Main improvements observed in AAT applied subjects
\r\n\tThe present book intends to provide to the reader a comprehensive overview of the state of art in empathy studies, embracing the different theoretical points of view and illustrating the advanced research such as the application of new technologies to promote perspective-taking. The critical aspects and the future directions of the study on empathy will also be presented.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-612-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-611-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-613-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c1042dfe15aa9cea6019524c4cbff38",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sara Ventura",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg",keywords:"Theoretical Model, Skill, Perspective Taking, Training Programs, Practical Implications, Advanced Research, Future Directions, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, New Trends, Assistive Technology",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Passionate researcher in the application of new technologies to psychological treatments, neuro-rehabilitation, human behavior, and the evolution of the human-computer interaction. In 2017 Dr. Ventura won a competitive grant (Santiago Grisolia) at the University of Valencia at LABPSITEC group, where she was awarded her Ph.D. degree, supervised by Prof. Rosa Baños at the University of Valencia, and co-directed by Prof. Giuseppe Riva of the Catholic University of Milan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227763/images/system/227763.jpg",biography:"Sara Ventura gained a B.Sc in Psychology at the University of Padua (Italy) in 2013 and an M.Sc. in Ergonomic Psychology at the Catholic University of Milan (Italy) in 2015. In 2016, she carried out a postgraduate training at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (Mexico) at the Ciberpsychology lab, working on a rehabilitation protocol for people with acquired brain injury through Virtual Reality. In 2020, Sara gained the Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology at University of Valencia (Spain) working with the LabPsitec group and focusing her research on the study of embodiment and empathy with the support of Virtual Reality. Actually, she is working both with Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna (Italy), and the University of Valencia (Spain) on the fields of embodiment, stroke rehabilitation, empathy and patient care. Her research interests mainly focus on the adoption of new technologies, particularly Virtual/Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence for the psycho-social wellbeing with clinical and non-clinical populations, the study of human-computer interaction, and the user experience. She is the author of several scientific papers and various presentations at national and international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Valencia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"455410",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Jusic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/455410/images/20500_n.jpeg",email:"dajana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The positive-constructive bond result from between human and animal interaction is the key point to initiate the effect mechanism of AAT. This curative effect starts to work four basic mechanism including psychological stimulation, emotional, playing, and physical according to the Ballarini. [4] However all of these mechanisms are different therapy ways, they can become interpenetrate with each others. The important point is that, it is supposed that the psychosomatic effects which give rise to curative features of AAT occurs when these mechanisms start to work. All of the mechanism together revealed that psychosomatic effects of human-animal bond and interaction in people taking an AAT and AAA. [5], [6]
Lafrance et al., reported that patients’ social and verbal behaviors have been improved in a presence of a therapy dog. [7] Nathans et al., revealed that Animal Assisted Therapy can be used for improving anhedonia in patients with schizophrenia. In addition, they have found that AAT can be beneficial for rehabilitation of life quality and psycho-social behaviors. [8] Different researchers have reported that AAT should be considered planning of the treatment of individual with dementia. [1], [9]- [12]
The interaction between an animal and human result in an increase neurochemicals initiating a decrease in blood pressure and relaxation. This relationship may be beneficial for ameliorating agitate behavior and psychological symptoms of dementia. In another study, it has been reported that aquarium assisted therapy may be beneficial for increasing eating behavior of aged people living in a nursing home. [10] Richeson revealed that AAT can be increase social interactions by initiating decrease the agitate behaviors of patients with dementia. [12] Kongable et al., observed that a therapy dog increased patients’ some social behaviors such as smile, laugh, look, touch, verbalization. [13]
In aged people, AAT are used for ameliorating agitate behaviors, psychological, occupational, social and physical disorders especially in Alzheimer and Dementia. [14]- [20] People with Alzheimer may have an easier time decoding the simple repetitive, non-verbal actions of a dog. Animals can act as transitional objects, allowing people to first establish a bond with them and then extend this bond to people. Most of the study results revealed that AAT especially dog therapy had an “calming effect” on the patients with dementia and Alzheimer disease. [15]- [17], [20] This effect can be helpful as a communication link during therapy sessions and also decrease agitation behaviors. It is well known that incidence of aggression, agitation, social withdrawal, depression, and psychotic disorders are growing problems in Alzheimer disease for special care units, staff and family members of patients. Furthermore, environmental factors in nursing home or other health care units have been become increasingly forcible barrier for therapy of Alzheimer disease. In this conditions, AAT and other animal activities may be helpful to cope with these difficulties by presenting a different aspect.
AAT should be more commonly used in the world through increasing awareness of public health services about beneficials of companion animal and activities. Especially, AAT can be used for improving health disorders of aged people with physical-mental and social disabilities such as Alzheimer, dementia, aphasia, anxiety, depression, stres, schizophrenia, and feeling of loneliness, quality of life. An aquarium assisted therapy may be a good starting point to learn about benefits and facilities of AAT in developing countries like Turkey which have more lower the socio-economic groups than the developed countries.
Main principle of AAT is based on using psychosomatic effects, which appear as results of biological-physical-chemical changes during human and animal interactions. [4] Feeding animals or being together with animals cause these effects to appear, and play an important role in recovery of mental, social and physical health. [21] The strength of bonding between humans and animals has been revealed in a survey study, which is conducted on 14 veterinarians and 117 patients in Ontario. In the study, patients, whose pets are died, have received a survey to define causes and effects of their worries by a phone call or e-mail. Of 30% of participants has been observed to have severe worries. [22] This strong bonding between humans and animals can also affect physical and mental health, and sometimes death or loss of an animal can be so effective that it can change a subject’s life. [23] Dog, horse and dolphin are the most commonly preferred animal species in animal assisted therapy.
There are also studies indicating that keeping an animal has positive effects on the community health. [24] Heady et. al. reported that AAT caused decreasing national health costs. [25] Governments have been recently realized the significance of interaction between humans and animals as well as the contributions into human health, life quality and economy. Many countries have passed laws, which are a new understanding to allow keeping animals in apartments for rent, so as to support pet owners. Positive measures are taken in many European countries to keep pets in houses by laws. [26] AAT is to benefit from animal companionship during a targeted therapy in order to facilitate achievement of optimum results in patients, and to support the therapy. It provides very positive effects like providing adaptations of subjects to stressful situations and hospital environments; decreasing anxiety, stress, pain and blood pressure; increasing mobility and muscle activity. It has been shown that guiding animals increase physical activity, help in prevention of some moods like loneliness and depression, improve daily life activities and provide a social support by increasing the life quality. [27]- [29]
Close relationships between humans and animals are way back to the prehistoric ages. By using DNA techniques, it has been demonstrated that dogs might have been domesticated 100,000 years ago. [30] Animals have been used to improve emotional and functional conditions of humans since ancient Greeks. Ancient Greeks have used dog drawings in their therapeutic temples, and they have provided melancholic people to ride on horses so as to get rid of their diseased souls. These applications have been used later also by Romans. [31] A dog showing the way to a blind man is drawn on armor in Pompeii historical ruins. [32]
The first studies, which have shown animal assistance in therapy, were performed to recover behaviors of mentally ill people in 1792 in York Retreat in United Kingdom by using farm animals. [3] Florence Nightingale defined the significance of assisting animals for therapy as: “Especially during treatment of a patient with a chronic illness, a small pet is a perfect friend for the patient”. [32]
Dogs were used in rehabilitation after the World War I, in the first half of the 20th century. To improve moods of American army officers, who experienced depression related to the war, dogs were given to them to keep in company. [33] In the same period, thousands of dogs were trained under a program to support blinded soldiers in Germany. In 1931, “Guiding Dogs Society” was established for blind people. Currently, dogs are being trained in order to support people with hearing problems; to alert people with seizures before the symptoms are started; and to support people with severe physical problems.
