiography examinations performed for pathologies like aneurysms and dissection are frequently performed in conjunction with non-contrast imaging. The non-contrast images facilitate the differentiation of active extravasation or acute bleeding from vascular calcifications.
Non-contrast CT demonstrating multiple bilateral renal calculi (arrows), which can be obscured on contrast-enhanced images, particularly delayed images when there is excreted contrast in the renal collecting system; axial left, coronal reformat on right.
Contrast enhanced CT examinations can be acquired at a variety of specific time points after intravenous contrast injection (timing is dependent on the phase of contrast enhancement needed and organ system being evaluated). The timing should be chosen specifically to optimize contrast distribution within the solid organ parenchyma in question.
The most common technique is to perform portal venous phase imaging in the abdomen and pelvis (approximately 60-90 seconds after contrast administration, figure 2). This results in near optimal contrast opacification of the majority of the solid abdominal organs and it is used for a wide variety of indications: nonspecific abdominal pain; hernia; infection; masses (with a few exceptions such as hypervascular, renal, and some hepatic tumors); and in most follow-up examinations. As a general rule, this single phase is adequate unless there is a specific clinical indication that has been shown to benefit from other phases.
Contrast enhanced CT demonstrating parenchymal enhancement of the intra-abdominal organs in the portal venous phase (axial left, coronal reformat right).
CT angiography (CTA) is highly effective for evaluation of the arterial system, and has largely replaced conventional angiography due to the lower risk profile and ability to survey the entire abdomen. Images are acquired after a rapid bolus of intravenous contrast material (3-7 cc/s) during the arterial phase (15-35 seconds after injection) when the concentration of contrast material in the arterial system is high (figures 3). Images are usually acquired using narrow collimation (<1 mm) and can be retrospectively reconstructed using dedicated 3-dimensional workstations and software. CTA is commonly used in the head and chest in the evaluation of pulmonary emboli, aneurysms, vascular malformations, dissection, bleeding and ischemia. Indications for early arterial phase imaging include: evaluation of aneurysms or dissections (cerebral, aortic, etc.), hepatic, splanchnic or renal arterial anatomy, and arterial imaging in liver or kidney transplantation. Single phase arterial imaging is often used in the evaluation of trauma patients either a complete chest/abdomen/pelvis examination with arterial phase imaging of the chest and portal venous phase imaging of the abdomen/pelvis or just a portal venous phase of abdomen and pelvis depending on the mechanism and severity of the trauma. CTA is also commonly performed in the abdomen and pelvis for evaluating vascular malformations and in the evaluation of bleeding. Mesenteric ischemia can also be evaluated using CT angiography. CTA of the abdomen and pelvis is often performed in combination with a CTA for evaluating the extremity vasculature.
Axial (left) and coronal (right) CT angiography images of the abdominal aorta evaluating for aortic aneurysm.
The late arterial phase is timed to correspond to the peak concentration of contrast material in highly vascular tumors and is performed approximately 20-35 seconds after the injection of intravenous contrast. Early arterial phase imaging is predominantly utilized for angiography and will be discussed separately. Late arterial phase imaging is almost always performed in conjunction with other phases (e.g. portal venous phase) to allow more complete characterization of any identified abnormalities (figure 4). The primary indication for a late arterial phase is for the evaluation of hypervascular tumors of the liver such as hepatocellular carcinoma or hypervascular metastases (figure 4). Typical hypervascular tumors for which this would be used include: hepatocellular carcinoma; renal cell carcinoma; melanoma; carcinoid/neuroendocrine tumors; some sarcomas; choriocarcinoma; and thyroid carcinoma. Although a “hypervascular”, biphasic evaluation would generally be used for these patients, note that a single phase is often adequate for follow up imaging.
Selected images from a biphasic CT demonstrating early arterial enhancement of a posterior right hepatic lobe mass with mild wash out on delayed phase images in the setting of cirrhosis characteristic of hepatocellular carcinoma.
CT imaging specific for the venous structures is performed uncommonly. Most venous structures are partially opacified on the routine contrast enhancing images and suffice for most examinations. However, occasionally evaluation of the inferior vena cava is desired, such as prior to IVC filter placement/removal or evaluation of IVC thrombosis.
Delayed phase imaging (figure 5) encompasses scanning at a variety of different times following contrast administration, and depends on the pathology in question. Typical delayed imaging times range from a few minutes to up to 15 minutes or longer. The most common indications for delayed phase imaging are evaluation of the kidneys, collecting system (ureters and bladder) and specific kidney, liver, and adrenal tumors. [19, 20] Evaluation of the kidneys, ureters and bladder are discussed separately in the renal imaging section. Cholangiocarcinoma occurring within the extrahepatic biliary tree or intrahepatic cholangiocarcinomas are a common reason for delayed imaging. Cholangiocarcinomas are fibrotic tumors which enhance slowly, and are usually imaged following a 10-15 minute delay. Similarly, adrenal masses can be evaluated with multiphase imaging including an unenhanced CT, portal venous phase and a 10 minute delay CT which allows for evaluation and calculation of the enhancement and washout characteristics aiding in distinguishing benign adrenal adenomas from other adrenal masses.
Outside of the evaluation of masses, delayed phase images can be used in the evaluation of active vascular extravasation in trauma patients, vascular malformations, and aneurysm disruption.
Selected images form CT performed using a Cholangiocarcinoma specific protocol. 5a is a portal venous phase image demonstrating a single low attenuation mass which does not appear to enhance. 5b is a 15 minute delayed image which demonstrates delayed enhancement of the liver mass (arrow) characteristic of Cholangiocarcinoma. Several other enhancing masses (arrowheads) are also seen which were not evident on the portal venous phase images.
When evaluating hepatic masses, it can be advantageous to have both late arterial and portal venous phase images (biphasic imaging, figure 4) since some tumors enhance briskly during the arterial phase (hepatocellular carcinoma, hepatic adenoma, follicular nodular hyperplasia (FNH), and hypervascular metastasis), but may be occult or difficult to characterize on portal venous phase imaging alone (figure 6). However, it should be stressed that the addition of late arterial phase images is only indicated if one of these tumors is suspected, or if there is a need for further characterization of a hepatic mass, since the large majority of patients will not benefit from the addition of this phase. In addition, if there is a need to definitively characterize a hepatic mass, MRI is generally more sensitive and specific, with no associated radiation dose.
