The volume unit of (H2 + CO) mixture per unit of electrical power in various PLS
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"964",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Huntington's Disease - Core Concepts and Current Advances",title:"Huntington's Disease",subtitle:"Core Concepts and Current Advances",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Huntington's Disease is one of the well-studied neurodegenerative conditions, a quite devastating and currently incurable one. It is a brain disorder that causes certain types of neurons to become damaged, causing various parts of the brain to deteriorate and lose their function. This results in uncontrolled movements, loss of intellectual capabilities and behavioural disturbances. Since the identification of the causative mutation, there have been many significant developments in understanding the cellular and molecular perturbations. This book, \"Huntington's Disease - Core Concepts and Current Advances\", was prepared to serve as a source of up-to-date information on a wide range of issues involved in Huntington's Disease. It will help the clinicians, health care providers, researchers, graduate students and life science readers to increase their understanding of the clinical correlates, genetic aspects, neuropathological findings, cellular and molecular events and potential therapeutic interventions involved in HD. The book not only serves reviewed fundamental information on the disease but also presents original research in several disciplines, which collectively provide comprehensive description of the key issues in the area.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-953-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4359-8",doi:"10.5772/1470",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"huntington-s-disease-core-concepts-and-current-advances",numberOfPages:568,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"7469b484fe69f49ebe4553d913a025dc",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunali",publishedDate:"February 15th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/964.jpg",numberOfDownloads:55018,numberOfWosCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:79,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 16th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 13th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 18th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 17th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 15th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/82778/images/system/82778.jpeg",biography:"Nagehan ERSOY TUNALI received her Ph.D., M.Sc., and B.Sc. degrees in Molecular Biology and Genetics from the Boğaziçi University, İstanbul (TR). Her Ph.D. work involved “Molecular Analysis of Polyglutamine Diseases and Investigation of the Interaction Between Huntingtin and Nuclear Receptor Corepressor”. She had the opportunity to gain experience in Huntington’s Disease (HD) research at the University of Manchester (UK), CNR-Istituto di Medicina Sperimentale e Biotecnologie (IT) and the University of Wales College of Medicine (UK). She served as the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Cell and Molecular Biology between 2006 and 2016. Nagehan ERSOY TUNALI is currently conducting research on genetic modifiers of HD, localization and interactions of huntingtin, molecular mechanisms of excitotoxicity in HD, diagnostic biomarker discovery in AD, and nanotechnology-based therapeutic approaches in HD and AD.",institutionString:"Istanbul Medeniyet University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Istanbul Medeniyet University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1054",title:"Neurobiology",slug:"mental-and-behavioural-disorders-and-diseases-of-the-nervous-system-neurobiology"}],chapters:[{id:"28325",title:"Retracted: Huntington’s Disease: From the Physiological Function of Huntingtin to the Disease",doi:"10.5772/31789",slug:"huntington-s-disease-from-the-physiological-function-of-huntingtin-to-the-disease",totalDownloads:2157,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Laurence Borgs, Juliette D. 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\r\n\tSensory processing plays an integral role in the interaction and adaptation by which an individual navigates through a stimulus-loaded environment. Although intensive research of sensory processing has accumulated a large body of knowledge over the years, the key issues such as where, when and how the human neural system processes, integrates and influences environmental information to produce personal experiences and images of reality, are still open. As neurocognitive theories of sensory processing rapidly change and develop with novel research findings, there is a great potential to consider the current extent to which these findings can help in understanding the complex interfering of surround stimuli with an individual’s processing of elicited cognitive responses.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book Integration and Representation of Sensory Processes aims to disseminate the latest research breakthroughs in the field of basic and clinical neurophysiology of sensory processing and multisensory integration. The book intends to introduce novel models of sensory processing and explore functional and effective connectivity between brain areas underlying sensory responses and the multimodal integration with possible clinical implications of these findings in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders. The methods presented to assess human neural systems involved in sensory processing and the generations of perception cover a range of functional neuroimaging approaches including electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). These techniques have created the opportunity to explore the relationship between stimulus properties, stimulus representation in the brain, and their connection with perceptual attributes more directly. Finally, applications of neurophysiological sensory processing results will be discussed, including the state-of-the-art development of brain-machine interfaces.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"b58da2a096851c1ff54ab87fd7ad88ed",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sanja Josef Golubic",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8932.jpg",keywords:"Auditory and Visual Sensory Processing, Gating Phenomena, Multisensory Integration, Sensory Processing Disorders, Gating Processing Stream, Ventral Processing Stream, Dorsal Processing Stream, Cortical Projection Areas, Sensory processing disorder, Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), Dystonia",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 2nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 8th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Josef Golubic's latest highlight contribution to the field includes resolving 30-years long enigma of neural network underlying auditory sensory gating; disclosing a new, fast cortical pathway which links prefrontal cortex to primary sensory areas within first 100 milliseconds after stimulation, and finally revealing a discrete individual biomarker of Alzheimer’s disease with the potential to detect the disease in its preclinical stage.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"225125",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sanja",middleName:null,surname:"Josef Golubic",slug:"sanja-josef-golubic",fullName:"Sanja Josef Golubic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225125/images/system/225125.png",biography:"Sanja Josef Golubic is a senior research and teaching assistant (postdoctoral fellow) at the Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb. \r\n\r\nHer academic qualifications include a Ph.D. in cognitive neurodynamics and M.Sc. in theoretical physics. Despite a short scientific career, she has made outstanding achievements in the field of neuroscience. \r\n\r\nHer first scientific publication was nominated for the Nightingale Prize for best Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing paper in 2011. 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Recently, interest in hydrogen energy has increased significantly, mainly due to the energy consumption increase in the world, and recent advances in the fuel cell technology. According to the prognosis, in the next decades, global energy consumption will be increased by 59%, and still most of this energy will be extracted from the fossil fuels. Because of the traditional fossil fuels depletion, today there\'s a growing interest in renewable energy sources (f.e. – bioethanol, biodiesel). Bioethanol can be obtained from the renewable biomass, also it can be easily and safely transported due to its low toxicity, but it\'s not a very good fuel. Modern biodiesel production technologies are characterized by a high percentage of waste (bioglycerol) which is hard to recycle.
It is common knowledge [2] that addition of the syn-gas to the fuel (H2 and CO) improves the combustion efficiency: less burning time, rapid propagation of the combustion wave, burning stabilization, more complete mixture combustion and reduction of dangerous emissions (NOx). Besides, the synthesis gas is an important stuff raw for the various materials and synthetic fuels synthesizing. There are many methods of synthesis gas (including hydrogen) production, for example – steam reforming and partial liquid hydrocarbons oxidation. Also, there is an alternative approach – biomass reforming with low-temperature plasma assistance. Plasma is a very powerful source of active particles (electrons, ions, radicals, etc.), and therewith it can be catalyst for the various chemical processes activation. However, a major disadvantage of chemical processes plasma catalysis is weak processes control.
There is a bundle of electrical discharges that generate both equilibrium and non equilibrium plasma. For plasma conversion – arc, corona, spark, microwave, radio frequency, barrier and other discharges are used. One of the most effective discharges for the liquid hydrocarbons plasma treatment is the "tornado" type reverse vortical gas flow plasma-liquid system with a liquid electrode (“TORNADO-LE”) [3]. The main advantages of plasma-liquid systems are – high chemical plasma activity and good plasma-chemical conversions selectivity. It may guarantee high performance and conversion efficiency at the relatively low power consumption. Moreover, those are systems of atmospheric pressure and above, and this increases their technological advantages.
Also, syn-gas ratio – hydrogen and carbon monoxide concentration ratio should be mentioned. As well, it should be taken into consideration that for efficient combustion (in terms of energy) of the synthesis gas it should contain more hydrogen, and in the case of the synthesis materials – they should contain more CO.
Relatively new possible solution to this problem – carbon dioxide recycling. Many modern energy projects have difficulties with the large amount of CO2 storing and disposing. And it is also known that the addition of CO2 to plasma during the hydrocarbons reforming may help to control plasma-chemical processes [4]. That is why the objective of the research is to study the influence of different amounts of CO2 in the working gas on the plasma-chemical processes during the hydrocarbons conversion.
This research deals with hydrocarbons (bioethanol, bioglycerol) reforming by means of the combined system, which includes plasma processing and pyrolysis chamber. As a plasma source the "tornado" type reverse vortical gas flow plasma-liquid system with liquid electrode has been used [5].