Similar applications have been widely spread all over the world, so they have helped thousands of people with disabilities to live freely. Lane et. al. have reported that this ability of dogs was very amazing, and this social support that they have provided for people they have accompanied was very significant. [34]
Since 1980s, animal assisted therapies, which have been performed by planning and an experienced team, have been shown to improve social functions and to be beneficial especially in elderly people, so studies about this issue have been supported. [35]- [37] Therefore, when it was 1990s, study results of many articles are published from different populations. [28], [29], [38]- [40] Sable explained in the manuscript how, especially dogs and cats, could contribute into well being of family members, with whom they lived all their lives, emotionally and socially. [39]
As mentioned before, the first scientific studies indicating effects of human and animal interactions have been conducted in the second half of 20th century. UK originated Society for Companion Animal Studies (SCAS) is established in 1979, whereas the international organization, named International Association of Human-Animal Interaction Organization (IAHAIO) is established in 1990. IAHAIO is an affiliation of the World Health Organization, and it functions as a conductor organ among non-governmental organizations and other affiliations. The most marked point in the studies belonging to 2000s is that animal assisted therapy has been used against specific diseases, and evaluation of human-animal interaction results. [1], [23], [41]- [44]
Current patient healthcare methods, which are developing and containing evidence based interventions, are faced with some problems. Along with conventional treatments, complementary and adjuvant treatments are also included in these methods. Animal assisted therapy (AAT) is discussed as a supportive treatment approach with positive effects on life quality and health. [45]
Gagnon et. al. defined animal assisted therapy as a clinical intervention method, which has aimed to establish natural and improving bonding between humans and animals, and is applied for both preventive and therapeutic requirements. [46] Animal assisted therapy (AAT) can be applied through different action mechanisms in respect with the disease type and individual characteristics. Five factors directing the mechanism are psychological impulse, emotional, physical and playing mechanisms. [4] Although these mechanisms are defined separately, they cannot be considered independent from each other for functioning and developing of psychosomatic effects. The most important point in the treatment is human-animal interaction. This interaction constitutes a strong emotional background. It has been reported result benefits would depend on the strength of the emotional interactions.
In another words, confident, positive and sedative bonding between a human and an animal can trigger beneficial mechanisms by affecting secretions of adrenaline (epinephrine) and other corticosteroid hormones or stress hormones (like cortisol etc.); decreasing arterial blood pressure, cardiac and respiratory rates. Emotional, psychological impulse, playing and physical mechanisms used in AAT applications cause psychosomatic effects.
Understanding of “play” principle is quite important in animal assisted therapy. Ballarini reported that activities like “entertainment” and especially “laughing” are parts of the bonding between humans and animals. When an ill person plays with a cat or laughs at a dog’s behavior, an increase in the healing potential of that illness is initiated. As playing increases mobility, it is a good physical activity source. [4] Haubenhofer and Kirchengast measured cortisol levels in saliva of dogs, which were involved in animal assisted interventions and therapies to investigate their physiological reactions. Cortisol levels, which were monitored during therapy sessions in the earlier time periods of day, were reported to be higher than those measured after the therapy and in the control periods. The study results showed that therapeutic work was physiologically activating for the dogs. [47] At this point, it may be considered that these physiologically changes occurred in dogs can result in positive reactions in humans during animal assisted therapies and activities. But, further research is needed to indicate whether these positive effects related to the animal assisted therapies or not.
We have already mentioned that action mechanism of AAT is based on positive-healing bonding, which has occurred by human-animal interaction, and psychological, emotional, playing and physical mechanisms, which have caused physical and biochemical reactions by activation of this bonding. [4], [46] Key structures activating these mechanisms in patients should be structured according to mainly four theories. These are touching, biophilia hypothesis, learning and cognitive theories. [48] In animal assisted therapy applications, all types of applications, which are performed according to these four theories, can provide various benefits.
Another important concept in therapies is
As animals do not have any expectations and demands from humans at their first contacts, patients feel self-confidence, and they may feel that everything is under their controls. [48] Therefore, animals do not react like us when they meet a healthy or ill person. We, humans, tend to perceive, remember, shape up, judge with the previously learned concepts, and even show verbal-physical behaviors, when we first meet a healthy or ill person or any living being. This situation is quickly sensed and perceived by the opposite side. When a dog meets a blind, limb or amnestic person in the street, it will behave as if it has met a healthy individual. However, when we meet people with health problems in the street, we define them as “he has got no arm!”, “he is blind!”, “Is he a lunatic?”, “ill person”, and we imply our thoughts sometimes with words or sometimes with our behaviors. Due to these reasons, animal assisted therapies naturally eradicate negative conditions like these, and they provide a more humane surrounding for therapies of subjects with chronic diseases; they support them; they increase adaptation potentials of patients and their relatives to difficult therapy periods, and they improve their life qualities. After all, we should remembered that the aforementioned paragraphs are theoretical concepts which try to comprise biology, sociology, psychology and philosophy to explain some of the effects AAT on humans in general, not only for patients with Alzheimer´s disease.
According to medical studies and field screenings, it is evident that AAT has relaxing and supportive effects on humans. Recoveries obtained in some diseases through these positive interactions are listed in Table 1. [49], [34]- [39], [50] , [51]
Decreased anxiety and depression | \n\t\t
Increased self-esteem | \n\t\t
Increased impulse for communication | \n\t\t
Decreased blood pressure | \n\t\t
Increase in required motivation for recovery | \n\t\t
Decrease in analgesic requirement in some patients, who have had previous operations | \n\t\t
Improvement in communication with other patients or hospital personnel | \n\t\t
Main improvements observed in AAT applied subjects
This supportive therapy with various services is being provided to more than 35000 patients in more than 100 healthcare service units in San Francisco. Subjects mainly benefited from these services are as follows:
In children with poor or underdeveloped socialization attitudes, In conduct disorders, In children with low academic success and low self-esteem | \n\t\t
In jails In mental institutions with convicts In reformatory schools | \n\t\t
Mild or moderate autism In treatment and prevention of depression symptoms in old people Anxiety Neuro-psychological tension | \n\t\t
In recovery periods of diseases Arterial hypertension Cardiopathies Chronic muscle-nervous system diseases Different motor disorder therapies and rehabilitation | \n\t\t
Application fields of AAT
As Ballarini has mentioned, AAT is no longer a mysterious application, but currently it has become a treatment option, which is applied for supportive aims, and has resulted in positive outcomes in many diseases. In recent years, AAT has gained more attention all over the world, and it is being preferred as a complimentary and supportive method to improve life quality and health in some therapies, during which various problems have arisen. [45], [53], [54] Therefore, many studies have been performed to establish its scientific background, and different AAT models are being developed. Dolphin assisted therapy is one of these, and it is employed as an adjunctive method in various diseases (Table 3). [55], [56] During therapies, it has been observed that dolphins have tried to communicate with ill subjects by increasing their sound levels. [57]
Autism | \n\t\t
Down syndrome | \n\t\t
Rett syndrome | \n\t\t
Depression (non-endogenous type) | \n\t\t
Neurotic disorder | \n\t\t
Brain trauma (without cramp syndrome) | \n\t\t
Brain paralysis (without cramp syndrome) | \n\t\t
Cerebral palsy in children | \n\t\t
Childhood neurosis like fobby, enuresis and asthenia | \n\t\t
Environmental conduct disorders | \n\t\t
Support for post-coma treatment | \n\t\t
Severe psychological and complex trauma | \n\t\t
Cephalgia | \n\t\t
Chronic fatigue syndrome | \n\t\t
Delayed speech development | \n\t\t
Delayed psychological development | \n\t\t
Chronic diseases | \n\t\t
Some medical and mental health problems for application of dolphin therapy
Since Alzheimer´s disease is generally observed in elderly people, it may be concomitant with some other chronic diseases. Among these diseases, cardiovascular diseases are the leading ones. Conducted studies have indicated that systolic blood pressure and plasma triglyceride levels are lower in pet owner subjects when compared with the non-owners. [38] In Odendaal’s study, neurochemicals (β-endorphin, oxytocin, prolactin, phenylacetic acid, dopamine, cortisol) related to drop down of blood pressure were evaluated between 18 subjects and 18 dogs before and after the positive interactions. Statistically significant data (
Similar results have been obtained in studies performed on disabled subjects. [61]- [64] Especially achieved improvements were increased non-verbal interactions, physical activities, and daily life activities leading to increased life quality. Although these studies have been performed commonly in children with widespread developmental disorders, it should also be considered that Alzheimer patients may have various disabilities, which would lower their life quality, so their daily life activities may be limited according to the stage and severity of disease. When evaluated in this aspect, animal assisted therapies will provide significant benefits.