Selected images from a biphasic CT of Focal Nodular Hyperplasia in the left hepatic lobe (arrow). These masses have characteristic early arterial enhancement (6a) with contrast wash out on the portal venous phase images (6b) from the mass making these lesions difficult to identify on portal venous phase images alone.
Detection and characterization of renal parenchymal masses is a frequent indication for CT. An initial noncontrast CT is important for detecting calcium or fat in a lesion, and to provide baseline attenuation of any renal masses. Following noncontrast scanning, intravenous contrast is injected and a corticomedullary phase is obtained at approximately 70 seconds (figure 7a, 7b). The corticomedullary phase is characterized by enhancement of the renal cortex as well as the renal vasculature. This phase is valuable in the evaluation of benign renal variants, lymphadenopathy and vasculature, however certain medullary renal masses may not be visible during this phase due to minimal enhancement of the medulla and collecting system. The parenchymal phase is obtained approximately 100-200 seconds after the injection of contrast material (figure 7c). Parenchymal phase imaging demonstrates continued enhancement of the cortex, enhancement of the medulla, and various levels of contrast material in the collecting system. The parenchymal phase is highly important for the detection and characterization of renal masses, parenchymal abnormalities, and the renal collecting system. [21] This method of imaging does not evaluate for abnormalities of the collecting system.
Selected images from a renal mass specific protocol CT. Corticomedullary phase (axial 7a) demonstrates peripheral enhancement of the renal cortex with minimal opacification of the renal medulla. There is a large renal cell carcinoma in the right kidney which can be differentiated from the normal renal parenchyma by the heterogeneous and differential enhancement. The renal artery and vein are opacified in this phase as well. The collecting system is not opacified (coronal reformat 7b). In the parenchymal phase, the renal cortex and the medulla are enhancing. The renal cell carcinoma in the left kidney is not as well defined when compared to the corticomedullary phase images, but is actually slightly more conspicuous. There is some contrast noted within the collecting system during this phase (7c).
Common renal masses can occasionally be differentiated from each other using this imaging technique. Renal cell carcinomas and oncocytomas typically demonstrate intense heterogeneous enhancement on the parenchymal phase images and cannot be reliably differentiated from each other but can be distinguished from other renal masses. Angiomyolipomas (AML’s) also demonstrate intense contrast enhancement but characteristically contain macroscopic fat which can be detected on the noncontrast images, and can help to differentiate AML’s from renal cell carcinomas and oncocytomas. Renal lymphoma on the other hand, will often have decreased enhancement when compared to the renal parenchyma on the parenchymal phase images.
CT urography (CTU) is commonly used in the evaluation of hematuria, and specifically tailored to image the renal collecting system, ureters and bladder in addition to the renal parenchyma. Initial imaging includes a noncontrast phase to detect renal calculi as a source of hematuria. Note that dual energy CT may eventually allow the noncontrast phase to be eliminated. Contrast enhancement techniques for CTU vary from institution to institution. A common technique used at our institution and others is a double bolus, single phase imaging algorithm. This technique is a hybrid contrast injection strategy that results in opacification of the renal parenchyma (parenchymal phase, figure 8a) and the collecting system, ureters, and bladder (excretory phase, figure 8b and 8c). At our institution, a small contrast bolus is administered initially, followed 10 minutes later with a larger bolus that is imaged in the corticomedullary phase. This ensures that contrast is being excreted by the kidneys and thus the collecting system is opacified (excretory phase) from the initial injection, and that the renal parenchyma is enhancing as well from the second injection (parenchymal phase). At the conclusion of the urography protocol, we also perform a scout image in the supine and prone position to allow a global evaluation of the collecting system. Excretory phase imaging allows for not only evaluation of the ureteral lumen, but also periureteral abnormalities including external masses and lymphadenopathy. [22]
Selected images from a CT Urography protocol CT. 8a is an axial CT image from the renal parenchymal phase. There is a mildly enhancing soft tissue mass in the left renal pelvis (arrow) consistent with a transitional cell carcinoma.
Pancreatic masses are often evaluated using both an early arterial (to evaluate for vascular involvement and thus resectability, figure 9a) and a later “pancreatic” phase (which optimizes pancreatic parenchymal enhancement and thus is best at differentiating pancreatic tumors from pancreatic parenchyma, figure 9b). Pancreatic adenocarcinoma typically is hypoenhancing when compared to the surrounding parenchyma. Most other common pancreatic tumors are hypervascular with avid enhancement (such as pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors) and appear brighter than the surrounding pancreatic parenchyma after the injection of intravenous contrast material.
Selected images from a pancreatic protocol. 9a is a noncontrast CT image demonstrating subtle fullness in the region of the pancreatic neck (arrow). 9b is a CT image performed during the early arterial phase during which there is opacification of the arterial structure with subtle fullness in the pancreatic neck (arrow). The pancreas is not enhancing during this phase. 9c was performed in a late arterial/pancreatic phase demonstrating normal enhancement of the pancreas (arrowhead) with a hypoenhancing mass (arrow) in the pancreatic neck. The pancreatic mass is more visible during this phase.
CT imaging should be performed to evaluate the specific clinical question, however incidental findings are noted in approximately 5-16 % of patients scanned for an unrelated reasons. [23, 24] It is not acceptable practice to anticipate the possibility of incidental lesions given their low incidence and prospectively add additional phases to routine protocols. Unfortunately, several recent surveys demonstrated that this practice is more common than might be anticipated, and contributes to unnecessary medical radiation exposure to a large population of patients. [16] Even more egregious is the fact that many of these findings could potentially be more accurately evaluated with other non-radiation imaging modalities such as MRI or ultrasound.