Qualitatively new challenge is connected with a selectivity of the plasma chemistry strengthening by the transition of the chemical industry to "green chemistry". The last is a transition from the traditional concept of evaluating the effectiveness of the chemical yield to the concept that evaluates the cost-effectiveness as the exclusion of hazardous waste and non-toxic and/or hazardous substances [6].
A quantitative measure of the environmental acceptability of chemical technology is the ecology factor, which is defined as the ratio of the mass of waste (waste) to the mass of principal product. Waste is all that is not the principal product.
By the way, the most promising approaches in green chemistry is the implementation of processes in supercritical liquids (water, carbon dioxide) [7].
Water in supercritical condition unlimitedly mixes with oxygen, hydrogen and hydrocarbons, facilitating their interaction with each other - oxidation reactions are very fast in scH2O (supercritical water). One particularly interesting application of this water - efficient destruction of chemical warfare agents. When mixed with other substances scH2O can be used not only for oxidation but also in the reactions of hydrolysis, hydration, the formation and destruction of carbon-carbon bonds, hydrogenation, and others.
Besides, the use of pulsed electrical discharges in the liquid brings up new related factors: strong ultraviolet emission and acoustic or shock waves. In literature it can be found that systems with energies more than 1 kJ/pulse, that have negative influence on the lifetime of such systems. Reasonable from this perspective is the usage of pulsed systems with relatively low pulse energy and focusing of acoustic waves. In addition, the acoustic oscillations in such systems can be used as an additional mechanism of influence on chemical transformations.
In using of acoustic oscillations for chemical reactions the most attention is paid to systems with strong convergent waves. However, the processes during the collapse of the powerful convergent waves are studied unsufficiently. In the literature the systems of cylindrical, spherical or parabolic surfaces used in the focusing of shock waves for technological needs are known [8]. However, among their disadvantages should be noted that partial usage of the energy of acoustic wave and the problem of it’s peripheral sources synchronization, which leads to distortion of the shock wave front ideality and reduces the focusing effectiveness.
Probably, more perspective method of using acoustic waves is their generation by single axial pulse electric discharge with further reflection from an ideal cylindrical surface. This approach can provide better symmetry of compression by convergent acoustic wave both in the gas and in the liquid. Probably, such mechanism can be exploited for scH2O production
In addition, the re-ignition of electrical discharge at the moment of collapse convergent acoustic waves can lead to the plasma temperature increasing due to compression of the discharge channel, as well as the appropriate amplification of acoustic waves after the collapse.
It\'s clear that plasma-liquid systems (PLS) mentioned above have some sharp differences. Therefore, the first section of this article presents the results of our research on the addition of CO2 to the “TORNADO-LE”. And the second section of the article is devoted to investigation of double-impulse system in underwater electric discharge.
The experimental setting is shown in Fig. 1. Its base is a cylindrical quartz chamber (1) with diameter of 90 mm and height of 50 mm. Top (2) and bottom (3) it is hermetically closed with metal flanges. Camera is filled with fluid (4), the level of which has been maintained by the injection pump through the hole (5). Bottom flange is made of stainless steel. The stainless steel T-shaped cylindrical electrode (6), cooled with water, immerses in the liquid through the central hole in the bottom flange. There is a 5 mm thick metal washer on its surface (7) in the middle of which there is a hole in diameter of 10 mm. Sharp corners are rounded. This washer is used for reducing the waves (which have been moving to the quartz wall) amplitude on the liquid surface.
The top flange, made from duralumin, contains copper sleeve (13) with a diameter of 20 mm is placed in the center (2), and plays the role of the second electrode. The nozzle with diameter of 4 mm and length of 6 mm is located in the center of the copper sleeve (8). Gas is introduced into the flange (2) through the aperture (9). Gas flow changes the direction at 90 degrees inside the flange and injects tangentially into the channel (10). (10) The gas is rotated in the circular channel. Rotating gas (11) lands on the surface liquid and moves to the central axis of the system, where fells into the quartz cell through the nozzle (14), forming a plasma torch (12). Camera (14), in its turn, plays a role of pyrolytic chamber. Flow rate reaches the maximum value near the nozzle. Due to this, the zone of lower pressure is formed in the center of the gas layer, compared to the periphery. The conical structure appears over the liquid’s surface near the system axis (Fig. 1). External static pressure is 1 atm. and internal - 1.2 atm (during discharge burning). Gas from quartz chamber (14) gets into the refrigerator (15), which is cooled with water at room temperature.
Schematic set up of the “TORNADO-LE”.
Condensed matter (16) together with the gas from the refrigerator gets to the chamber (17). At the chamber exit (17) there\'s a flask (18), where gas is gathered for its composition diagnostics by means of mass spectrometry and gas chromatography. Study of plasma parameters is performed by emission spectrometry. The emission spectra registration procedure uses the system which consists of optical fiber, the spectral unit S-150-2-3648 USB, and the computer. Fiber is focusing on the sight line in the middle between the top flange (2) and the surface of the liquid (4).
The spectrometer works in the wavelength range from 200 to 1100 nm. The computer is used in both control measurements process and data processing, received from the spectrometer.
The voltage between the top flange and electrode, immersed in the liquid, is supplied by the power unit "PU". DC voltage provided is up to 7 kV. Two modes of operation have been considered:
"liquid" cathode (LC) – electrode immersed in the liquid has "minus" and the top flange has "plus";
solid" cathode (SC) - with the opposite polarity.
Electrode which has "plus" is grounded. Breakdown conditions are controlled by three parameters: the fluid level, the gas flow value and the voltage magnitude between the electrodes. The several modes of operation have been studied:
Various air flow and CO2 ratio;
Discharge voltage varied within Ud = 2.2 ÷ 2.4 kV;
Discharge current varied within Id = 220 ÷ 340 mA (ballast resistance hasn’t been used).
At first, for the analysis of the plasma-chemical processes kinetics the distilled water (working fluid), and ethanol (ethyl alcohol solution in distilled water with a molar ratio C2H5OH/H2O = 1/9.5), as a hydrocarbon model have been used. As the working gas mixture of air with CO2, in a wide range of air flow and CO2 ratios has been used. The ratio between air and CO2 in the working gas changes in the ranges: CO2/Air = 1/20 ÷ 1/3 for the working fluid C2H5OH/H2O (1/9.5) and CO2/Air = 0/1 ÷ 1/0 (by pure air to pure CO2) - for distilled water.
Plasma component composition and population temperature of the excited electron (
The effect of the presence of CO2 in the system on the initial gas products has been investigated by means of “TORNADO-LE” current-voltage characteristics with changes in the working gas composition.
The process of discharge ignition occurred as follows: the chamber is filled with liquid to a fixed level (5 mm above the washer). At the next stage a certain amount of gas flow forms the stationary cone from liquid; the voltage applied between the top flange and electrode immersed in a liquid starts gradually increase. When the voltage reaches a break-out value -
Liquid layer thickness of 5 mm has been chosen because that is the minimum liquid thickness in which the discharge burns between the liquid surface and the top flange. If the thickness is smaller plasma pushes the water toward the electrode immersed in the liquid and the discharge starts burning between two metal electrodes. Discharge goes into the arc regime. When the thickness of the distilled water layer above the washer is 5 mm (in the case of air flow only) break voltage reaches 4.5 kV and for a CO2 flow - 6 kV. It is known [10], this increase in break-out voltage derives from the appearance of an additional loss channel of electrons – due to their sticking onto CO2 molecules. This sticking has dissociative character and it is accompanied by the energy expense.
For example, the threshold reaction with CO2 is 3.85 eV. Therefore CVC in pure CO2 is decreased (Fig. 2). When the thickness of the С2Н5ОН/H2O (1/9.5) solution layer above the washer is 5 mm (in the case of air flow only) the break voltage is 5.5 kV, and for the air flow mixture with CO2 (CO2/Air = 1/3) – 6.5 kV. Adding CO2 to the air leads to the increase in the break-out voltage value. Adding ethanol to distilled water (С2Н5ОН/H2O = 1/9.5) results in the increase of break voltage on 1 kV. Power supply unit provides maximum voltage of 7 kV. Increasing the thickness of the fluid layer above the washer (> 5 mm) leads to the increase of the break-out voltage value. There is no discharge ignition with a break-out voltage value of more than 7 kV. Therefore, 5 mm thickness of the liquid layer above the surface immersed in a liquid metal electrode (washer) has been chosen as the optimum one.