In a study performed on AIDS patients, it has been reported that cat assisted therapy has supported patients’ communications with their families and friends, and has provided prevention from the feeling of loneliness.
Animal assisted therapies are especially employed in hospitalized children and Alzheimer patients to decrease stress. Animal companionship is employed in anxiety, refusal of therapy, refusal of eating and decreasing other agitated behaviors, treatments of various psychological and psychiatric disorders o provide treatment compliance and to increase the life quality. Patients, who are hospitalized in rehabilitation centers are scheduled for weekly or monthly therapy programs with trained animals, so physical, emotional, social and cognitive benefit of AAT are used. It has been reported that blood pressure and cardiac rate are decreased, cortisol (stress hormone) is markedly decreased, and pain sensation is decreased.
Animal assisted therapy has been shown to be effective in patients with speech disorders like aphasia, schizophrenia and dementia (Table 4). [3], [7], [8], [12], [51]
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tThree men with aphasia from left-hemisphare strokes and during AAT therapy with a 8 year old neutered male Newfoundland dog participated into the study. | \n\t\t\tDog therapy | \n\t\t\tDog may act as an excellent catalyst to motivate the client to talk and provide an atmosphere of unconditional acceptance for the speech disorders and brain injuries. | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tA 61-year old male with non-fluent aphasia and a left cerebral vascular accident. A therapy dog was 5 year old tetriever. | \n\t\t\tDog therapy | \n\t\t\tIn condition with the dog and dog handler, it was found that both social verbal and non-verbal behaviors markedly increased in patient. | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPatients with hedonic tone of 10 chronic schizophrenia participated in 10 weekly sessions of AAT was compared to control group treated without animal. | \n\t\t\tDog therapy | \n\t\t\tIn AAT group, significant improvements of hedonic tone compared to control. It was observed that an increasing in use of leisure time and motivation. | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 nursing home residents with dementia participated in a daily AAT for three weeks. | \n\t\t\tDog therapy | \n\t\t\tSignificant decrease in agitated behaviors and statistically significant increase in social interaction. | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSeven schizophrenic patients living in a social institute participated into the study for 9 month treatment period. Each weekly therapeutic session was 50 min. | \n\t\t\tDog therapy | \n\t\t\tAAT was found to be helpful in daily life activities and rehabilitation of schizophrenic patients. Significant improvement in domestic and health activities. | \n\t\t
Dog therapy models in aphasia, schizophrenia and dementia.
Nathan reported from his study that animal assisted therapy improved anhedonia in chronic schizophrenia patients. Anhedonia is one of the negative symptoms of dementia, and it is the main phenomenon related to poor social functionality and development of treatment resistance. In an active study performed with dogs, significant improvement has been observed in anhedonia in AAT group when compared with the controls. As a result of the study, it has been reported that animal assisted therapy might contribute in life quality and psychosocial rehabilitation of chronic schizophrenia patients.8
Antonioli and Reveley observed in their randomized, controlled study that depression symptoms were observed to be improved in the 2nd week of treatment in patients with mild-moderate depression. Antonioli responded the comment indicating that patient number was limited and study population was a specific group as this dolphin study has indicated that, according to “Biophilia” hypothesis, interaction between animals and humans could be beneficial in their natural environments. [65], [66] “Biophilia” term is first defined by psychologist Erich, and is based on “affection level, which is required for mental health and emotional well-being”. [67] Kellert and Wilson improved biophilia concept, and stated that human health and well-being were related to interactions with the natural environments. [68]
It may cause decreased agitation, improvement in the mood, and increased communication with the surrounding: Alzheimer patients may experience different clinical symptoms at different disease stages. Generally as the disease is progressed, they isolate themselves from their surroundings, family members, friends, healthcare personnel; they become quieter and less mobile. In this stage, an accompanying therapy dog may even become the only communication bridge to continue the interaction with their surroundings. Sometimes patients may end up the silence on a dog’s touch or behaviors; they may smile, talk a few words, and even they may be involved more with their surroundings.
Indoor and outdoor safety problems are most commonly encountered problems in some patients. With the accompanying well-trained dog, the patient can feel more secure. Since the dog can estimate behaviors of the patient, it may warn the patient and his /her relatives and/or healthcare personnel before and/or during the behaviors. A guiding dog may prevent the patient, who would like to leave his/her surrounding (home or nursery home) without informing anybody, from many dangers he/she would be confronted with. When the patient come to the top of the ladder, the dog may inform the patient about his/her position, how he/she should act or what he/she should do next by barking or behaving differently non-verbally without agitating the patient. It may protect the patient while crossing the street. The dog guiding a patient, who will forget the way home or the address of his/her home, can lead the patient home safely and in good health.
Aquarium assisted therapy studies have revealed that eating habits of Alzheimer patients are improved by feeding fish. Moreover aquarium assisted activities improve hand skills as well as they increase socialization of patients. Various mood disorders like nervousness, agitation, unhappiness, very quietness, and loneliness may be observed in subjects with dementia, who live in nursery homes. Aquariums at nursery homes may attract attention of subjects in these crowded environments, they may provide relaxation and happiness for them as well as they may help people live in more humane environments by decreasing work load and stress also for relatives of patients and healthcare personnel. Aquariums may help all individuals to share the same environment with the underwater creatures.
AAT is especially effective in elderly subjects with cognitive disorders like Alzheimer disease. Patients with dementia usually experience various degrees of agitation mainly in the evening. This situation, known as “sundowning”, is not only stressful for patients, but can also be challenging for the healthcare personnel. Even touching an animal may decrease anxiety during challenging evening hours, and increase calmness/well-being feelings.
It has been observed that responses have been achieved in patients with advanced dementia by animal assisted therapies. Some patients with dementia may develop better and easier communications with animals when compared with humans. A pet can listen to a patient with dementia without judging. In guiding dog visits in AAT program, dogs may allow patients to come near to them and play with them. It has been reported that dog assisted therapies may help these exercises to be happier and more motivating experiences in patients, who are recommended to take a walk. These patients are also reported to have improved life quality, and socialization desires when compared with patients, who have not kept or lived with animals.