Although the management of incidental findings is not the focus of this chapter, some of these findings will require complete characterization with further CT phases such as arterial phase (certain liver tumors) or delayed images (adrenal lesions). Management of incidental findings has been controversial since they are relatively common, especially in the elderly, and more CT scanning may be required for further characterization of what is frequently a benign finding. In an effort to provide guidance on which incidental findings should be appropriately further evaluated and what the appropriate imaging modality should be, the ACR published a white paper on management of incidental findings detected at CT of the abdomen in 2010. [25]
Multiphase CT examinations are very important for the detection and characterization of certain clinical conditions, but should not be generalized for every patient undergoing CT of the abdomen and pelvis. A recent survey demonstrated that many physicians are routinely performing multiphase CT for the majority of patients in an attempt to prospectively characterize potential lesions detected during the scan. However, unindicated multiphase CT examinations are an important source of medical radiation that does not contribute to the care of patients. Adherence to published standards such as the ACR Appropriateness Criteria can both decrease medical radiation and optimize imaging for the specific clinical indication.
CT (computed tomography)
kVp (Kilovoltage)
ma (Milliamperes)
CTA (Computed Tomography Angiography)
CTU (Computed Tomography Urography)
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
ACR (American College of Radiology)
Goats are raised in addition to producing meat, they can also produce fur to be made into wool, and feces which are used as manure. Goat manure contains macro nutrients as well as micro elements that can be used as soil fertility amendments [1]. In sustainable agriculture, manure can be used as a potential soil ameliorant to increase soil organic matter and provide plant nutrients [2]. The traditional form of using goat manure is to spread it in its natural form over the land for growing crops and put it in the soil so that its nutritional content is available to plants. Furthermore, goat feces as manure can be made into quality liquid fertilizer [3] that can fertilize the growing media as well as a nutrient solution in hydroponics as modern plant cultivation.
Plant protected cultivation, the so-called, hydroponics and semi-protected cultivation, in particular in pots, is currently in great practices by Indonesian growers, however, the development of hydroponic and potting plant cultivation in Indonesia is still very limited. One of the difficulties of growers in hydroponic development and cultivation in pots is mainly due to the limited availability of quality liquid fertilizers.
One of the most important components in supporting the development of plant cultivation is fertilizer. Fertilizer is a source of nutrients which is one of the factors needed in plant growth. In geoponic plant cultivation, fertilizers are generally applied to the soil in the form of synthetic chemical fertilizers so that the nutrients contained in them can be quickly absorbed by plants. However, the application of synthetic chemical fertilizers can reduce soil fertility and productivity if given continuously. Soil productivity, among others, is determined by the condition of soil fertility, previous fertilization (fertilizer residue), the application of organic matter, and the type of plant cultivated [4].
The narrowing of fertile agricultural land in line with the increasing need for land for housing and offices and other public facilities, becomes a serious obstacle to crop production in the future. The decline in fertile agricultural land mainly occurred in developed and developing countries including Indonesia, encouraging the development of soilless cultivation technology (soilless culture) known as hydroponics. The discovery of liquid organic fertilizers can support the development of hydroponics because it can replace the availability of inorganic fertilizers which are increasingly difficult to obtain on the market in certain country like Indonesia.
To obtain high-quality organic fertilizers, the use of effectiveness microorganism (EM) as organic matter decomposer microbes during fermentation of the raw ingredients is the best way [5, 6]. In the manufacture of liquid fertilizers, urea, NPK, and molasses can be added to provide nutrients and energy sources to EM [7]. EM is a microbial inoculant used in the fermentation of organic matter to increase soil fertility, plant growth, and crop yield [8]. The quality of liquid organic fertilizers is determined not only by the nutrient content and pH of the fertilizer solution, but also the content of other phytochemical compounds such as growth regulators and other organic acids [9, 10].
Currently many quality solid organic fertilizers are offered in the market, such as vermicompost, which can increase crop yields [11, 12]. In addition, currently liquid organic fertilizers (LOF) are even created by the growers [13, 14, 15]. However, the availability of quality LOF on the market is still very limited. The current availability of LOF in the market in Indonesia has several weaknesses, such as expensive price, acidic pH, and low EC.
The formulation of the ingredients that are combined will determine the quality of the fertilizer made. Formulation is an important step in the manufacture of liquid organic fertilizers which determines the quality of the fertilizers made. However, in the manufacture of liquid organic fertilizers, there are not many reports that provide detailed formulations. ECHO West Africa Impact Center has conducted training in making liquid organic fertilizer for farmers with a formula consisting of: livestock manure, forage materials, namely green grass or green leaves, and water, each with a ratio of 1: 1: 1 (v/v), plus living earth and 2–3 shovel ash [16]. The ingredients are mixed and put in a drum, then fermented aerobically for 14 days. Every day, do the stirring for 5–10 minutes using a wooden stick. Likewise, the manufacture of liquid organic fertilizer “Herbafarm” by PT. Sidomuncul, with the raw material of liquid waste for making ethanol, the process of making fertilizer is reported in detail [17], while the comparison formula for raw materials and additives is not clearly detailed.
The use of organic fertilizers on the one hand gives a low quantity of crop yields but on the other hand is capable of producing high quality agricultural products. This low yield quantity is partly due to the low nutrient content of organic fertilizers [11, 12], so that in order to provide high yields it is necessary to look for quality organic fertilizers by increasing the nutrient content and the content of other chemical compounds.
It is not enough to carry out fertilizer quality tests in the laboratory to determine the content of nutrients and chemical compounds, but it needs to be done in the field to determine the potential or effect of fertilizers on plant growth and yield. In this study, tests were carried out on the dynamics of pH and EC, and the content of organic compounds of liquid fertilizer made from goat feces (LFGF) at the time of manufacture and storage, the effect of LFGF on the growth and yield of leaf vegetables cultivated hydroponically and in pots. The cultivation techniques used in this study include non-substrate hydroponics using nutrient solution planting media, cultivation techniques in pots using a mixed planting medium of sand, compost, and husk charcoal.
Fertilizer application to plants needs to be regulated in dosage. In the application of liquid fertilizer, the dose of fertilizer can be adjusted by adjusting the concentration, frequency or interval of application. In this study, the LFGF treatment interval was adjusted for planting mustard plants in pots.