The current-voltage characteristics of the discharge are shown for the SC mode (Fig. 2 a; 2b). The cell has been filled with distilled water (Fig. 2a) or bioethanol (Fig. 2b).
a) Current-voltage characteristics of the discharge at different ratios of CO2/Air in the working gas. Working liquid - distilled water. Airflow - 55 and 82.5 cm3/s, the flow of CO2 - 4.25, 8.5 and 17 cm3 /sec. b) Current-voltage characteristics of the discharge at the ratio CO2/Air = 1/5 in the working gas. Working liquid – С2Н5ОН/H2O (1/9.5) solution. Airflow - 82.5 cm3/s, the flow of CO2 - 17 cm3/s.
The "tornado" type reverse vortex gas flow is formed by gas flow, which is a mixture of air with СО2 in varying proportions. Ratio of CO2/Air is changed in the range from 1/20 to 1/3, and in the case of ethanol and 1/0 in the case of water. Current varied in the range from 230 to 400 mA. The initial level of the working liquid is the same in all cases.
The current-voltage characteristics show that adding a small amount of СО2 (near 20%) to the working gas has no effect on the discharge type in various studied working liquids. In the range of flow ratios CO2/Air from 1/20 to 1/5 characteristics are straight lines. It was observed that the increasing of СО2 share in working gas causes discharge voltage supply rise.
Typical emission spectra of the plasma are shown in Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b for the cases with the distilled water as the working liquid and the solution of С2Н5ОН/H2O (1/9.5).
The emission spectra show that when the working liquid is distilled water, plasma contains the following components: atoms H, O, and hydroxyl OH. In case when the working liquid is С2Н5ОН/H2O solution (1/9.5), plasma has the following components: atoms – N, O, C, Fe, Cr, molecules – OH, CN, NH. The emission spectra shows that the replacement of the working liquid with distilled water with ethanol CN and lower electrode material made of stainless steel (anode) occur in plasma. Occasionally, during discharge burning breakdown may occur in С2Н5ОН/H2O layer solution (1/9.5).
Those breakdowns may occur due to the fact that during the discharge burning, thickness of liquid layer, when the working fluid has a significant share of С2Н5ОН, a current channel is formed through the liquid layer to the metal electrode. And in the case of distilled water - plasma channel discharge ends near the surface of the liquid. It may indicate the presence of large liquid surface charge.
It was observed that the increase of CO2 in the working gas (CO2/air > 0.3) leads to an increase in the intensity of hydrogen and oxygen radiation lines (H and O) at the time when the intensity of the molecular component (OH) radiation, within the error, is stable (I = 300 mA, U = 1.9-2.4 kV, air flow 0 - 82.5 cm3/sec, the flow of CO2 - 4.25 - 85 cm3/sec).
a) Emission spectrum of the plasma in TORNADO-LE plasma-liquid system, where the working liquid is distilled water. Working gas - a mixture of СО2/air = 1/0, Id = 300 mA, U = 2.2 kV, the flow of CO2 - 85 cm3/s and СО2/air = 1/20, Id = 300 mA, U = 1.9 -2.0 kV, air flow - 82.5 cm3/s, the flow of CO2 - 4.25 cm3/s. b) Emission spectrum of the plasma in the TORNADO-LE plasma-liquid system, where the working fluid is bioethanol. Working gas - a mixture of СО2/air = 1/20, Id = 300 mA, U = 2 kV, air flow - 82.5 cm3/sec, the flow of CO2 - 4.25 cm3/sec.
Fig. 4 shows the ratio of the hydrogen (Hα λ = 656.3 nm) and oxygen (O, λ = 777.2 nm) radiation intensity to the highest point of band hydroxyl (OH, λ = 282.2 nm) small intensity at different ratios of CO2/air (I = 300 mA, U = 1.9 – 2.4 kV, air flow - 27.5, 55 and 82.5 cm3/s, the flow of CO2 - 4.25, 8.5, 17, 42.5 and 85 cm3/s). High intensity bands haven\'t been used in the calculations because of the possible reabsorption. (I = 300 mA, U = 2 – 2.2 kV). In the case of distilled water (Fig. 4a), results are presented for the three air flows - 27.5, 55 and 82.5 cm3/s and five CO2 streams - 4.25, 8.5, 17, 42.5 and 85 cm3/s (I = 300 mA , U = 1.9 – 2.4 kV). Air and CO2 flows are variated so that the total flow compiles similar values and achieves ratios of CO2/air in a wide range from 1/20 to 1/0.
The ratio of the radiation intensity of hydrogen (Hα λ = 656.3 nm) and oxygen (O, λ = 777.2 nm) to the peak of the band hydroxyl (OH λ = 282,2 nm) at different ratio CO2/Air in the working gas. Working liquid - distilled water (a) I = 300 mA, U = 1.9 – 2.4 kV and bioethanol (b) I = 300 mA, U = 2 -2.2 kV.
In calculating the relative concentration ratio of hydrogen to oxygen from the emission spectra, it was observed that the hydrogen concentration is two times as much of the oxygen concentration for the case of distilled water as the working liquid - (I = 300 mA, U = 1.9 – 2.4 kV, airflow - 27.5, 55 and 82.5 cm3/sec, the flow of CO2 - 4.25, 8.5, 17, 42.5 and 85 cm3/sec), and ten times as much when the working liquid is С2Н5ОН/H2O solution (1/9.5) (I = 300 mA, U = 2 - 2.2 kV, air flow - 55 and 82.5 cm3/sec, the flow of CO2 - 4.25, 8.5 and 17 cm3/sec). However, according to the calculations, these components production by means of electrolysis and their extraction from the working gas, the oxygen concentration exceeds the average hydrogen concentration in three orders of magnitude, unless the case when the pure CO2 is used as a working gas.
It should be noted that the addition of CO2 reduces the discharge stability, especially in the case of bioethanol. In determination of the temperature population excited electron levels of plasma atomic component the most intense lines (spectra with the smallest possible accumulation in the experiment measurement of 500 ms) have been used, according to the discharge burning particularity. Also, it affects the parameters determination accuracy.
Temperature of excited hydrogen electron population levels is determined by the relative intensities (two lines of 656 nm and 486 nm). For the case where the working liquid is distilled water –
Temperatures of OH excited vibrate and rotational population levels have been determined by comparing the experimentally measured emission spectra with the molecular spectra modeled in The SPECAIR program. In the case when the working liquid is distilled water, appropriate temperatures are:
During the study, it turned out that the addition of CO2 weakly affects the population temperature of excited electron, vibration and rotational levels of plasma components (Fig. 5) (I = 300 mA, U = 1.9 - 2.4 kV, air flow - 27.5, 55 and 82.5 cm3/s, the flow of CO2 - 4.25, 8.5, 17, 42.5 and 85 cm3/s). Weak tendency to temperature decrease has been observed, but these changes do not exceed the error.
Population temperatures of excited electron, vibration and rotational levels of plasma components at different ratio of CO2/Air in the working gas. Working liquids - distilled water (a) and ethanol (b)
Fig. 6–7. shows the results of gas chromatography bioethanol conversion output products. Results are presented for two air streams 55 and 82.5 cm3/s + three CO2 streams: 4.25, 8.5 and 17 cm3/s (I = 300 mA, U = 2 – 2.2 kV). CO2/Air ratio in the range from 1/20 to 1/3 has been changing exactly this way. Selection of gas into the flask has been taken place at the refrigerator output. The flask has been previously pumped by the water-jet pump to the pressure of saturated water vapor (23 mm Hg).
Fig. 6 shows the gas chromatography comparison of bioethanol conversion output products with and without the addition of CO2. The air flow is constant – 55 cm3/s, in case of CO2/Air = 1/3 – 17 cm3/s of CO2 has been added to the air (the total flow has been increased, which may explain the decrease in the percentage of nitrogen at a constant air flow; I = 300 mA, U = 2 - 2.2 kV). This histogram shows that adding of carbon dioxide leads to a significant increase of the H2 component percentage, CO (syn-gas) and CH4 in the output gas. This may indicate that the addition of CO2 during the ethanol reforming increases the conversion efficiency, because CO2 plays a burning retarder role.
Gas chromatography comparison of bioethanol conversion output products with and without the addition of CO2.
Gas chromatography comparison of bioethanol conversion output products by adding different amounts of CO2.