A therapy dog provides the Alzheimer patient a unique communication and love bonding, which can be re-shaped according to the target whichever animal assisted therapy is required, and various physical, mental and social health benefits can be achieved. Fish, cat, dog, horse or tortoise may present human benefits, which we cannot presume for Alzheimer patients, and by supporting patients’ treatment compliances, they provide that patient relatives and healthcare personnel serve under more positive conditions. To provide the most benefit from AAT or AAA, in especially dog therapies, “resident” or “visiting” models can be used together for patients with dementia and Alzheimer´s disease. [14], [15], [18] It is not clearly explored which therapy model more useful than the other one. [9] In another review written by Williams and Jenkins reported that animal visitings to nursing-care units can provide various benefits including relaxation, improving of apathy and decreasing in agitation, aggression behavior and blood pressure for both patients and their caregivers, relatives. [18] According to the Churchill et al., a therapy dog can reduce some agitation behaviors of Alzheimer patients with especially sundown syndrome, and also help increasing social behaviors and calm down. [16]
Studies shown that environmental factors or changes in Alzheimer’s disease special care units can be effect on patients’ behavioral health outcomes including aggression, resident agitation, social withdrawal, depression, psychotic problems. [69], [70] That is why, treatment procedures should be planned and managed considering a balanced combination of pharmacologic, behavioral and environmental options in order to improve health, behavior and quality of life of patients with Alzheimer’s disease. [70] It is important that physicians who are playing a key role in recognizing problems and arranging suitable treatment for their patients should consider alternative treatment options based on social and recreational interventions including meditation, validation therapy, reality orientation, reminiscence therapy, sensory interventions (therapeutic touch and massage therapy, aromatherapy, music therapy, dance therapy, light therapy, multisensory stimulation therapy), social contact (animal-assisted therapy, simulated presence therapy), exercise, art therapy and Montessori-based activities. [71], [72] In addition, most of the AAT studies have been focused on dog, cat and other small animal activities. It is not well-known that animal assisted therapies with farm animals may have positive effects on self-efficacy and coping ability among psychiatric patients. [73]
As displayed on Table 5, AAT especially dog therapies can be used successively as a preventive and interventional method in patients with Alzheimers’ disease and dementia. Also, recent studies have shown that AAT may be beneficial to improve for various psychiatric diseases including Alzheimer, dementia, depression, anxiety, addiction, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder. [74]- [79]
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tOver 84 age patients with dementia, depression and psychosis Pet group (n=10) Control group (n=11) | \n\t\t\tDog therapy | \n\t\t\tComparing to the control group, improvements as below was observed in the pet group: Decreasing of depression symptoms at 50% level and increasing 4.5 times in mini mental scores. | \n\t\t\tMethodological Study (6 weeks) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPatients with Alzheimer in a special care unit | \n\t\t\tResident dog therapy in a special care unit | \n\t\t\tSignificantly decreasing of problem behaviors at the end of the 4 weeks. | \n\t\t\tMethodological study (4 weeks) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t62 patients with Alzheimer living a special care unit | \n\t\t\tAquarium therapy used for improving nutrition intake behaviors | \n\t\t\tSince 2th weeks, nutritional intake behavior increased significantly and this increase kept on during 6 weeks. Over 16 week period, it was observed that patients had needed less nutritional supplements than baseline. Finally, authors indicated that dog therapy can provide health care cost savings (personal communication). | \n\t\t\tMethodological study (Follow-up) (6 weeks) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t244 caregivers working with Alzheimer patients in Northern California. 124 caregivers contact with pets. 120 caregivers didn’t contact with pets included into the control group. | \n\t\t\tMan and women contacted with pets regular (dog or cat) | \n\t\t\tIt was observed that man who were attached to dogs scored better psychological health than men who had no pets. While, women less than 40 years old attached to cats were scored better some psychological health than women same aged and had no pets, women aged 40 to 59 years attached to dogs scored worse of life satisfaction and depression than women in the same age and had no pets. | \n\t\t\tCase-control study | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t64 Alzheimer patients living in a private nursing home. | \n\t\t\tPet-therapy group: 34 patients contact with pets Control group: 34 patients didn’t contact with pets. | \n\t\t\tIt was observed that, verbal aggression and anxiety was reported less in patients exposed to companion animals than patients didn’t exposed to pets. | \n\t\t\tMethodological study | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t2 female and one male patients in a nursing home diagnosed with severe dementia. | \n\t\t\tA dog therapy used 15 times over 9 months. A therapy performed in the same place for 30 min, once a week. | \n\t\t\tPsychological benefits obtained from the study as follows: \n\t\t\t\t With the dogs’ unconditional acceptance Addition, it was observed that their | \n\t\t\tProspective-qualitative study | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t7 patients with senile dementia and 20 patients enrolled into the control group in an adult day care center. | \n\t\t\tAAT was used for 6 weeks. Before and after AAT was evaluated mini mental state, activities of daily living, behavioral pathology and salivary CgA. | \n\t\t\tThe average mini mental state exam score was more higher than baseline, activities of daily living was more higher than baseline, behavioral pathology was more lower than baseline and finally salivary CgA was found to be decreasing tendency. Several methods can be used in order to show useful effects of AAT in patients with dementia as determined in this study by Kanamori M, et al. | \n\t\t\tMethodological study | \n\t\t
Animal Assisted Therapy Studies in patients with Alzheimer´s disease and other dementia
According to the literature, number of studies recommending animal assisted therapies in clinical and social medicine practices in elderly people with dementia, Alzheimer´s disease, ability losses, mental health problems and conduct disorders, cognitive problems, physical and functional health problems have been increased rapidly. [1-3], [63] Targeted acquisitions in AAT applications can be classified under five headings as social, psychological, training, physical and motivational. Moreover, what we expect from all applications in a patient with Alzheimer´s disease are mainly physiological improvements, better focusing on environment, enabling physical contact, interaction with surroundings, improvements in nutritional behaviors, socialization, acceptance, motivation, increased physical activity, stress, decreased mood disorders like depression, and agitation, enjoying, and decreased feeling of loneliness.
In USA, 60% of the population has at least one pet at home. Patients and animals participating in AAT require special care for prevention of zoonotic diseases, hypersensitivity reactions and injuries during visits. Therefore, the maximum benefit obtained from this therapy method depends on the multidisciplinary team work of a veterinarian specialist, a veterinarian public health specialist, a medical doctor, and an experienced therapist. [49], [80] Animal assisted therapy performed at treatment centers should always be performed following by a structured program, under the recommended guides, and targeted at the objectives of the program. [49] Hamsworth and Pizer reported after they investigated studies, which evaluated interactions with animals, and risk factors for zoonosis in immunocomprimised children, and guidelines that information obtained from specialists were not adequately evidence-based. Keeping an animal is beneficial for prevention and development of emotional and physical health. However, guidelines are also required to conduct treatments. [81]
Minimization of risks in such applications depends upon a careful planning with multidisciplinary approaches, written protocols, personnel training, documentation, and investigations. Veterinarian public health practices, which will be performed in this field, are important sources to keep risks endangering human and animal health at minimum levels. Especially veterinarians should choose the appropriate animal for therapy of each patient group according to temperament and behaviors of animals, perform the care for each animal, work for prevention of zoonotic diseases, and suggest an appropriate interaction model for the therapy. [32] Infection controlling policies and regulations should be obeyed in treatment and prevention of zoonotic diseases, so that animal assisted therapies will be more widespread. If measures for risk prevention are taken, then AAT applications can be performed safely. [82], [83]
In studies, where risk analyses have been performed, people interacting with pets have been observed to have benefits for their health. It has been reported from regions, where risks were not significantly high, controlled environmental conditions are provided especially in Europe and North America, potential benefits are reported in treatments with animals kept at home or at hospitals. Guidelines have been developed to limit infection risk during applications and to perform safe treatments. [84]- [86]
In addition to guidelines used during treatments, supportive units have also been established. Animal Assisted Crisis Response (AACR) unit is one of these. This unit provides services in how to struggle with the impending crises for assigned healthcare personnel, consultants and other trainers during animal assisted therapies. [87] Efficiency of these studies depends upon conductance of communication between the related units with a mutual language and a multidisciplinary approach. The most commonly encountered crises issues may be animal behavior, infection risk, and patient-trainer dispute.