Fermentation and incubation of liquid fertilizer were carried out in the laboratory of University of Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa (UST). The materials are: air dried goat feces, sugar, ZA fertilizer, EM microbial solution, and sterile water. The tools used include: plastic buckets with lids of 30 liters volume, stirring bamboo sticks, 5 liter plastic jerry cans, plastic funnels, and a pH/EC/TDS meter.
Liquid fertilizers were formulated using a 3 x 3 factorial experiment arranged in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. The first factor was the concentration of sugar, consisting of 3 levels: 12.5, 25, and 50 g L−1 of water coded S1, S2, and S3 respectively. The second factor was the concentration of ZA, consisting of 3 levels: 25, 37.5, and 50 g L−1 of water coded Z1, Z2, and Z3 respectively. There were 9 treatment combinations, namely: S1Z1, S2Z1, S3Z1, S1Z2, S2Z2, S3Z2, S1Z3, S2Z3, and S3Z3. Each treatment combination was fermented in 20 liters of water (see Appendix A). All combinations added 100 g of goat feces and 1 ml of EM liquid for every liter of water. Fermentation of the materials consisted of several steps [3, 18].
The fermentation was carried out for 3 weeks, for each combination formula of liquid fertilizer treatment was taken 5 liters of fertilizer solution, then collected in a plastic jerry can container and closed tightly. All plastic jerry cans containing fertilizer solution were placed in a storage room at room temperature for 5 months. Every month the pH and EC of the fertilizer solution were observed.
There was no interaction between the sugar and ZA concentrations at the acidity (pH) of LFGF (Table 1). The variation of sugar concentration from the lowest to the highest indicates that the sugar concentration of 12.5 g L−1 of water produces the highest pH (6.4) close to neutral, if the concentration of sugar increases 2 to 4 times, the pH drops to 4.9–4, 3 and consistent from the first to the third week. In contrast to the sugar concentration, the use of ZA concentrations of 25, 37.5, and 50 g L−1 water did not result in a change in pH (about 5.0–5.3) from the first to the third week (Table 1). This shows that sugar has an effect on the organic acid content of LFGF, the higher the sugar concentration the higher the organic acid content and the lower pH. Although the concentration of ZA did not affect changes in pH, ZA produced relatively acidic LFGF with a pH of about 5.0–5.3. Thus ZA also affects the organic acid content of LFGF but is not as strong as the effect of sugar (Table 4).
Treatments | pH | ||
---|---|---|---|
Week I | Week II | Week III | |
Sugar concentration (g L−1 water) | |||
12,5 (S1) | 6,4 a | 6,2 a | 6,4 a |
25 (S2) | 4,9 b | 5,0 b | 5,1 b |
50 (S3) | 4,3 c | 4,1 c | 3,9 c |
S ( | < 0,0001 | < 0,0001 | < 0,0001 |
ZA concentration (g L−1 water) | |||
25 (Z1) | 5,3 a | 5,2 a | 5,3 a |
37,5 (Z2) | 5,2 a | 5,2 a | 5,2 a |
50 (Z3) | 5,2 a | 5,0 a | 5,2 a |
Z ( | 0,6222 | 0,5218 | 0,2061 |
Effect of sugar and ZA concentrations on pH of LFGF during fermentation.
Note: The mean number in the column followed by the same letter shows no significant difference based on DMRT 5%.
There was no interaction between the sugar and ZA concentrations on the electrical conductivity (EC) of LFGF (Table 2). The sugar concentrations of 12.5, 25, and 50 g L−1 water did not cause changes in EC, which was about 2600 μS cm−1 (after 20 times LFGF dilution) consistent from the first week to the third week. In contrast to the variation in the concentration of ZA, it shows that the ZA concentration of 25 g L−1 of water produces the lowest EC which is around 1900 μS cm−1, if the ZA concentration increases to 37.5 g L−1 of water it results in an increase in EC to around 2500–2700 μS cm−1, and when the ZA concentration was increased to 50 g L−1 water the result was an increase in EC to about 3300 μS cm−1 (Table 5). It can be understood that ZA which has the chemical formula (NH4)2SO4 as a nutrient provider (N and S) can stimulate the growth of microbial increase (EM) so that the breakdown of organic matter (goat feces) increases and results in an increase in the content of total dissolved solids (TDS) as well as EC of LFGF.
Treatments | EC (μS cm−1) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Minggu I | Minggu II | Minggu III | |
Sugar concentration (g L−1 water) | |||
12,5 (S1) | 2666 a | 2713 a | 2740 a |
25 (S2) | 2648 a | 2680 a | 2698 a |
50 (S3) | 2458 a | 2528 a | 2685 a |
S ( | 0,1790 | 0,1500 | 0,2061 |
ZA concentration (g L−1 water) | |||
25 (Z1) | 1929 c | 1909 c | 1988 c |
37,5 (Z2) | 2548 b | 2621 b | 2718 b |
50 (Z3) | 3294 a | 3391 a | 3419 a |
Z ( | <0,0001 | <0,0001 | <0,0001 |
Effect of sugar and ZA concentrations on EC of LFGF during fermentation.
Note: The mean number in the column followed by the same letter shows no significant difference based on DMRT 5%.
There was no interaction between the sugar and ZA concentrations on nutrient content (N, K, S, and Mn) of LFGF (Table 3).
Treatment combination | N total (%) | K2O total (%) | S total (%) | Mn total (ppm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
S1Z1 | 0,44 d | 0,17 b | 0,06 e | 21,34 e |
S1Z2 | 0,66 c | 0,13 cd | 0,19 b | 24,50 d |
S1Z3 | 0,85 a | 0,11 d | 0,26 a | 23,71 d |
S2Z1 | 0,39 d | 0,14 c | 0,09 d | 30,49 b |
S2Z2 | 0,79 b | 0,12 cd | 0,24 a | 37,54 a |
S2Z3 | 0,81 ab | 0,12 cd | 0,20 b | 27,95 c |
S3Z1 | 0,44 d | 0,19 a | 0,06 e | 29,55 cb |
S3Z2 | 0,66 c | 0,19 ab | 0,15 c | 38,03 a |
S3Z3 | 0,85 a | 0,21 a | 0,20 b | 29,44 cb |
S * Z ( | <.0001 | 0.0103 | <.0001 | <.0001 |
Interaction between the sugar and ZA concentrations on nutrient content (N, K, S, and Mn) of LFGF.