The ethanol solution consumption for the SC mode with current of 300 mA and air flow of 55 cm3/ equals 6 ml/min, and for the air flow of 82.5 cm3/s and CO2 of 17 cm3/s mixture - 10 ml/min.
According to the gas chromatography, in the studied correlations range of CO2/Air, syn-gas ratio ([H2]/[CO]), changes slightly – look at Fig. 8. Measurements were made by two air streams of 55 and 82.5 cm3/s and three CO2 streams of – 4.25, 8.5 and 17 cm3/s; I = 300 mA, U = 2 – 2.2 kV.
Syn-gas ratio of bioethanol conversion output products for various ratios of CO2/Air in the range between 0/1 - 1/3.
Besides the gas chromatography, the output gas composition has been studied by means of infrared spectrophotometry (IRS). Fig. 9 shows a typical IRS spectrum of the output gas. In the SC mode (current 300 mA, voltage 2 kV) the working liquid is ethyl alcohol and distilled water mixture (С2Н5ОН/H2O = 1/9.5), and the working gas – air (82.5 cm3/s) and CO2 (4.25 cm3/s) mixture. Research has been carried out in a ditch with a length of 10 cm and a diameter of 4 cm. Pressure inside the ditch has been 1 atm. The ditch walls have been made of BaF2.
Fig. 10 shows the dependence of the CO transmission standardized maximum intensity peaks (2000 - 2250 cm-1) in the syn-gas, depending on the CO concentration according to gas chromatography results. Standardization has been conducted for the maximum intensity value of the CO transmission peak bandwidth at the SC mode with the current of 300 mA, voltage - 2 kV, the mixture of ethyl alcohol and distilled water (С2Н5ОН/H2O = 1/9.5) as the working liquid, and the mixture of air (82.5 cm3/s) and CO2 (4.25 cm3/s), as the working gas.
According to IR spectrophotometry CO fraction in the synthesis gas is practically the same. According to gas chromatography CO fraction in the synthesis gas in the different operation modes stays on the same level as well (the changes are in the range of 1%). So IR spectrophotometry can be used determine the composition of synthesis gas under ethanol reforming.
The SC mode (current 300 mA, voltage 2 kV) the working liquid is ethyl alcohol and distilled water mixture (С2Н5ОН/H2O = 1/9.5), the working gas – air (82.5 cm3/s) and CO2 (4.25 cm3/s) mixture
Dependence of the normalized maximum intensity peaks (2000-2250 cm-1) transmission of CO in the syn-gas, depending on the concentration of CO according to gas chromatography data.
Plasma provides gas generation, which contains a certain amount of the syn-gas. The energy needed for this plasma support (
where
where
Electrical energy transformation coefficient α has value of 0.81 for the "TORNADO-LE" with an ethanol solution and pure air flow 55 cm3/s. And the CO2 addition (the ratio of CO2/air = 1/3) gives the value of α = 1,01. System electrical parameters are as follows: I = 300 mA, U = 2 – 2.2 kV.
In the model of calculations was assumed that the discharge is homogeneous over the entire volume. It is justified at zero approximation, because the time of gas mixing in the radial direction is less than the times of characteristic chemical reactions. Also we neglect the processes in the transitive zone between the discharge to post-discharge. Thus, the time of gas pumping through the transition region is too short for the chemical reactions to have a sufficient influence on the concentration of neutral components.
The total time of calculation is divided into two time intervals: the first one is the calculation of the kinetic processes of fast generation of active atoms and radicals in the discharge region. Those components accelerate the formation of molecular hydrogen, carbon oxides and production of other hydrocarbons. The second time interval is the oxidation of the gas mixture in the post-discharge region as a result of the high gas temperature and the presence of O and OH. These components remain in the mixture after the dissociation of water and oxygen molecules by electron impacts in the plasma. The oxidation of generated hydrocarbons has a noticeable influence on kinetics in the investigated mixture due to the high gas temperature.
Under the aforementioned conditions, the characteristic time of oxidation is approximately equal to the air pumping time through the discharge region (~10−3–10−2 s). The following system of kinetic equations is used in order to account for the constant air pumping through the system:
where
The gas temperature in the discharge region is taken to be constant in the model. In reality, the gas temperature
The full mechanism developed for this experimental work is composed of 30 components and 130 chemical reactions between them and its closed to [11]. The charged particles (electrons and ions) are ignored in the mechanism, because of low degree of ionization of the gas (~ 10−6 – 10−5). Nitrogen acts as the third body in the recombination and thermal dissociation reactions. In the non-equilibrium plasma almost the entire energy is deposited into the electron component. The active species, generated in the electron–molecular processes, lead to chain reactions with ethanol molecules.
Numerical simulation of kinetics showed that the main channels of H2 generation in the plasma were ethanol abstraction for the first 10–100
However, it should be noted that with the increase in temperature to 2523 K leads to the fact that the output of the reactor is not observed almost no light hydrocarbons. They simply "fall apart" and burned. That leaves the most stable elements such as H2O, N2, CO2. This suggests that the increase in temperature up to these values is not advisable because of the decrease in the yield of useful products (see Fig. 11 and Fig. 12a,b).
The dependence of the reaction main products of the flow rate of CO2 (inside discharge), T = 2023 K
a). The dependence of the reaction main products of the flow rate of CO2 (after discharge), T = 2023 K. b). The dependence of the reaction main products of the flow rate of CO2 (after discharge), T = 2023 K
These calculations are based in good correspondence with the experimental data (see Fig. 8).
Other model hydrocarbon is bioglycerol (crude glycerol) which is a byproduct of the biodiesel manufacture. Biodiesel is a popular alternative fuel. It is carbon neutral, has emissions equivalent or below diesel, is biodegradable, non-toxic, and is significantly cheaper to manufacture than its petroleum equivalent. However there is one significant drawback: for every 10 gallons of biodiesel produced, roughly 1 gallon of bioglycerol is created as a byproduct.
Biodiesel is produced by mixing vegetable oil and potassium hydroxide KOH. Therefore, the large-scale production of environmentally friendly and renewable fuel may lead to possible bioglycerol accumulation in large quantities, which, in turn, can cause environmental problems, as it is comparably bad fuel. In addition, it has a rather large viscosity of 1.49 Pa•s, which is larger for almost three orders of magnitude than ethanol and water viscosity. The solution to this problem would be "TORNADO-LE" usage for bioglycerol reforming. Pure glycerol chemical formula is C3H5(OH)3. However, bioglycerol contains various impurities (including a set of alkali).
Fig. 13 shows a photograph of burning discharge, where the working liquid is bioglycerol and working gas - air. Research is conducted by the SC polarity, because this mode has lowest liquid consumption.
Photo of the combustion discharge in which the working liquid is bioglycerol and working gas - air.
Fig. 14 shows the typical emission spectrum of the plasma discharge in a "TORNADO-LE" where the working liquid is bioglycerol doped with alkali. It is registered at a current of 300 mA, voltage – 2 kV, air flow – 110 cm3/s. Optical fiber is oriented on the sight line, parallel to the liquid surface in the middle of the discharge gap. The distance from the liquid surface to the top flange equals 10 mm.
Emission spectrum (Fig. 14) is normalized to the maximum Na doublet (588.99 nm, 589.59 nm). It contains K (404.41 nm, 404.72 nm, 766.49 nm, 769.89 nm), Na (588.99 nm, 589.59 nm), Ca (422.6 nm) lines, and a part of continuous spectrum, which indicates that the there\'s a soot in the discharge. Temperature, which is defined by the plasma continuous emission spectrum is 2700 ± 100 K.
Typical emission spectrum of the plasma discharge, which burns in a mixture of air and bioglycerol / alkali.
The K, Na, Ca elements presence in the discharge gap complicates the plasma kinetics numeric modeling of the bioglycerol reform process. The gas flow rate at the system outlet is 190 cm3/s, i.e. by 80 cm3/s larger than the initial (110 cm3/s), which indicates bioglycerol reforming to the syn-gas. Liquid flow is 5 ml/min. Change of the CO2 share in the working gas weakly affects the spectrum appearance.
Based on the continuous nature of the plasma emission spectra, we compared the experimental results with the calculated spectra of the blackbody radiation. Calculations have been performed by using Planck\'s formula.
Fig. 15 shows the computational grid with step of 200-300 K in the temperature range from 2500 K to 3500 K and the plasma emission spectrum in the case of bioglycerol, as a working fluid (air flow - 82.5 cm3/s, the flow of CO2 - 17 cm3/s, CO2/Air = 1/5, Id = 300 mA, U = 600 V). All spectra are normalized to the intensity, which is located at a wavelength of 710 nm.