Before starting animal assisted therapy and during its’ all procedures, it is always remembered that AAT should be performed according to the guidelines in order to prevent risks including adverse reactions of patients, animals, physicians, caregivers, nurses, health personnels, and also relatives of patients, infectious diseases, bitings, etc. it is well clearly explained that AAT should be arranged, managed and performed by a specialist team including patients’ physician, veterinary surgeon, psychologist, occupational therapist, expert caregivers, specialist nurses. Therefore, especially veterinary students should be trained about animal assisted therapies, activities and first of all human-animal bond during their undergraduate and postgraduate education. [88]- [91] At this point, according to the Timmins, a veterinary family practice conception can be helpful to understand and contribute human-animal bond from the theoretical framework into the practice for providing needs of patients. [92]
During applications, issues like increased work intensity of the personnel, zoonotic diseases, comfort and care of animals are considered. [93] These may be prevented by well-planned programming. [94] Disease risk can be easily prevented by regular animal health controls, and follow up of individuals. In developing countries like Turkey, animal assisted therapy is not practiced as a specialty filed, yet. Only limited services can be provided according to positive outcomes of human-animal interactions. But recently, an international project (Animals in Therapy Education) have been implemented for 2 years among different institutions from Turkey, Italy and France with financial supporting by European Union LLP Grundtvig Program for aged people. This project intends to design a collection of best practices related to implementation of pet therapy on aged people. As a result of this project will also ease the transfer of pet therapy practices through the comparison and the evaluation of different solutions adopted in the countries involved among partners from Italy, France and Turkey. [95]
In this present review, some information about what animal assisted therapies are, application fields, mechanism of action, sample applications for Alzheimer patients, and risk control in AAT, and some recommendations are suggested. It has been observed that this supportive therapeutic approach has been aimed at “complete well-being of individuals physically, socially and mentally as well as improvements of these well-being conditions”, which is always emphasized in public health aspect. However, there are still some questions without clear answers, such as AAT is also effective in group therapies as it has been in individualized therapy; how temperament and other features of assisting animal should be. Whatever types the program is, temperaments of all animals should be tested; they should be examined by a veterinarian; and listening-learning training should be performed with patients.
When AAT is practiced according to guidelines, appropriate ethical principles, then it will be an effective supportive treatment option for improvement of human health, life quality, and especially preservation of health state of individuals. However, as it has been undertaken in this present review, it is believed that studies related to animal assisted therapies are required also in our country to evaluate its efficacies in different patient groups correctly.
Optic nerve glioma (OPG) is a rare tumor comprising 1–5% of central nervous system tumors [1]. Child and adolescent patients are most commonly affected [2]. Depending upon the tumor extent as to optic chiasma, hypothalamus, there are symptoms like vision loss, proptosis, hydrocephalous, focal neurological symptoms, precocious puberty, and short stature. Location and also, the volume of the disease are determinants of prognosis. As gliomas limited to only optic nerve (OPN) have better long-term visual outcomes than those with post-chiasmatic disease [3].
OPG has been associated with the neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) gene in 50–60% of cases [4]. It has been observed decreased visual acuity is a more common presentation in non-NF1 patients than in NF1 positive (90% vs. 72%). However, proptosis has been found in 20–30% of cases with NF1+ and, only in 5–12% cases with non-NF1 [5].
Natural history and growth patterns have been variable for this tumor [6]. Some remain stable for years, while others demonstrate slow or rapid growth patterns.
OPG is a radiological and clinical diagnosis. It is a type of tumor where pretreatment tissue diagnosis is not mandatory [7]. A biopsy is limited to cases with unusual clinical and imaging findings. Pilocytic astrocytoma is the most common histopathological variant observed, pilomyxoid astrocytoma and grade II diffuse fibrillary astrocytoma are other variants [8].
A detailed ophthalmological examination including visual clinical examination, fundoscopy, Goldmann visual field, and imaging studies (CT/MRI orbit and brain) [9], all are vital in knowing the tumor extent, response to treatment, and prognosis.
The aim of the treatment should be to preserve vision. However, the timing and selection of optimal treatment modality are always a clinical dilemma [10] as it is challenging due to tumor location and treatment-related effects. Patients once diagnosed can be kept in surveillance as it remains stable for multiple years. Active intervention is to be taken once there is evidence for progression in diminition of vision or size of the tumor. Choice of the treatment to be assessed in a multidisciplinary clinic and at well-equipped centers having state of art facilities.
Surgery can be curative when the tumor is localized to the optic nerve, [10], it can be offered as palliative treatment in advanced OPGs with no vision, and severe disfiguring proptosis. Also, as most of the time there is an involvement of optic chiasma, hypothalamus, surgery is not attempted avoid to unacceptable adverse effects.
Radiotherapy when started early this could minimize vision loss [11]. There have been reports of stabilization and also improvement in vision in the range of 13–81% post-RT [9, 12].
Long-term results of radiotherapy in a retrospective study including 89 pediatric optic-hypothalamic gliomas patients showed 10-year event-free survival (EFS) of 61.9% in NF1+ and 67.5% without NF1, whereas 10 years overall survival (OS) was 92.3%. The median dose of radiotherapy was 54 Gy/30#. However, there were reports of secondary neoplasms possibly due to RT in eight patients (four in NF1+); also, the 10-year cumulative incidence of vasculopathy was 7%. Older patients without NF1 were at low risk of toxicity [13].
So, caution should be taken while selecting patients as in children less than 6 years, where the risk of precocious puberty, growth hormone deficiency, and cerebrovascular complications has been observed in studies [14].
We have reported a case of bilateral OPG in an 18-year-old patient who was treated with intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT). 54Gy/1.8 Gy/#, x 30 fractions over 6 weeks was prescribed to the planning target volume (PTV). Organs at risk (OARs) were taken care off for their tolerance. The patient had only mild irritation and watery discharge in bilateral eyes during radiotherapy with onset after 4 weeks of RT which resolved with symptomatic treatment. We observed stabilization of vision at 8 weeks follow-up [15].
In centers, where fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy (FSRT) [16] is available, the dose to the organs at risk (OARs) can be minimized by a smaller clinical target volume (CTV) margin of 1 mm and planning target volume (PTV) of 3 mm. Radiotherapy should be done by using a conformal newer technique, for example proton therapy (PRT), intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), FSRT, and Gamma knife surgery (GKS)/Cyberknife. The patient’s MRI can be fused with the planning CT scan for better delineation of the tumor.
An earlier study published in 1999 by M Fuss et al. compared the dosimetric difference between PRT, 3-dimensional radiotherapy (3-D RT), and lateral photons in cases of OPG. Gross tumor volume (GTV) ranged from 3.9 cm2 to 127 cm2. PRT gave the advantage of covering the smallest volumes of normal tissue at all isodose levels that will extrapolate as resulting in decreased long-term toxicity. With PRT a 47–77% dose reduction to the contralateral optic nerve (OPN) was observed in comparison as to be received by 3-DRT and lateral photons. Similarly for optic chiasma and pituitary glands doses were reduced with PRT [17].