Note: The mean number in the column followed by the same letter shows no significant difference based on DMRT 5%.
S1, S2 and S3: Sugar concentration of 12,5, 25, and 50 g L−1 water respectively.
Z1, Z2, and Z3: ZA concentration of 25, 37,5, and 50 g L−1 water respectively.
The interaction between the use of sugar and ZA on organic acid content (lactic, acetic and citric acids) occurred (Table 4). High sugar concentration (50 g L−1 water) resulted in the highest lactic acid content both with low ZA concentrations (25 g L−1 water) and high (50 g L−1 water), namely: 7582 mg L−1 and 7270 mg L−1 respectively. This research is in line with research conducted by Yunus and Zubaedah [19] and Zubaedah et al. [20]. Sucrose provides energy and carbon for lactic acid bacteria for lactic acid metabolism, and the accumulation of lactic acid can lower the pH of the media. The results of Yunus and Zubaedah [19] research on the effect of sucrose concentration and fermentation time on the viability of
Treatment | Organic acid content (mg L−1) | ||
---|---|---|---|
combination | Lactic acid | Acetic acid | Sitric acid |
S1Z1 | 49,37 d | 2512,17 a | 41,09 a |
S3Z1 | 7582,52 a | 373,89 d | 35,80 b |
S1Z3 | 17,20 d | 915,38 b | 29,39 c |
S3Z3 | 7270,21 b | 439,55 c | 30,02 c |
S * Z ( | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | 0.0012 |
Interaction between sugar and ZA concentration on organic acid content of LFGF.
Note: The mean number in the column followed by the same letter shows no significant difference based on DMRT 5%.
S1 and S3: sugar concentration of 12,5 and 50 g L−1 water respectively.
Z1, and Z3: ZA concentration of 25 and 50 g L−1 water respectively.
Low sugar concentration (12.5 g L−1 water) with low ZA (25 g L−1 water) resulted in the highest acetic acid content (2512 mg L−1) (Table 4). The results of this study are different from the results of research conducted by Firdausni [21] and Priasty et al. [22]. Research by Firdausni [21] on the effect of sugar and yeast concentrations in vinegar from Rosella (
High citric acid content was produced in a combination of low ZA concentration (25 g L−1 water) with low sugar (12.5 g L−1 water) and high sugar (50 g L−1 water), namely 41.09 mg L −1 and 35.80 mg L−1 respectively (Table 4). In contrast to the research on the manufacture of citric acid conducted by Hamat and Sasmita [23] who studied the use of tapioca flour waste as a submerge culture in citric acid fermentation, the results showed that making citric acid from tapioca flour waste needed to be added with sugar with a concentration of 140 g L−1 of water., used
The higher the lactic acid content is due to the higher the sugar concentration used, resulting in lower LFGF pH, which can reduce the quality of the fertilizer. However, several studies have shown that lactic acid can stimulate plant growth. Giving lactic acid at a very low concentration can stimulate plant growth. Lactic acid can stimulate the growth of duckweed (
In the experiment on the germination of tomato seeds (
Lactic acid and acetic acid can make plants healthy. Both of these organic acids can reduce fungal infections in seeds, however at high concentrations they can have a negative effect on germination and reduce the vigor of Zinnia seedlings [26]. Compared to lactic and acetic acids, the content of citric acid of LFGF is very low. Citric acid can also stimulate plant growth. Talebi et al. [27] reported that citric acid is an environmentally friendly chemical, at a concentration of 300 mg L−1, which can have a positive effect on the growth and development of Gazania plants.
Experiments examining the effect of organic acids on germination, vigor, and health of Zinnia plant seedlings [26], showed that 5% acetic acid treatment inhibited seeds from germinating, resulting in 14–26.3% germinating seeds, lower than the treatment of 1% acetic acid which produced 78.3–84% germinated seeds which was not significantly different from the control treatment (84–91% germinated seeds). However, the 5% acetic acid treatment resulted in the seeds being attacked by disease with the smallest percentage, namely 8.3–12.7% which was not significantly different from the 5 g kg−1 fungicide treatment (11.7–16.7%) which was lower than the control treatment (19.3–30.3%). While 1% or 5% lactic acid treatment did not inhibit seed germination, resulting in 85.7–86% germinated seeds for 1% lactic acid treatment and 73% for 5% lactic acid treatment. However, lactic acid treatment did not reduce the disease-stricken seeds compared to control.
Apart from lactic acid and acetic acid, citric acid also has a positive effect on plant growth. Experiments conducted by Marjenah et al. [28] who studied the effect of a mixture of beef bone with organic acids to increase available P and growth of maize in inceptisol soil, showed that citric acid was able to more strongly dissolve P-organic cow bone ash than acetic acid and lactic acid, so that P availability increased for plants.
The results of this experiment showed that the formula with a combination of 100 g goat feces +12.5 g sugar +50 g ZA produced a normal pH (range 6.0–6.5), the highest EC (range 3200–3400 μS cm−1, after dissolving in water at a ratio of 1:20), and has the highest total N and S content, however, the formula produced the lowest lactic acid content and had an unpleasant odor. Observation of color and odor showed that the treatment of sugar concentration of 50 g L−1 produced yellow LFGF with a sour smell, sugar 25 g L−1 of water produced LFGF brownish yellow with slightly acid, while the treatment of sugar concentration 12.5 g L−1 water produced a blackish brown and unpleasant odor. The sour odor indicates the high organic acid content of the LFGF produced.
LFGF with the formula S2Z3 (goat feces 100 g L−1 water, sugar 25 g L−1 water, ZA 50 g L−1 water, EM 1 ml L−1 water), has a slightly acidic pH (5.0–5, 2), high EC, slightly sour smell, selected to be the LFGF tested applied to plants.