Plasma emission spectrum in the case when the working gas is a mixture SO2/Air = 1/5 (air flow - 82.5 cm3/s, the CO2 flow - 17 cm3/s), Id = 300 mA, U = 600 V and calculated spectra of blackbody radiation)
The data in Fig. 15 show that the plasma emission spectrum coincides with the calculated by the Planck formula for the temperature T = 2800 ± 200 K. Since bioglycerol contains alkali metals, which represent an aggressive environment, the gas chromatography can\'t be used. Therefore, in order to determine the gas composition, formed the bioglycerol reformation IR and mass spectrometry have been used.
With infrared transmission spectra one can see that the transition to bioglycerol increases the amount of such components as CO2 (2250-2400 cm-1), CO (2000-2250 cm-1), CH4 (3025-3200 cm-1), C2H2 (3200-3350 cm-1).
Electrical energy is added to the “TONADO-LE” plasma-liquid system in the form of plasma power. Plasma acts as a catalyst and thus this power should be controlled. In addition to electric energy for plasma we incorporate hydrocarbon (ethanol or bioglycerol) as an input to the system. These hydrocarbons are raw material for syn-gas generation but they are also a fuel which has some energy associated with it. So, we input some energy to the system (hydrocarbon + electricity) and we get syn-gas, which is potentially a source of energy as well.
Carbon dioxide adding leads to a significant increase the percentage of H2 + CO (syn-gas) and CH4 components in the exhaust. This may indicate that the CO2 addition under the ethanol reforming increases the conversion efficiency, because CO2 plays a role of the retarder in the system by reducing the intensity of the conversion components combustion.
The transmission spectra of infrared radiation indicate that the exhaust gas obtained by ethanol solution conversion, contains such components as CO, CO2, CH4, C2H2. It was found that CO2 adding reduces the CH4 and C2H2 amount, but does not affect the amount of producted CO.
The possibility of hydrocarbons reforming, which have considerable viscosity (bioglycerol) in the "TORNADO-LE" is shown. This gives a possibility to avoid environmental problems due to the bioglyсerol accumulation during biodiesel production.
The α coefficient [see (2)] in bioglycerol reforming is higher than ethanol reforming at the same ratios of CO2/Air in the input gas. This may be connected with the lower power consumption on the plasma generation in case of bioglycerol reforming. Bioglycerol contains alkaline dash, which increases the bioglycerol conductivity. Bioglycerol reforming products contain mainly CO and hydrocarbons CH4, C2H2, which also gives some contribution to energy yield.
The experimental setting is shown in Fig. 16. The main part of the system is cylinder with height H = 10 mm, and radius R = 135 mm. Its lateral surface made of stainless steel with a thickness of 5 cm. This cylinder is filled with liquid for experimental operations. The electrodes are placed perpendicular to the cylinder axis. They have the diameter of 10 mm, made of brass, and their ends are shaped hemispheres with a radius of curvature of 5 mm. The discharge (2) is ignited between the rounded ends of the electrodes. At a distance of 40 mm from the lateral surface of the cylinder is piezo-ceramic pressure sensor (3), which records acoustic vibrations in the fluid, caused by electric discharge under water. The distance between the sensor head and the system axis = L.
Schematic diagram of plasma-liquid system with a pulsed discharge, 1 - electrodes with brass tips, 2 – plasma, 3 – piezo-ceramic pressure sensor.
The cylindrical system could be located in a horizontal position (Fig. 17a) or vertical one (Fig. 17b). The full volume (0.5 l) of system is fluid-filled. The fluid in the system can be processed as in static mode (no flow), and dynamic one (with flow ~ 15 cm3/s). Additional supply of gas may be realized in the system also (airflow ~ 4 cm3/s), which is injected through a spray nozzle (source diameter 8 mm) located near the inner wall of the cylinder at a distance of 130 mm from the discharge gap (Fig. 16). The working fluids are: the tap water (with and without flow), distillate and ethanol (96%, no flow).
The main feature of electrical scheme for pulsed power feeding of discharge in a liquid is usage of two independent capacitors which are supplied two independent sources of power (1 kW). Pulsed discharge realized in two modes: single and double pulses. In the single pulse mode only one capacitor is discharged with a frequency of 0 - 100 Hz.
Double pulse mode is realized as follows: one capacitor discharges in the interelectrode gap through air spark gap; the clock signal from the Rogowski belt after first breakdown is applied to the thyratron circuit and second capacitor discharges through it. This set of events leads to the second breakdown of the discharge gap and second discharge appearance.
Delay of the second discharge ignition may be changed in range of 50 - 300 microseconds. The following parameters are measured: discharge current and the signal from the pressure sensor. The Rogowski belt has the sensitivity 125 A/V, and its signal is recorded with an oscilloscope. Capacity for the first discharge (C1) = 0.105 μF and it is charged to U1 = 15 kV (energy E1 = 12 J), capacity for the second discharge C2 = 0.105 µF and it is charged to U2 = 18 kV (energy E2 = 17 J).
A distance between electrodes can be changed in the range of 0.25 - 1 mm. The second discharge can be ignited at the moment (according to the delay tuning) when the reflected acoustic wave, created by the first electric discharge in liquid, returns to the center of the system (the time of its collapse ~ 180 ms).
Photograph of the cylinder from the outside: a) horizontal position, b) vertical position.
The composition of ethanol and bioethanol reforming products is studied with gas chromatography, in case of bioglycerol reforming - mass spectrometry and infrared spectrophotometry.
Oscillograms of current and acoustic signal for different distances between electrodes (0.5 and 1 mm) are presented in Fig. 18. These oscillograms show the presence of electrolysis phase before breakdown, while duration of electrolysis increases with interelectrode distance.
Oscillograms of the discharge current (top curve) and signal piezo-ceramic pressure sensor (lower curve): a) d = 0.5 mm, b) d = 1 mm. Tap water flow = 15 cm3/sec, without the input gas stream, C = 0.18 uF, U = 13.5 kV; ballast resistor in the discharge circle: Rb = 20 Ohm, the cylinder is in horizontal position.
Oscillograms of current and acoustic signal in the single pulse mode at the different discharge ballast resistor: Rb: a) - 0 Ohm, b) - 10 Ohm; c) - 20 Ohm, d) - 50 Ohm. Tap water flow 15 cm3/s, without the input gas stream, d = 0.5 mm, C = 0.015 µF, U = 19.5 kV, the cylinder is in horizontal position.
Fig. 19 shows the acoustic signal dependence from ballast resistor in the discharge electric circuit. The acoustic signal has two splashes: №1 - the first diverging acoustic wave, and №2 - the second diverging acoustic wave. When the ballast resistor is increased, first and second acoustic signal splashes are decreased. This may be due to the fact: we increase the ballast resistor and set measures to the discharge current, as a result the injected into the discharge gap energy is diminished.
Also, there is a signal immediately behind the front of the first splash, which is founded in all cases at 110 microseconds interim from the beginning of the discharge current. The acoustic wave passes the way near 17 cm during this time. The pressure sensor is located at the distance of 2 cm from the lateral surface, so the acoustic signal passes the way near 12 cm to the sensor. Thus, there is a second stable signal after the first splash through time ~ 29 µs, which corresponds to the path ~ 4.4 cm, so the signal can be the convergent acoustic waves reflected from the wall.
Oscillograms of the discharge current (top oscillogram) and acoustic signal (lower oscillogram) at different delays of the second discharge pulse.
There is the third acoustic signal splash in the experiment, but it does not affect the second discharge pulse delay in relation to the first. In addition, there is no acoustic signal from to the second discharge pulse in the double pulse mode, although the single pulse signal is present in the single pulse mode (Fig. 20).
Oscillograms of the discharge current (top oscillogram) and the acoustic signal (lower oscillogram) in the single pulses mode. Working fluid - ethanol, d = 0.25 mm, C1 = 0.105 µF, U1 = 15 kV, the cylinder in the vertical position
Fig. 21 shows clearly that the duration and amplitude parameters for the first current pulse in the ethanol are virtually indistinguishable from the first current pulse in distilled water at any cylinder orientations. The ratio of the second acoustic signal amplitude to the first acoustic signal amplitude in the ethanol is noticeably less than in the tap water and distillate.