Another study involved 22 patients’ majority having an extension to Chiasma/hypothalamus and five having disease limited to OPN treated with GKS. The median age of the patients was 16 years, with tumor volume 3.1 cm3 (0.15–18.2 cm3), prescription dose of 11.5 Gy (8–14 Gy), and mean follow-up (FU) was 43 months. Two patients were progressed, two died, the tumor shrank in 12 patients and remained stable in six patients, a controlled rate of 90% could be achieved. The authors concluded GKS to be a safe and effective treatment for OPG [18].
GKS has also shown promising results in another report where two patients of pilocytic astrocytoma of optic apparatus were treated with a dose of 11–15 Gy to 50% isodose line. Near complete response was observed in both of them at 60 months of FU [19]. Other reports using FSRT and Cyberknife in a young patient have shown a significant reduction in tumor size post-RT on FU MRI [20].
Chemotherapy has been an effective treatment in young children to preserve and stabilization of vision and delays radiotherapy [14]. It is indicated when there is a progressive disease which is evident by substantial tumor progression on MRI and or worsening of visual acuity. Although chemotherapy shrinks the tumor, up to 60% of children have tumor progression after 5 years [21].
The most common combination regimen is vincristine and carboplatin with 3–5 years progression-free survival (PFS) 77–69% respectively, although these results are from studies where the disease was extending beyond the optic nerve [22]. Other regimens with cisplatin and etoposide with 3-year PFS up to 78% have been reported [23]. In recent times monotherapy with temozolomide (TMZ) [24], vinblastine, and vinorelbine has been used for progressive or refractory disease with positive results and low toxicity. Although TMZ should be avoided in patients with NF1+.
MEK inhibitors, for example selumetinib have been reported to give 2-year PFS of 78% in a phase 2 study involving 25 patients with recurrent/progressive optic-hypothalamic gliomas. Common toxicities were grade 1–2 fatigue, asthenia, liver enzymes and creatinine phosphor kinase (CPK) elevation, diarrhea, rash, etc. [25].
OPGs are highly vascular tumors and in other tumors increased microvascular density has been associated with worse PFS. By inhibiting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), neovascularization, vascular permeability, and tumor growth are inhibited with bevacizumab. In a refractory setting bevacizumab-based therapy has been reported to result in objective response and rapid improvement in visual symptoms in up to 86% of cases [26]. Adverse effects of hypertension, fatigue, bleeding have been associated with bevacizumab.
OPG is rare and difficult to treat the tumor. Improvement in vision and/or checking further progression should be the aim of selecting a treatment modality. Results with advanced techniques of radiotherapy and newer chemotherapy regimens are promising.
We acknowledge the Radiation Oncology Department staff for their support in the treatment of the patient.
None.
None.
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Küden and Ali Küden",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"200365",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayzin B.",middleName:"B.",surname:"Küden",slug:"ayzin-b.-kuden",fullName:"Ayzin B. Küden"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"35",title:"Entomology",slug:"entomology",parent:{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:125,numberOfWosCitations:75,numberOfCrossrefCitations:67,numberOfDimensionsCitations:133,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"35",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10423",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",subtitle:"Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2746b4288e78c8688d1be1bd9d99a127",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10423.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8929",title:"Modern Beekeeping",subtitle:"Bases for Sustainable Production",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbf5aca68ed2c6690ad99f68aaaddcaf",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8929.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7561",title:"Beekeeping",subtitle:"New Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c47c831256fe10ff19fb10f490930fc",slug:"beekeeping-new-challenges",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7561.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6619",title:"Insect Science",subtitle:"Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08241b041b2072a88452041f8fdebe7e",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah and Umar Sharif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6619.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5163",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",subtitle:"Advances in Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc469ff4d2cf6651cfdbf3c5cf90a469",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",bookSignature:"Emerson Dechechi Chambo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5163.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94059",title:"Dr.",name:"Emerson",middleName:"Dechechi",surname:"Dechechi Chambó",slug:"emerson-dechechi-chambo",fullName:"Emerson Dechechi Chambó"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"50073",doi:"10.5772/62487",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3372,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"59212",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73864",title:"Insect Conservation for the Twenty-First Century",slug:"insect-conservation-for-the-twenty-first-century",totalDownloads:1945,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Insects have been immensely successful as an animal group. They dominate compositional diversity of all but the saltiest and coldest parts of the planet. Yet today insects are declining at a precipitous rate. This is of great concern in terms of impoverishment of Earth, and is also dire for us. Insects contribute to the maintenance of terrestrial and freshwater systems, their service delivery and their resilience. The meteoric impact of humans is challenging this dominance, yet so few people realize that the very fabric of life on which they depend is being unraveled at an alarming rate. Action is required, as are new perspectives, if we are to maintain insect diversity and services through the twenty-first century. Here, we review how we should view and act to have more effective insect diversity conservation based on six themes: (1) philosophy (establishing the ethical foundation), (2) research (the finding out), (3) policy (the framework for action), (4) psychology (understanding how to engage humans in insect conservation action), (5) practice (implementation of action), and (6) validation (establishing how well we are doing at conserving insects). We then overview some emergent challenges and solutions at both the species and landscape operational levels in agricultural, forestry, and urban environments.",book:{id:"6619",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",title:"Insect Science",fullTitle:"Insect Science-Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition"},signatures:"Michael J. Samways",authors:[{id:"233323",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Samways",slug:"michael-samways",fullName:"Michael Samways"}]},{id:"79121",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100416",title:"Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control of Insects and Pests",slug:"botanical-insecticides-are-a-non-toxic-alternative-to-conventional-pesticides-in-the-control-of-inse",totalDownloads:235,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Insect control for crops is one of the most critical global concerns. Pest management is an economic and ecological problem worldwide due to the human and environmental risks raised by most synthetic pesticide products. Botanical insecticides have resurfaced in popularity due to their low cost and low environmental impact, rather than their negative effects on human health. Botanical insecticides destroy only the insects they are meant to kill, leaving no residue on food or in the environment. Botanicals have long been used to combat pests. The compounds have many environmental advantages. However, as opposed to other bio-control pests and pathogens, their use was minimal during the twentieth century. In developing countries, botanical insecticides are well adapted for use in organic food production. Nonetheless, they may play a far bigger role in developed countries’ food production and post-harvest food protection. Consequently, the current chapter briefly addresses botanicals with active ingredients with insecticidal, antifeedant, or repellent properties.",book:{id:"10739",slug:null,title:"Global Decline of Insects",fullTitle:"Global Decline of Insects"},signatures:"Nazeer Ahmed, Mukhtar Alam, Muhammad Saeed, Hidayat Ullah, Toheed Iqbal, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Kiran Shahjeer, Rafi Ullah, Saeed Ahmed, Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed, Hanem Fathy Khater and Muhammad Salman",authors:null},{id:"50307",doi:"10.5772/62654",title:"From Extraction to Meliponiculture: A Case Study of the Management of Stingless Bees in the West-Central Region of Mexico",slug:"from-extraction-to-meliponiculture-a-case-study-of-the-management-of-stingless-bees-in-the-west-cent",totalDownloads:2732,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Currently, stingless bees' populations are declining due to environmental degradation. In this context, the authors have developed a research project in the central-western region of Mexico with the goal to generate strategies for conservation and sustainable management of stingless bees. The chapter aims to present the process of this investigation and its main results in terms of a) local knowledge and management strategies of stingless bees, and b) the social process of technological appropriation of meliponiculture by beekeepers. We recognized specific knowledge on the biology and ecology of stingless bees that result in a system for identifying species and management strategies of wild populations of these bees based on the extraction of nests. The implementation of an innovative productive activity based on the principles of meliponiculture and current techniques has been well received by producers, which has led to the formation of the Meliponicultores Michoacanos del Balsas Association, which grows five species of stingless bees. The research suggests that conservation associated with the use of bees (integral meliponiculture) can be enhanced in the region. Faced with the loss of biodiversity and environmental crisis, it is essential to maintain and enhance local knowledge of stingless bees and management practices. This represents an alternative to develop management schemes that allow the raising and breeding of these bees, while its products are obtained.