Fermentation of LFGF [3] is carried out at the Laboratory of the Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa University. The manufacture of liquid fertilizer was carried out in the first week to the fourth week of February 2017. Experiments on using LFGF were carried out from March to August 2017 at Agricultural Technology Park, Nglanggeran Wonosari Yogyakarta.
The research materials included: the seeds of pakcoy mustard (
Experiments on the use of LFGF on leaf vegetable plants used a 3 x 4 factorial arranged by completely randomized design (CRD). The first factor was the kinds of leaf vegetables, consisting of 3 levels: T1: pakcoy mustard, T2: lettuce, and T3: red spinach. The second factor was the combination of nutrient solutions, consisting of 4 levels: A1: LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:1), A2: LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:3), A3: LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 3:1), and A4: AB-Mix as controls. Each treatment combination was repeated 3 times so that there were 36 experimental units.
The seeds of pakcoy mustard, lettuce, and red spinach were sown in compost for two weeks until they grow into seedlings, then they were selected to obtain uniform seeds. The vegetable seedlings were then planted in a hydroponic installation with a series of 4-inch diameter PVC pipe using the shallow flow technique (SFT) method with a distance between the planting holes of 30 cm, and a vertical distance of 40 cm between the pipes (see Appendix B). Plants were fertilized with nutrient solution according to treatment. The concentration of the nutrient solution was adjusted in the range 1600–1650 μS cm−1, and the pH was in the range of 5.5–6.5 (EC, pH, N and P content were observed in each combination of nutrient solutions). Nutritional solution replacement was carried out every 4 days when the plants were 1–12 days old, then once every 3 days until the plants were 21 days old, and once every 2 days until the plants were harvested (35 days old).
Five weeks after planting, observations were conducted on the variables of the number of leaves, shoot fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root dry weight, leaf chlorophyll content, and root/shoot ratio, on five sample plants from each treatment unit. Chlorophyll content was observed directly on the leaves without destructive, on the leaves that were located at the bottom, middle and top of the plant. Observation of chlorophyll content using a digital chlorophyll meter “CCM 200 plus Chlorophyll Content Meter”.
The results of EC and pH observations of the nutrient solution from each mixture of LFGF and AB-Mix are listed in Table 5.
Nutrient solition | pH | EC (μScm−1) |
---|---|---|
P1 | 5,85 | 1625 |
P2 | 6,25 | 1636 |
P3 | 5,54 | 1618 |
P4 | 6,52 | 1650 |
EC and pH of ready-to-use nutrient solutions.
Note: P1: LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:1), P2: LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:3), P3: LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 3:1), P4: AB-Mix.
EC and pH of those various nutrient solution mixtures are ideal for the growth of leaf vegetable plants. Lettuce, carrots, strawberries, and onions require EC 1400 μS cm−1, while broccoli, cabbage, tomato, cucumber, radish, and chili plants require EC 3000 μS cm−1 [29]. Spice plants require EC 2500 μS cm−1 and pH 5.5–6.5 [30]. Nutritional solutions with a pH of 5.8–6.5 are the most ideal for plant growth in hydroponic systems [31]. Ornamental plants
EC regulation of nutrient solution to make it stable was done by replacing the nutrient solution with short time intervals, namely when the plants were 1–12 days old, did once every 4 days, then once every 3 days until the plants were 21 days old, and once every 2 days until the plants were 35 days old. The results of experiments conducted on hydroponic pakcoy [34] showed that the EC was too high (9600 μS cm−1) or too low (0–600 μS cm−1) causing low plant fresh and dry weight, leaf area narrow, low net photosynthesis rate, and decreased taste value. Based on growth and quality criteria, the optimal EC is 1800–2400 μS cm−1. Too high or too low EC causes nutrient stress, increases antioxidant enzyme activity, and reduces plant growth and quality.
The results showed that there was no interaction between the combination of nutrient solution and kinds of leaf vegetables on the variables of leaf number, shoot fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root dry weight, and leaf chlorophyll content (Table 6). In mustard greens (Table 6), the nutrient solution treatment consisting of a mixture of LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1: 3) (P2) resulted the highest canopy fresh weight, canopy dry weight, root dry weight as well as the highest chlorophyll content, while LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1: 1) (P1) treatment and AB-Mix nutrient solution treatment without adding LFGF (P4) resulted in canopy fresh weight, canopy dry weight, and root dry weight not significantly different. The two treatments (P1 and P4) produced higher canopy fresh weight, canopy dry weight, and root dry weight than LFGF + AB-Mix treatment (v/v: 3: 1) (P3) (see Appendix C).
Plants | Treatments | Leaf number | Canopy fresh weight (g) | Canopy dry weight (g) | Root dry weight (g) | Chlorophyle content (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mustard | P1 | 16.44 ab | 132.47 b | 11.59 b | 1.60 b | 17.12 b |
P2 | 18.44 a | 155.23 a | 14.63 a | 2.08 a | 20.00 a | |
P3 | 15.22 b | 99.07 c | 9.27 c | 1.27 c | 16.88 b | |
P4 | 17.67 a | 125.20 b | 11.13 b | 1.56 b | 16.69 b | |
0.0284 | 0.0031 | 0.0005 | 0.0006 | 0.0578 | ||
Lettuce | P1 | 13.44 a | 79.03 a | 3.30 ab | 0.47 a | 4.50 a |
P2 | 12.77 a | 81.66 a | 3.80 a | 0.58 a | 6.11 a | |
P3 | 13.11 a | 66.72 a | 2.51 b | 0.45 a | 4.90 a | |
P4 | 13.32 a | 75.33 a | 3.17 ab | 0.58 a | 4.80 a | |
0.9809 | 0.8799 | 0.0626 | 0.3101 | 0.2794 | ||
Red spinach | P1 | 18.11 bc | 108.61 a | 16.44 a | 2.01 a | 15.39 a |
P2 | 20.66 a | 126.28 a | 19.19 a | 2.10 a | 16.84 a | |
P3 | 16.78 c | 83.31 b | 12.69 b | 1.56 b | 15.27 a | |
P4 | 19.33 ab | 106.51 a | 16.23 a | 1.86 ab | 15.25 a | |
0.0011 | 0.0067 | 0.0064 | 0.0529 | 0.2935 |
Effect of mixture of LFGF and AB-mix on growth and yield of leaf vegetables.