The results of oscillographic studies of the discharge current and acoustic signals in double pulses mode demonstrate that the first discharge in double pulses mode takes place in the narrow gas channel with a radius comparable to the size of the plasma channel, and the second discharge takes place in the wide channel with radius larger than the plasma channel.
Next, we present the results of ethanol reforming studies in the impulse plasma-liquid system with double pulses mode and their comparison with the results obtained for "TORNADO-LE".
The mass spectrometer studies of ethanol reforming in the impulse PLS of cylindrical geometry were carried out in the following modes: single pulse mode (C = 0.105 µF, U = 15 kV, f = 15 Hz, power 180 W) and double-pulse mode (C1 = C2 = 0.105 µF, U1 = 15 kV, U2 = 15 kV, f = 15 Hz, second pulse delay = 170 µs, this time is less on 10 µsec than collapse time, the power is 435 Wt), the interelectrode distance - 0.25 mm, working liquid - ethanol (96%), the input airflow is 4 cm3/s.
Mass spectrum for double pulse mode. Ethanol is without flow, inlet gas stream - 4 cm3/s, d = 0.25 mm, C1 = C2 = 0.105 µF, U1 = 15 kV, U2 = 18 kV, the cylinder is in the vertical position, f = 15 Hz.
Mass spectrum for the single pulse mode. Ethanol without flow, inlet air flow - 4 cm3/s, d = 0.25 mm, C1 = 0.105 µF, U1 = 15 kV, the cylinder is in the vertical position, f = 15 Hz.
The mass spectrometric studies show that the main components of the output fuel mixture are: hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and molecular nitrogen. The values of these components in the mixture: H2 - 29%, CO - 17% for double pulse mode and H2 - 35%, CO - 7% for single pulse mode. That is, with the same molecular hydrogen output, the carbon dioxide yield is significantly increased in double pulses mode.
The typical mass spectrum (Fig. 24) of the ethanol reforming (ethanol aqueous solution ethanol with concentrations 3.5, 13 and 26 percents) in the "TORNADO-LE". The power is 640 Wt. It is injected in the plasma for its generation, and inlet air flow is 55 cm3/s.
Mass spectrum of the output mixture in the ethanol reforming (ethanol - 26%) in “TORNADO-LE” PLS
The following Tab.1 shows the values ratio generating the volume unit of (H2 + CO) mixture per unit of electrical power, which is injected into the plasma under reforming process in the impulse PLS of cylindrical geometry with double pulses mode, and in the “TORNADO-LE”:
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Single pulse | \n\t\t\t0.027 сm3/Wt | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Double pulses | \n\t\t\t0.0082 сm3/Wt | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Bioethanol 6,5% | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.0024 сm3/Wt | \n\t\t
Bioethanol 13% | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.0079 сm3/Wt | \n\t\t
Bioethanol 26% | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.0615 сm3/Wt | \n\t\t
The volume unit of (H2 + CO) mixture per unit of electrical power in various PLS
The H2 and CO components yield increases with increasing of the ethanol aqueous solution concentration. This concentration has maximum value 26%, and H2 - 26%, CO - 14%. The results of these systems studies show, that the pressure, in region collapse of converging shock waves (with pulse energy > 10 J), exceeds critical (Tab. 2). So, the additional increase chemical activity due to supercritical processes inclusion can be achieved in this situation.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
CO2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t44.01 | \n\t\t\t303.9 | \n\t\t\t7.38 (72.8) | \n\t\t\t0.468 | \n\t\t
H2O | \n\t\t\t18.015 | \n\t\t\t647.096 | \n\t\t\t22.064 (217.755) | \n\t\t\t0.322 | \n\t\t
ethanol | \n\t\t\t46.07 | \n\t\t\t513.9 | \n\t\t\t6.14 (60.6) | \n\t\t\t0.276 | \n\t\t
Critical pаrаmeters of different solvents
The presence of electrolysis phase preceding electrical breakdown of heterophase environment demonstrates that the discharge development in the liquid perform with microbubbles. This result confirms the theory of "bubble" breakdown proposed by Mark Kushner [12].
The formation of convergent acoustic wave after reflection from the ideal solid cylindrical surface was investigated. It is shown that acoustic waves may be effectively focused during these waves passage inside the system.
The research of ethanol reforming in pulse plasma-liquid system has shown that transition from single pulse mode to double pulse mode is accompanied by reduction syn-gase ratio ([H2]/[CO]).
When the working fluid is bioglycerol the K, Na, Ca lines are presented in emission spectra and there is a solid continuous spectrum, which indicates that microparticles are present in the discharge. Its temperature is T = 2800 ± 200 K.
On the base of our results in bioethanol and bioglycerol CO2-reforming by "TORNADO-LE" plasma-liquid system, we can say that:
This process has special features, connected with CO2 retarding role in the conversion components combustion;
In this system there is the possibility of reforming of hydrocarbons with significant viscosity (such as bioglycerol);
All the diagnostic methods, used in the "TORNADO-LE" plasma-liquid system, indicate that there\'re no NOx compounds in the bioethanol and bioglycerol reforming products.
The investigations of bioethanol and bioglycerol in pulse plasma-liquid system have shown:
The main components of the output fuel mixture in this case are: hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and molecular nitrogen, but the carbon dioxide yield is significantly increased in double pulses mode;
The formation of supercritical water in such system and its possible applications for recycling of organic waste and for nanocrystalline particles (in particular, oxide catalysts and other nanocrystalline materials, such as nanotubes) productions needs for additional researches.
We know that the biological system basically influence the field of robot like the upper portion of human arm with a few sequential connections, this serial structure are called serial robots. The serial robots structure acquire large space, lack of precision and low load handling capability are its major drawbacks. Parallel manipulators was introduced by the researchers to reduce the disadvantages of series manipulators [1, 2].
The performance of parallel manipulator has become more advance in the recent scenario as compared to the series manipulator. The parallel manipulator has so many benefits as compared to series like precision, load handling ability, accuracy and many more. The parallel manipulators are used in aerodynamics [3], medical surgery [4, 5, 6, 7], machine equipment’s [8, 9], and object pick and place [10, 11].
A parallel manipulator consist of a movable plate connected with a fixed plate with hinged legs which is controlled by a dc motor separately. The number of orientation of legs is considered as degrees of freedom (DOF) of movable plate with respect to fixed plate, this type of arrangement is called as coupling systems.
The parallel robotic arm generally provides high and smooth speed, acceleration with accurate path tracking. For tracking continuous path, parallel manipulator must satisfied following specifications like error-free tracking, minimum settling time and robustness against uncertainties [12].
Almas shintemirov
Damien six
Soheil zarkandi [15] had proposed a parallel manipulator for CNC machine, used for object holding in the 4-axis. This manipulator has two degree-of-freedom i.e. translational and rotational. It consist of two translational DOF and one rotational DOF.
Guilherme sartori Natal
Bikash kumar Sarkar [17], had shown the reproduction concentrate over the using pressurized water activated 2DOF equal controller pondered to the posture (hurl and pitch) control application. The framework model is pondered to the ease pressure driven part setups like corresponding valve with dead band, low speed water powered chamber and so forth. The streamlined numerical model of the controller has been created in this investigation. To examine the control execution by a model free fluffy tuned feed forward inclination PID regulator for present control application, this model has been utilized.
Yogesh singh
Jiantao Yao
The industrial robots were broadly used in various fields like automotive and aircraft industries and many more. The use of industrial robots, generally carry out repeated tasks such as pick and place, welding, assembling, etc. Their adaptability and capability to perform complex tasks in a significant workspace makes them useful in SME (small and medium enterprise). The characteristic advantages they offer in machine applications like prototyping, cleaning and pre-machining of cast parts as well as in end-machining of middle tolerance parts, have increased their usage rapidly.
An input is produced in the control system of the robotic manipulators by trajectory generation for executing the required task with satisfactory performance since a path-constrained motion is followed by the robotic manipulator. The path of the robotic trajectories is assembled offline at first, and later it is assembled online by the end-effectors. There are two approaches in offline trajectory - hand level and joint level. By using Jacobian transformation, these joint coordinates are transformed into Cartesian coordinates for each sampling.
By using opposite kinematics, the Cartesian coordinates are transformed into joint coordinates. Joint level approach costs less expensive in terms of computational complexity than other approaches while controlling the robotic manipulators. Moreover, this joint level approach has an added advantage of considering only the kinematic constraints during the trajectory generation, while ignoring the dynamic constraints that increase the computational effort.