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Alejandro Reyes-González, Andrés Camou-Guerrero and Salvador\nGómez-Arreola",authors:[{id:"179951",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Camou-Guerrero",slug:"andres-camou-guerrero",fullName:"Andres Camou-Guerrero"},{id:"185413",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-González",slug:"alejandro-reyes-gonzalez",fullName:"Alejandro Reyes-González"},{id:"192049",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Arreola",slug:"salvador-gomez-arreola",fullName:"Salvador Gómez-Arreola"}]},{id:"50683",doi:"10.5772/63145",title:"Advances in Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Composition of Propolis Produced in Americas",slug:"advances-in-pharmacological-activities-and-chemical-composition-of-propolis-produced-in-americas",totalDownloads:2560,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Propolis is a resinous material produced by bees from the selective collection of plant exudates that are subsequently mixed with beeswax and salivary bee secretions. Propolis has been used in folk medicine, and certainly, several studies have validated its biological properties. The chemical composition and pharmacological activities of propolis collected through North (including Central America and Caribbean) and South America have been studied in the last years, and several papers have reported differences and similarities among the analysed geographical samples. Propolis has been classified according to its aspect and plant source; however, the ecological diversity present along the Americas provides a plethora of botanical resins. Herein, we summarize and discuss most of the studies performed at present on this profitable product for apiculture, attempting to compare the bioactivity, phytochemical diversity and botanical sources of honeybee propolis produced in Americas.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Efrain Alday, Moisés Navarro-Navarro, Adriana Garibay-Escobar,\nRamón Robles-Zepeda, Javier Hernandez and Carlos Velazquez",authors:[{id:"96966",title:"MSc.",name:"Moises",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Navarro",slug:"moises-navarro-navarro",fullName:"Moises Navarro-Navarro"},{id:"180409",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velazquez",slug:"carlos-velazquez",fullName:"Carlos Velazquez"},{id:"186351",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Zepeda",slug:"ramon-robles-zepeda",fullName:"Ramón Robles-Zepeda"},{id:"186352",title:"MSc.",name:"Efrain",middleName:null,surname:"Alday",slug:"efrain-alday",fullName:"Efrain Alday"},{id:"186353",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez",slug:"javier-hernandez",fullName:"Javier Hernandez"},{id:"189161",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Garibay-Escobar",slug:"adriana-garibay-escobar",fullName:"Adriana Garibay-Escobar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50170",title:"A Comprehensive Characterization of the Honeybees in Siberia (Russia)",slug:"a-comprehensive-characterization-of-the-honeybees-in-siberia-russia-",totalDownloads:2274,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"A comprehensive study of some populations of honeybee (332 colonies) in Siberia (Tomsk region, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Yenisei population), Altai) using morphometric and molecular genetic methods was conducted. Infestation of bees (132 colonies) by Nosema has also been studied. Three variants of the COI-COII mtDNA locus were registered: PQQ, PQQQ (typical for Apis m. mellifera), and Q (specific for southern races). It was established that 64% of bee colonies from the Tomsk region and all colonies studied from the Krasnoyarsk and the Altai territories originate from Apis m. mellifera on the maternal line. According to the morphometric study, the majority of bee colonies of the Tomsk region are hybrids; in some colonies the mismatch of morphometric and mtDNA data was observed. Moreover, the majority of bee colonies infected by Nosema were hybrids. Yenisei population may be considered as a unique Apis m. mellifera population. Microsatellite analysis (loci А008, Ap049, AC117, AC216, Ap243, H110, A024, A113) showed the specific distribution of genotypes and alleles for some loci in the bees, which differ by geographical location. Loci A024 and Ap049 are of considerable interest for further study as candidate markers for differentiation of subspecies; locus A008 can be considered informative for determining of different ecotypes of Apis m. mellifera.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Olga L. Konusova, Aksana N. Kucher\nand Igor V. Sharakhov",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",middleName:null,surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"180343",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Sharakhov",slug:"igor-sharakhov",fullName:"Igor Sharakhov"}]},{id:"70501",title:"Southeast Asian Meliponiculture for Sustainable Livelihood",slug:"southeast-asian-meliponiculture-for-sustainable-livelihood",totalDownloads:1235,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) are one of the most important pollinators of native plants and economic crops in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. They not only establish large perennial colonies with complex social organization but also have a diverse nesting biology. The economic utilization of a total of 60 stingless bee species in Asia has been reported. The current status of meliponiculture in Southeast Asia is mainly focused on pollination utilization and honey and propolis production. This chapter shows that small-scale beekeeping of stingless bees, which is suitable for the flowering pattern in the tropics, is one of the best potential alternative opportunities. The cost-effectiveness analysis based on production yield, investment cost, and profit-return rate is reviewed. Finally, a sustainable utilization of stingless bees is considered to be an enhancer of pollination services both in an agricultural crop and natural ecosystem.",book:{id:"8929",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",title:"Modern Beekeeping",fullTitle:"Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production"},signatures:"Atsalek Rattanawannee and Orawan Duangphakdee",authors:[{id:"283087",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Atsalek",middleName:null,surname:"Rattanawannee",slug:"atsalek-rattanawannee",fullName:"Atsalek Rattanawannee"},{id:"306411",title:"Dr.",name:"Orawan",middleName:null,surname:"Duangphakdee",slug:"orawan-duangphakdee",fullName:"Orawan Duangphakdee"}]},{id:"50073",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3367,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"74836",title:"Chironomidae: Biology, Ecology and Systematics",slug:"chironomidae-biology-ecology-and-systematics",totalDownloads:426,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The family of Chironomidae is a group of Diptera insects belonging to the suborder of Nematocera, commonly called “non-biting midges” in the adult stage and “bloodworms” in the larval stage. The Chironomidae are often the most abundant group of macroinvertebrates, in number of species and individuals, encountered in all aquatic environments of freshwater, brackish, terrestrial and even the sea. Likewise, Chironomidae occur in all the continents. The Chironomidae family is divided into 11 sub-families that have diffrent ecological statues. Despite the wealth of data on Chironomidae in the Holarctic region, other parts of the world are poorly studied and few guides to identifying Chironomidae have been produced. This chapter includes a theoretical synthesis on the Chironomidae, it deals with the Biology (life cycle and description of different stages), description of all subfamilies and the ecology of this important family of Diptera.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Zerguine Karima",authors:[{id:"334825",title:"Dr.",name:"Karima",middleName:null,surname:"Zerguine",slug:"karima-zerguine",fullName:"Karima Zerguine"}]},{id:"75438",title:"Characteristics of Dipteran Insects",slug:"characteristics-of-dipteran-insects",totalDownloads:485,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Diptera means two wings (Di: two, pteron: wing). They have complete metamorphosis and they are holometabolous insects which means there are 4 stages (egg, larvae, pupae and adult). The name of larval stage is “maggot”. Some of the dipteran insects cause damage in agricultural production. Some are harmful for humans. Dipteran insects have two wings. Hind wings are reduced and they are called “halteres”. Function of halteres is balancing when the insects fly. Except mosquitoes, dipteran insects have sponging-sucking mouthparts. Important examples for dipteran insects are Olive fruit fly and Medfly which cause damages in agricultural production. OFF is the most destructive pest in olive growing areas and Mediterranean fruit fly cause damages in fruit production.