Note: The mean number in the column followed by the same letter shows no significant difference based on DMRT 5%.
P1: LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:1), P2: LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:3), P3: LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 3:1), P4: AB-Mix.
The results of field practice show that mustard greens are the most sensitive to changes in pH and EC of nutrient solutions compared to other leaf vegetables such as lettuce and spinach. In this experiment, the best growth and yield of mustard plants were obtained in the LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1: 3) treatment, the LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1: 3) treatment also produced the highest leaf chlorophyll content. This shows that the LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1: 3) mixture produces the best nutrient solution for plant growth, the nutrient solution not only contains complete nutrients but also contains growth stimulants and growth nourishing (organic acids) in optimal concentration.
AB-Mix is the most commonly used fertilizer for providing hydroponic nutrient solutions. The addition of LFGF to AB-Mix at a high ratio (v/v: 3: 1) could inhibit growth and reduced the yield of mustard greens, this was probably because the mixture of LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 3: 1) contained high organic acids so that it could inhibit plant growth. The experiment conducted by Szopińska [35] showed that 5% acetic acid treatment inhibited seed germination in
LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1: 1) treatment resulted in the growth and yield of mustard plants which was not significantly different from the control treatment (AB-Mix). Thus, this treatment can save the use of A/B- Mix fertilizer by 50%, so it can save costs because the price of AB-Mix fertilizer is expensive. To manufacture LFGF the cost per liter (unit cost L−1) is not more than IDR 2,000 and to produce 1000 liters of ready-to-use solution (EC 1500 μS cm-1) requires LFGF 20 liters (costs IDR 40,000), while for preparing a ready-to-use AB-Mix nutrient solution 1000 liters (EC 1500 μS cm−1) requires a package of AB-Mix (1 kg) for IDR 100,000.
In this experiment, LFGF was diluted by adding water with a ratio of 1:50 (v/v) to obtain an EC of about 1500–1600 μScm−1. In hydroponic systems, the optimum EC for leaf vegetable plants such as pakcoy is 1.8 mScm−1, too low or too high EC will cause nutrient stress, stimulate antioxidant enzyme activity, and inhibit growth and reduce plant quality [34]. Pakcoy can grow well in nutrient solutions with an EC of about 1.5–2.5 dSm−1, while lettuce at EC is 1.6 dSm−1 [36].
In lettuce (Table 6), nutrient solution treatment only had a significant effect on the variable dry weight of the canopy. Treatment P2 resulted in a higher canopy dry weight than treatment P3 but it was not significantly different from treatment P1 and P4. Treatments P1, P3 and P4 produced the same dry weight of the canopy (see Appendix D).
In red spinach (Table 6), treatment P1, P2, and P4 produced canopy fresh weight and dry weight of the canopy were not significantly different (see Appendix E). The three treatments resulted in the fresh weight of the canopy and the dry weight of the canopy which was higher than that of the P3 treatment. As in mustard greens, LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1: 3) treatment can produce better growth of lettuce and red spinach than LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 3: 1) treatment.
The experiment was carried out from March to July 2017 in the greenhouse of the Agricultural Faculty of UST. The experiment began with the manufacture of LFGF [3] and continued with the treatment of LFGF on mustard plants cultivated in plastic pots. Materials for the LFGF application test included: the seeds of Caisin mustard (
The LFGF application experiment in the cultivation of mustard greens in pots was carried out with a single factor experiment which was designed in a completely randomized design. Types of treatment included the time interval for LFGF fertigation (watering): once a day (P1), two days (P2), three days (P3), four days (P4), and without the application of LFGF (P0). The experiment used 5 replications. Each experimental unit used 5 mustard plants grown in plastic pots.
The mustard plant seeding was carried out in a seedbed filled with a mixture of sand, compost and husk charcoal (v/v: 1: 1: 1). The mustard greens were sown by sowing the mustard seeds in a seedbed that had been filled with media. Spray the media twice a day in the morning and evening using a hand sprayer so that the nursery media was always moist. The mustard seedlings were allowed to grow in a seeding tub for 2 weeks, after which the mustard seeds were transferred to a black plastic pot filled with sand, husk charcoal and compost with a ratio of 1: 1: 1 (v/v) for treatment P0, and filled sand and husk charcoal with a ratio of 1: 1 (v/v) for treatment P1, P2 and P3. Filling the planting medium into the plastic pot was carried out to a height of 12.5 cm from the bottom of the plastic pot.
Plant maintenance included watering the plants with LFGF according to the treatment. LFGF was given by diluting with water with a ratio of 1: 40 (v/v) to obtain a concentration (EC) of 2,300 μScm−1. Watering with LFGF was done in the morning on the plants and the potting media to field capacity (about 250 ml per plant) using a watering can. The control plant (P0) was watered only. In the afternoon all the plants were watered with water to field capacity.
Harvesting was done when the plants were 35 days old by removing the plants from the growing medium. The roots of the plants were cleaned from the planting medium, then observed growth variables including: root/stem fresh weight, leaf fresh weight, root/stem dry weight, leaf dry weight, and plant dry weight.
LFGF fertigation treatment at intervals of 3 days (P3) and 4 days (P4) resulted in better mustard plant growth than LFGF fertigation at intervals of 1 day (P1), 2 days (P2), and without LFGF fertigation (P0) (Table 7) (see Appendix F). The P0 planting medium used in this experiment consisted of a mixture of sand + compost + husk charcoal (v/v: 1: 1: 1), a relatively fertile planting medium with a pH of 7.3, 25% organic matter content, N 1.97%, and P 1.35%, while the planting media P1, P2, P3, and P4 consisted of a mixture of sand + husk charcoal (v/v: 1: 1) having a pH of 7.5, 17% organic matter content, N 0. 25%, and P 0.09%.