An Optimal Trajectory Generation Algorithm (OTGA) [20] is developed to generate smooth motion trajectories with minimum time for Dof parallel manipulators. For optimal trajectory generation, the Gray Wolf technique is employed with constraints and objective functions, this proposed OTG algorithm uses minimal tracking error. Moreover, for smooth continuous motion of the robotic manipulators, joint speed, acceleration and jerks were also considered along with it. So by using both objective constraints, the Gray Wolf optimization technique selects an optimal trajectory at every iteration as shown in Figure 1.
The schematic diagram of OTGA.
A reference trajectory is created by using the developed Optimal Trajectory Generation [21] manipulators. The path constraint motion of the industrial robots plays a vital role in welding, cutting, surgery and machining applications. A sample reference trajectory with 15 segments is shown below in Figure 2.
Reference trajectory.
Based on the reference trajectory, the design of 6 DOF robotic manipulator is analyzed. For analysis, primary trajectory is approximately created and then optimized using Gray Wolf optimization algorithm. The primary trajectory is calculated for each segment starting from the ‘Start’ segment to the ‘End’ segment on the reference trajectory.
In this section, the Gray Wolf Optimization (GWO) algorithm is employed for the optimal trajectory generation [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. Here, initially the joint coordinates of the parallel robotic arms are obtained using opposite kinematic approach. Then this sets of joint coordinates, they are optimally fixed by minimizing the path tracing error. After this, the manipulator joint coordinates like speed, acceleration and jerk are calculated by utilizing the finest set if joint angles. The flowchart for the GWO methodology is described below in Figure 3.
GWO flow chart.
For selecting and tracking of a continuous path with minimal tracking error is the prime function of the developed OTG method. This tracking error function can be framed as,
Where,
Such as,
On Basis of minimum tracking error, during each recurrence, joint velocity (jv), joint acceleration (Ja) and joint jerk (Jj) obtained for each set of manipulator joint.
The Gray Wolf Optimization (GWO) is an effective optimization method which emulates the leadership grading, trapping protocol and hunting mechanism of gray wolves in nature. In GWO, the process of optimal trajectory tracking is performed by four gray wolves namely; alpha, beta, delta and omega wolves. Decisions about hunting, time and place are being made by the alpha, The beta and gamma wolves is basically considered as subordinate wolves that help the alpha in decision making, the timid part of the gray wolves hierarchy is being represented by omega only.
Following steps are there to evaluate the fitness function as written below.
Mathematical approach for search operation:
In GWO, the
In the above Eq. (4),
Here ‘
Where, ‘
Where,
Based on the above Eqs. (10)-(12), the solution for next iteration will be obtained as follows:
The process of updating of wolf current positions takes place continuously until the maximum iteration is reached. If the overall optimum solution is does not reached to its maximum, or likewise the new solution will be updated for which the best feasible solution take place and hence based on the best suitable solution the next updates will be executed continuously. Due to this, the optimal continuous path is selected with error-free tracking path.
Genetic Algorithm (GA) is ordered among three distinct parts for example multiplication, hybrid and change and it is expounded momentarily in couple of steps [27]. The chromosome shaped by six factors of lattice
Algorithm Parameters | Outcome |
---|---|
Variables counts | 6 [ |
Maximum Generation | 250 |
Population Size | 60 |
Encoding | Binary |
Selection | Uniform |
Crossover | 0.7 |
Mutation | 0.3 |
Total number of counts | 258 |
Transformative algorithm parameters of GA.
In this section, the analysis for the developed GWO based OTG method and GA for optimal planning of the trajectory for designing the 6 DOF Robotic manipulator. The applied methods are implemented by MATLAB.
A 3-degree-of-freedom (3-DOF) planar parallel manipulator performing high-speed, high-acceleration, and high-accuracy trajectory tracking as similar to the novel experimental pick-and-place manipulator is designed and constructed. At the time of trajectory tracking, multiple closed-loop performance specifications like tracking accuracy, settling time, control effort, and robustness to parameter uncertainty must be satisfied simultaneously. Commonly, closed loop requirement is clashing, i.e., when one requirement is improved, others may break down.
An Optimal Trajectory Generation Algorithm (OTGA) is created for producing least time smooth movement directions for 6 DOF equal controllers. The proposed OTGA utilizes the Gray Wolf enhancement procedure for the ideal direction age utilizing numerous goal capacities. Alongside this, to follow the smooth movement of mechanical controllers, the joint speed, joint increasing speed and joint jerks requires optimal value. At each cycle, the proposed Gray Wolf improvement method chooses the ideal directions utilizing the goal limitations.
The below graph 1 to 6 in Figure 4 shows, the comparison of joint velocity for all active joints angles
Comparison plot for time segment vs. velocity for proposed and existing method.
The below graph 1 to 6 in Figure 5 shows, the comparison of joint acceleration for all active joints angles
Comparison plot for time segment vs. acceleration for projected and existing method.
The below graph 1 to 6 in Figure 6 shows, the comparison of joint jerks for all active joints angles
Comparison plot for time segment vs. jerk for proposed and existing method.
The above figures show that the comparison between projected GWO technique, existing GA and default methods for trajectory generation. We have taken three measurements named as acceleration, jerk and velocity in which all these are going to be compare with different time segments. It is clearly shows that the proposed method achieves minimum effective value as compared to the exiting techniques.
An optimal trajectory generation methodology is proposed which generates errorless continuous path motion with fast converging the Gray Wolf Optimization (GWO) method. The proposed OTG method using GWO algorithm is compared with the GA (Genetic Algorithm) based trajectory generation method and a traditional trajectory generation method.
The mean, maximum and minimum acceleration value is also less for the proposed OTG with GWO method when compared to the existing methods. The least acceleration value is attained for the joint angle. Finally, the Joint jerk value is also calculated for all the joint angles using proposed and exiting methods with 15 segments.
The comparison of joint velocity, joint acceleration and joint jerks for all active joints angles
Comparison results can be summarized as follows:
The maximum average velocity of the proposed GWO based OTG is observed 1.75 times lesser than GA based OTG and 1.01 times greater than non-optimize method.
The acceleration maximum average value of the proposed GWO based OTG is observed that 4.03 times and 3.92 times lesser than GA based OTG and non-optimize method.
The jerk maximum average value of the proposed GWO based OTG is observed that 2.41 times and 2.04 times lesser than GA based OTG and non-optimize method.
Proposed OTG GWO generates minimum 118.4% and maximum 236.1% better velocity, minimum 156.4% and maximum 592% better acceleration, and minimum 108.7% and maximum 310.7% better jerk.
The efficiency of projected methodology has been analyzed with the actual research works. The experimental result shows that a good optimization of developed OTG method in terms of shared speed, joint speed ripples, and joint lurching move measures. This proves that the proposed OTG algorithm works effectively to follow the optimal trajectory with less tracking error and smooth continuous path motion.