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Murat Helvacı",authors:[{id:"301984",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Helvaci",slug:"murat-helvaci",fullName:"Murat Helvaci"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"35",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"78491",title:"Insect Conservation and Management: A Need of the Hour",slug:"insect-conservation-and-management-a-need-of-the-hour",totalDownloads:26,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100023",abstract:"Insects play a very vital role in divergent ecosystems and have gained great economic and medical importance as pollinators, pests, predators, parasitoids, decomposers and vectors. With the large-scale practice of synthetic pesticides, the diminishing rate of beneficial and pollinator insects is increasing rapidly. Environmental pollution, climate change, global warming, urbanization, industrialization and some natural calamities like wildfires add more fuel to the acceleration of insect decline all over the world. Alternative steps should be employed to replace the toxic pesticides and implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) should be put forward to reduce the overuse of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, which have a great impact on beneficial insects as well as birds, aquatic organisms, and also on human health. The present study aims to create awareness among the researchers and general public by providing a brief review of insect importance, decline and conservation strategies.",book:{id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg"},signatures:"Muzafar Riyaz, Rauf Ahmad Shah and Soosaimanickam Maria Packiam"},{id:"80971",title:"Agricultural Intensification Causes Decline in Insect Biodiversity",slug:"agricultural-intensification-causes-decline-in-insect-biodiversity",totalDownloads:48,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101360",abstract:"The world’s population exceeded 7 billion in late 2011 and it is expected to reach 9.3 billion by 2050. Meanwhile, demand for food is predicted to increase between 50 and 100% by 2050. To meet the food demands of the increasing population, agricultural intensification practices including growing monocultures of high-yielding crop varieties and increased applications of fertilizers and pesticides have been used to increase productivity. These practices, however, impact negatively on biodiversity of existing flora and fauna, particularly causing huge declines in insect biodiversity. This chapter reviews present state of knowledge about agricultural intensification practices and global decline of insect biodiversity (i.e., pest and beneficial insect species) in intensive agricultural system and point out the likely drivers of these declines. It concludes the review by examining sustainable agricultural intensification practices that could be used to mitigate these biodiversity declines while maintaining productivity in intensive agricultural systems.",book:{id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg"},signatures:"Mumuni Abudulai, Jerry Asalma Nboyine, Peter Quandahor, Ahmed Seidu and Fousséni Traore"},{id:"78872",title:"Diversity, Importance and Decline of Pollinating Insects in Present Era",slug:"diversity-importance-and-decline-of-pollinating-insects-in-present-era",totalDownloads:86,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100316",abstract:"Pollination is a multi-million-year-old co-evolutionary process involving flowering plants and pollinators. It is one of the most important mechanisms in preservation and promotion of biodiversity as well as life on Earth. Pollinator diversity is essential for maintaining overall biological diversity in many habitats including agro-ecosystems. Pollinators are responsible for assisting reproduction in over 80% of the world’s flowering plants. In their absence, humans and wildlife would go hungry. Insects are the most efficient pollinators as they play a crucial part in pollination ecology. Pollinators and their habitats have ecological, economic, cultural and social benefits. Pollination efficiency is highly dependent on certain attributes and characteristics of pollinators such as vision, anatomy, food preferences, olfaction, behaviour and learning ability. With the rapid growth of human population, our demand for food has also risen. Our agricultural systems will need to produce more food in a sustainable manner in the future to cope with this. Pollinators play an important role in these ecosystems and will continue to do so in the future. Because pollinators are so important to agriculture, we need to learn more about which crops require specific pollinators and how to best maintain and promote both wild and controlled species. Their diversity needs protection because there are specific relationships between certain crops and pollinators. Pollinator communities are suffering as a result of man-made habitat disruptions, including severe biodiversity loss. This diversity must be protected by combining conservation measures with sustainable farming practices which could increase crop yields while protecting insect pollinator species.",book:{id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg"},signatures:"Navkiran Kaur and Amritpal Singh Kaleka"},{id:"80012",title:"Impacts of Organic Farming on Insects Abundance and Diversity",slug:"impacts-of-organic-farming-on-insects-abundance-and-diversity",totalDownloads:110,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102035",abstract:"Organic farming encourages maximum utilization of the natural biological processes to manage the farm in terms of soil fertilization and pest control, which implies using none or less synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and plant and animal growth-promoting substances. All these practices increase arthropod diversity, particularly soil-dwelling insects. Intercropping, cover crops, and hedges, which are common practices in organic fields, provide alternative habitats for arthropod communities. The refugia also provide a good source of food for pollinators in terms of pollen grains and nectar. The interactions among the different plant and animal taxa (weeds, birds, mammals) that are found in the organic farming ecosystem have a great impact on insects’ abundance and diversity. This chapter summarizes the impacts of the organic farming system on the abundance and diversity of insects. The role of organic farming in mitigating the impact of agriculture intensification, urbanization, deforestation, and climate change on global insects’ decline and diversity loss is discussed.",book:{id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg"},signatures:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"},{id:"78945",title:"Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful against Insects and Pests?",slug:"botanical-insecticides-and-their-potential-as-anti-insect-pests-are-they-successful-against-insects-",totalDownloads:208,totalDimensionsCites:8,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100418",abstract:"In low-income countries, subsistence and transitional farms frequently use botanical insecticides. The shortage or high cost of industrial pesticides also prompts their use. Botanical insecticides are also prescribed by agricultural and development programs and certain development organizations. However, since insecticidal proof of their effectiveness and protection might not be sufficient or usable, this may be called into question. While insecticidal botanicals have been extensively studied, there has yet to be a fusion that focuses especially on the domestic synthesis of biopesticides that work infield and storage effectively. In this chapter, we look at the effectiveness of botanicals (neem, garlic, and essential oil) that are used as insecticides. In addition, this chapter also focuses on research carried out on the use of these essential oils as insecticides. Processes that use variable amounts of ingredients and concentrations and ratios of active ingredients can have varying impacts on the efficacy of plant-based biological insecticides. Finally, using home-made insecticides would reduce the losses that occur during food production and enable us to use environment-friendly pest management methods.",book:{id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg"},signatures:"Toheed Iqbal, Nazeer Ahmed, Kiran Shahjeer, Saeed Ahmed, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Hanem Fathy Khater and Reham Fathey Ali"},{id:"79060",title:"Description of a New Species of the Genus Anagrus (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae): A Biocontrol Agent as an Alternative to Insecticide Use",slug:"description-of-a-new-species-of-the-genus-anagrus-hymenoptera-chalcidoidea-mymaridae-a-biocontrol-ag",totalDownloads:77,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99957",abstract:"Although insects are economically important as they produce honey, silk, act as pollinators and also play an important role in functioning of an ecosystem, yet insect population is declining very fast. One of the possible causes of insects decline is excessive use of pesticides. Control of pest with synthetic chemicals or pesticides result in several issues and complications. These chemical pesticides or insecticides can also cause toxic effects on beneficial organisms like honeybees and butterflies which are important pollinators. So, biocontrol agents can be used as best alternative to control pest without harming beneficial organism and non-target insects or other organism as majority of biocontrol agents are host specific. Biological control agents including predators and parasotoids are natural enemies of insect pests. Present chapter deals with the description and illustration of one new species Anagrus (Anagrus) sololinearis sp.nov from India. This new species belongs to genus Anagrus (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae). Genus Anagrus is considered as one of the important and most promising biocontrol agents in insects as it is an egg parasitoid.",book:{id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg"},signatures:"Shireen Saleem and Shoeba Binte Anis"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:10},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:7,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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