Treatment | Leaf fresh weight (g) | Root/stem fresh weight (g) | Leaf dry weight (g) | Root/stem dry weight (g) | Plant dry weight (g) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
P0 | 57,60 c | 41,4 b | 5,07 c | 5,11 b | 10,18 b |
P1 | 128,4 b | 38,8 b | 11,11 b | 4,87 b | 15,98 b |
P2 | 127.0 b | 44,0 b | 11,52 b | 5,52 b | 17,04 b |
P3 | 202,4 a | 65,6 a | 18,22 a | 8,25 a | 26,47 a |
P4 | 175,6 a | 70,8 a | 15,19 a | 8,55 a | 23,74 a |
P ( | <0,0001 | <0,0001 | <0,0001 | 0,0018 | <0,0001 |
Average leaf fresh weight, root/stem fresh weight, leaf dry weight, root/stem dry weight, and mustard plant dry weight at 35 days after planting.
Note: The mean number in the column followed by the same letter shows no significant difference based on DMRT 5%.
P0: Without LFGF fertigation.
P1: LFGF fertigation with interval 1 day.
P2: LFGF fertigation with interval 2 days.
P3: LFGF fertigation with interval 3 days.
P4: LFGF fertigation with interval 4 days.
The planting medium in this experiment was half of sand, so it required more frequent fertilizer application. According to Relf et al. [37], sand soil requires more frequent fertilization than clay soil. Vegetables grown on porous growing media require more frequent fertilization, vegetables grown on clay require less fertilizer than vegetables grown on sandy soil [38]. Other factors that affect the frequency of fertilizer application include the type of plant, the plant growth stage, the frequency and amount of water given, and the type of fertilizer. Leaf vegetable plants require more nitrogen fertilizer [37]. Plants grown on organic soil require a little extra fertilizer. Liquid fertilizers are usually given with a frequency of once a week [38].
In this experiment LFGF was given with EC 2,300 μScm−1. The application of liquid organic fertilizer to paprika plant seeds with liquid organic fertilizer made from shrimp and seaweed extract fermented using Trichoderma harzianum can improve the quality of plants fertilized 3 times a week with EC 1.5 mScm−1 and watering every day as needed [39]. Experiments on elephant grass plants grown in pots showed that the treatment of liquid organic fertilizer from the
In this experiment, the planting medium used was limited in volume, accommodated in a plastic pot with a diameter of 15 cm. The planting medium used was a mixture of sand, husk charcoal and compost with a ratio of 1: 1: 1 (v/v) for control treatment, and a mixture of sand and husk charcoal with a ratio of 1: 1 (v/v) for other treatments. The limited volume of planting media resulted in limited availability of nutrients in the P0 treatment (control) despite the addition of compost, so that the growth and yield of control plants (without LFGF treatment) was not optimal. The size of the plastic pot (planting container) has an effect on the volume of plant roots, thereby affecting plant growth [42]. Pooter et al. [43] suggest that researchers be careful in determining the size of the pot in their research, as small pots can adversely affect the results of the study. However, the LFGF treatment (P1, P2, P3, and P4) gave better plant growth and yield than without LFGF treatment (P0). This indicates that the provision of LFGF can lead to more adequate availability of plant nutrients so that it does not require a heavier root volume.
Watering LFGF once every 3 days (P3) or once every 4 days (P4) resulted in higher plant growth and yield than watering LFGF once a day (P1) or once every 2 days (P2). This shows that the P3 and P4 treatments cause the availability of nutrients and organic acids in the optimum conditions for plant growth, while in the P1 and P2 treatments the availability of organic acids is too high so that it inhibits plant growth. At high concentrations it can have a negative effect on plant growth [35].
Increasing the concentration of ZA results in an increase in the total content of N and S, as well as an increase in EC of LFGF. Increasing the sugar concentration stimulates the formation of lactic acid at both low and high ZA concentrations, while an increase in ZA decreases the formation of acetic acid at both low and high sugar concentrations. Increasing the organic acid content decreases the pH of LFGF.
The combination of LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1: 3) (P2) shows that the most ideal nutrient solutions, nutrient solutions not only having complete and optimum nutritional content, but also containing organic acids in optimum concentrations. It can produce the best growth and yield of pakcoy mustard plants are better than the control (AB-Mix), while the P2 treatment on lettuce and red spinach results in the same plant growth and yield as the control.
LFGF treatment with EC 2,300 μScm−1 and a time interval of 3 days on a mixed planting medium of sand + husk charcoal (v/v: 1: 1) can result the availability of nutrients and other compounds (organic acids) in optimal conditions for the growth of caisin mustard plants. It can produce the highest growth and yield of caisin mustard plants.
The non-traditional use of goat manure in the form of LFGF can increase the yield of leaf vegetables, both in potted and hydroponic cultivation, so that it can be economically profitable.
We would like to express our heartfelt thanks to University of Sarjanawiyata Tamansiswa (UST), Yogyakarta, Indonesia for the research funding support.
None.
A: Plant treated with LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:1) (P1).
B: Plant treated with LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:3) (P2).
C: Plant treated with LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 3:1) (P3).
D: Plant treated with AB-Mix (v/v: 1:1) (P4).
A: Plant treated with LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:1) (P1).
B: Plant treated with LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:3) (P2).
C: Plant treated with LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 3:1) (P3).
D: Plant treated with AB-Mix (v/v: 1:1) (P4)
A: Plant treated with LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:1) (P1).
B: Plant treated with LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 1:3) (P2).
C: Plant treated with LFGF + AB-Mix (v/v: 3:1) (P3).
D: Plant treated with AB-Mix (v/v: 1:1) (P4)
P0: Plant treated without LFGF fertigation.
P1: Plant treated with LFGF fertigation with interval 1 day.
P2: Plant treated with LFGF fertigation with interval 2 days.
P3: Plant treated with LFGF fertigation with interval 3 days.
P4: Plant treated with LFGF fertigation with interval 4 days.
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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:50,paginationItems:[{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. 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