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One challenge comes from the changing perceptions of what learning is all about. The second challenge comes from new learning opportunities that technology now affords. Constructivism, interpretivism, and computing technology, separately and often together, have redesigned the conception of the challenges and opportunities of learning, and brought about new learning possibilities for almost all teaching and learning situations, including traditional classroom teaching, distance learning, and self-learning. Computer-supported learning environments could have good problems that will stimulate students to explore and reflect on their knowledge construction. Students who cannot afford higher education are discouraged from seeking or completing a degree. Distance learning-based programs could increase access for students to higher education, whereas open and distance-learning programs may be difficult to implement in the laboratory sciences, but they have real potential to maximize the use of technology.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu",authors:[{id:"196797",title:"Prof.",name:"Vimbi",middleName:"Petrus",surname:"Mahlangu",slug:"vimbi-mahlangu",fullName:"Vimbi Mahlangu"}]},{id:"59935",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74843",title:"The Challenges of E-learning in South Africa",slug:"the-challenges-of-e-learning-in-south-africa",totalDownloads:2553,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"The University of South Africa (UNISA) is the largest open distance e-learning (ODeL) university in the continent of Africa, with a student headcount more than 300,000. Over two decades after the transition from apartheid to democracy, vast inequalities across race, class, gender and socio-economic status persist in South Africa, with the majority of the African people being the most affected. Demographically, the African people constitute about 80.8% of the country’s total population, compared to whites, who constitute a meagre 8.8%, yet African households carry the highest burden of poverty, living way below the official poverty line of $1.90/day as determined by the World Bank and other international agencies. This chapter explores these inequalities and ponders on the role of e-learning for this poorest section of society in a country where modern technological devises in the form of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and access to the Internet are perceived to be ubiquitous. South Africa’s Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) commits to “an expansion of open and distance education and the establishment of more ‘satellite’ premises where universities or colleges provide classes at places and times convenient to students (including in rural areas)”. This chapter also explores the role of UNISA in the provision of distance learning through structured and sustainable e-learning.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Moeketsi Letseka, Matsephe Martha Letseka and Victor Pitsoe",authors:[{id:"187812",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:"Justice",surname:"Pitsoe",slug:"victor-pitsoe",fullName:"Victor Pitsoe"},{id:"195883",title:"Dr.",name:"Matsephe M.",middleName:null,surname:"Letseka",slug:"matsephe-m.-letseka",fullName:"Matsephe M. 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A survey captures responses on their technological, lifestyle and learning preparedness for the ELS to produce an e-readiness score. A modified DeLone and McLean model evaluates the impact of their level of e-readiness during their use of the ELS. Identifying where and when students have difficulties, pinpointing their deficits or recommending the more appropriate modality could help students achieve a positive course outcome.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Glenda H. E. Gay",authors:[{id:"225677",title:"Dr.",name:"Glenda",middleName:"H. E.",surname:"H.E. Gay",slug:"glenda-h.e.-gay",fullName:"Glenda H.E. 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As a result, we identified adverse conditions that were an obstacle to the application of the original technique. We then adapted the technique to make it applicable in an OSS project. We can conclude that was not easy to recruit OSS users and developers to participate in technique application.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Lucrecia Llerena, Nancy Rodriguez, Mayra Llerena, John W. Castro\nand Silvia T. Acuña",authors:[{id:"231253",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Lucrecia",middleName:null,surname:"Llerena",slug:"lucrecia-llerena",fullName:"Lucrecia Llerena"},{id:"231767",title:"MSc.",name:"Nancy",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"nancy-rodriguez",fullName:"Nancy Rodriguez"},{id:"231769",title:"Dr.",name:"John W.",middleName:null,surname:"Castro",slug:"john-w.-castro",fullName:"John W. 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In addition to it being a good platform for academic learning, its use is now becoming widespread in the corporate environment, more so for compliance training in areas like banking and insurance sectors. In developing countries like Sierra Leone where resources are limited, effective corporate governance can be addressed by ensuring that people are conversant with their organisational compliance policies through access to Moodle managed learning environment (MLE). There is a myth concerning Moodle’s confined use in the academic environment, but this work will explore its relevance in an environment not so common in the working practices of staff professional engagement and learning in the corporate environment. Discussion is focused in the financial sector where demand on work is preventing employees and even those charged with governance from engaging themselves in activities supposedly meant to enhance their understanding of professional working practices, for example, addressing risks and compliance measures.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Emerson Abraham Jackson",authors:[{id:"223511",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Emerson Abraham",middleName:"Abraham",surname:"Jackson",slug:"emerson-abraham-jackson",fullName:"Emerson Abraham Jackson"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60465",title:"The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Distance Learning in Higher Education",slug:"the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly-of-distance-learning-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:5012,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"The chapter deals with opportunities and challenges of distance learning in higher education. One challenge comes from the changing perceptions of what learning is all about. The second challenge comes from new learning opportunities that technology now affords. Constructivism, interpretivism, and computing technology, separately and often together, have redesigned the conception of the challenges and opportunities of learning, and brought about new learning possibilities for almost all teaching and learning situations, including traditional classroom teaching, distance learning, and self-learning. Computer-supported learning environments could have good problems that will stimulate students to explore and reflect on their knowledge construction. Students who cannot afford higher education are discouraged from seeking or completing a degree. Distance learning-based programs could increase access for students to higher education, whereas open and distance-learning programs may be difficult to implement in the laboratory sciences, but they have real potential to maximize the use of technology.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu",authors:[{id:"196797",title:"Prof.",name:"Vimbi",middleName:"Petrus",surname:"Mahlangu",slug:"vimbi-mahlangu",fullName:"Vimbi Mahlangu"}]},{id:"59935",title:"The Challenges of E-learning in South Africa",slug:"the-challenges-of-e-learning-in-south-africa",totalDownloads:2553,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"The University of South Africa (UNISA) is the largest open distance e-learning (ODeL) university in the continent of Africa, with a student headcount more than 300,000. Over two decades after the transition from apartheid to democracy, vast inequalities across race, class, gender and socio-economic status persist in South Africa, with the majority of the African people being the most affected. Demographically, the African people constitute about 80.8% of the country’s total population, compared to whites, who constitute a meagre 8.8%, yet African households carry the highest burden of poverty, living way below the official poverty line of $1.90/day as determined by the World Bank and other international agencies. This chapter explores these inequalities and ponders on the role of e-learning for this poorest section of society in a country where modern technological devises in the form of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and access to the Internet are perceived to be ubiquitous. South Africa’s Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) commits to “an expansion of open and distance education and the establishment of more ‘satellite’ premises where universities or colleges provide classes at places and times convenient to students (including in rural areas)”. This chapter also explores the role of UNISA in the provision of distance learning through structured and sustainable e-learning.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Moeketsi Letseka, Matsephe Martha Letseka and Victor Pitsoe",authors:[{id:"187812",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:"Justice",surname:"Pitsoe",slug:"victor-pitsoe",fullName:"Victor Pitsoe"},{id:"195883",title:"Dr.",name:"Matsephe M.",middleName:null,surname:"Letseka",slug:"matsephe-m.-letseka",fullName:"Matsephe M. 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Everyday, e-learning environments bring out new antagonistic concepts. As these new concepts rapidly entered our lives, they began to become indispensable materials in the field of education. New e-learning environments are being used as platforms that are related to each other. They essentially support the concept of e-learning.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Fatih Çağatay Baz",authors:[{id:"241866",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatih Çağatay",middleName:null,surname:"Baz",slug:"fatih-cagatay-baz",fullName:"Fatih Çağatay Baz"}]},{id:"66544",title:"Factors Affecting the Utilization and Adoption of Technology in Education",slug:"factors-affecting-the-utilization-and-adoption-of-technology-in-education",totalDownloads:1007,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Education is vital in any type of society for the conservation of lives of its associates and the preservation of the public formation. The rationale of this chapter is not only to reveal the role of technology in education but also to reveal the factors affecting the proper utilization and adoption of technology in education. Prior studies carried out by researchers confirm that technology utilization and adoption in education undeniably helps teachers and learners in the teaching and learning process. This chapter serves as a stepping stone to support teachers to do better in utilizing and adopting technology in education to a certain extent as an alternative of overlooking their thoughts, efforts and desires in blindly trying to vie with the swift change of technology in education in this epoch. Hence, this chapter discusses technology in education, the roles of technology in education, factors associated with technology utilization and adoption in education and the factors that limit the proper utilization and adoption of technology in education.",book:{id:"7803",slug:"the-role-of-technology-in-education",title:"The Role of Technology in Education",fullTitle:"The Role of Technology in Education"},signatures:"Aliyu Mustapha, Abdulkadir Mohammed, Abdullahi Raji Egigogo, Abdullahi Abubakar Kutiriko and Ahmed Haruna Dokoro",authors:[{id:"284060",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Aliyu",middleName:null,surname:"Mustapha",slug:"aliyu-mustapha",fullName:"Aliyu Mustapha"},{id:"294267",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulkadir",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",slug:"abdulkadir-mohammed",fullName:"Abdulkadir Mohammed"},{id:"294268",title:"MSc.",name:"Abdullahi",middleName:null,surname:"Raji Egigogo",slug:"abdullahi-raji-egigogo",fullName:"Abdullahi Raji Egigogo"},{id:"294270",title:"MSc.",name:"Abdullahi",middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar Kutiriko",slug:"abdullahi-abubakar-kutiriko",fullName:"Abdullahi Abubakar Kutiriko"},{id:"294272",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Haruna Dokoro",slug:"ahmed-haruna-dokoro",fullName:"Ahmed Haruna Dokoro"}]},{id:"55358",title:"Electric Power System Simulator Tool in MATLAB",slug:"electric-power-system-simulator-tool-in-matlab",totalDownloads:1859,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"An electric power system is a network of electrical components used to supply, transmit, and use electric power. 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