\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"599",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Digital Signal Processing",title:"Applications of Digital Signal Processing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In this book the reader will find a collection of chapters authored/co-authored by a large number of experts around the world, covering the broad field of digital signal processing. This book intends to provide highlights of the current research in the digital signal processing area, showing the recent advances in this field. This work is mainly destined to researchers in the digital signal processing and related areas but it is also accessible to anyone with a scientific background desiring to have an up-to-date overview of this domain. Each chapter is self-contained and can be read independently of the others. These nineteenth chapters present methodological advances and recent applications of digital signal processing in various domains as communications, filtering, medicine, astronomy, and image processing.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-406-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5574-4",doi:"10.5772/1111",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"applications-of-digital-signal-processing",numberOfPages:412,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0806065a04f7ecc14f1c45a0b0127638",bookSignature:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde",publishedDate:"November 23rd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/599.jpg",numberOfDownloads:97168,numberOfWosCitations:35,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:37,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:93,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 25th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 22nd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 29th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 29th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 26th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"29543",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:"A",surname:"Cuadrado-Laborde",slug:"christian-cuadrado-laborde",fullName:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/29543/images/632_n.jpg",biography:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde received his Ph.D. degree in physics from La Plata University (UNLP, Argentina, 2005), and his Electric and Electronic Engineer degree from the San Luis University (UNSL, Argentina, 1998). \nThen, he joined to the most important federal research agency in Argentina (CONICET, 2005); where he is actually an Associate Researcher. He is currently also an Associate Professor of the La Plata Catholic University (Argentina). He has served also as an Assistant Professor of the Faculty of Engineering of the UNLP. \nHe was awarded by the Spanish Ministry of Science with a research fellow position to join to the Optical Fiber Laboratory group headed by M. V. Andres of the Valencia University (Spain) during 2008-2009. Since then, he has a fluid collaboration with this research group.\nHe serves also as a reviewer for several well-known journals of the Optical Society of America, the IEEE, Elsevier, SPIE, and the Electromagnetic Academy. \nHe has published several papers in top-tier scientific journals such as Optics Letters, Laser and Photonics Reviews, Optics and Photonics News, etc. His current research interest includes fiber optics applications, photonic processing, and all-fiber lasers.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"National Scientific and Technical Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"561",title:"Signal Processing",slug:"computer-science-and-engineering-signal-processing"}],chapters:[{id:"24300",title:"Complex Digital Signal Processing in Telecommunications",doi:"10.5772/26259",slug:"complex-digital-signal-processing-in-telecommunications",totalDownloads:12091,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zlatka Nikolova, Georgi Iliev, Miglen Ovtcharov and Vladimir Poulkov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/24300",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/24300",authors:[{id:"18206",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Poulkov",slug:"vladimir-poulkov",fullName:"Vladimir Poulkov"},{id:"21534",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgi",surname:"Iliev",slug:"georgi-iliev",fullName:"Georgi Iliev"},{id:"21536",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zlatka",surname:"Valkova-Jarvis",slug:"zlatka-valkova-jarvis",fullName:"Zlatka Valkova-Jarvis"},{id:"71205",title:"MSc.",name:"Miglen",surname:"Ovtcharov",slug:"miglen-ovtcharov",fullName:"Miglen Ovtcharov"}],corrections:null},{id:"24301",title:"Digital Backward Propagation: A Technique to Compensate Fiber Dispersion and Non-Linear Impairments",doi:"10.5772/25410",slug:"digital-backward-propagation-a-technique-to-compensate-fiber-dispersion-and-non-linear-impairments",totalDownloads:4307,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Rameez Asif, Chien-Yu Lin and Bernhard Schmauss",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/24301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/24301",authors:[{id:"63229",title:"Dr.",name:"Rameez",surname:"Asif",slug:"rameez-asif",fullName:"Rameez Asif"},{id:"67397",title:"MSc.",name:"Chien-Yu",surname:"Lin",slug:"chien-yu-lin",fullName:"Chien-Yu Lin"},{id:"67398",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernhard",surname:"Schmauss",slug:"bernhard-schmauss",fullName:"Bernhard Schmauss"}],corrections:null},{id:"24302",title:"Multiple-Membership Communities Detection and Its Applications for Mobile Networks",doi:"10.5772/26469",slug:"multiple-membership-communities-detection-and-its-applications-for-mobile-networks",totalDownloads:4095,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Nikolai Nefedov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/24302",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/24302",authors:[{id:"66756",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",surname:"Nefedov",slug:"nikolai-nefedov",fullName:"Nikolai Nefedov"}],corrections:null},{id:"24303",title:"Comparative Analysis of Three Digital Signal Processing Techniques for 2D Combination of Echographic Traces Obtained from Ultrasonic Transducers Located at Perpendicular Planes",doi:"10.5772/26949",slug:"comparative-analysis-of-three-digital-signal-processing-techniques-for-2d-combination-of-echographic",totalDownloads:2900,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Miguel A. 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\r\n\tIn an industrial scenario, improper maintenance (or its lack) has several implications that can lead to unexpected breakdowns, losses at industrial production, or catastrophic consequences. In general, a fault affects only one component; however, it spreads to other components as the fault evolves. Moreover, considering cost reduction and production efficiency, developing an effective maintenance program has gained more attention, and several tools have been implemented to support and encourage best practices. In this sense, advanced data acquisition and processing methods have been developed to allow effective machine condition monitoring and early fault detection and identification, avoiding unexpected breakdowns and even catastrophic failures, especially for critical systems. Whenever possible, condition monitoring should be done non-invasively and without interrupting machine operation.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tOver the years, the concept of maintenance became more comprehensive, reducing fault occurrence and increasing industrial system availability. Besides, reliability, safety, and criticality requirements were associated with the system or equipment under analysis. Maintenance strategies or schemes can be classified as corrective (run-to-break), preventive (time-based), and predictive (condition-based maintenance). Corrective maintenance is only performed after an occurrence of a fault. Therefore, it involves unexpected breakdowns, high costs, changes in the production chain, and it could lead to catastrophic events. Preventive maintenance and interventions occur based on a scheduled maintenance plan or the equipment's mean time between failures. Although it is more effective than corrective maintenance, unexpected failure may still occur by preventing most failures. Additionally, the process cost is still high, especially the costs associated with labor, inventory, and unnecessary replacement of equipment or components.
\r\n\tOn the other hand, predictive maintenance analyses the equipment condition so that a possible fault can still be identified at an early stage. Predictive maintenance aims to identify a machine anomaly so that it does not result in a fault. Such maintenance involves advanced monitoring, processing, and signal analysis techniques, which are generally performed non-invasively and, in many cases, in real-time. In the case of machines or processes, these techniques can be developed based on vibration, temperature, acoustic emission, or electrical current signal monitoring. It should be noted that monitoring such signals or parameters to verify the operating condition is called condition monitoring. Condition monitoring aims to observe the machine's current operational condition and predict its future condition, keeping it under a systematic analysis during its remaining life. In this sense, a fault condition can be detected and identified from systematic machine condition monitoring. A diagnosis procedure can be established, whereby properly investigating the fault symptoms and prognosis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book will aim to merge all these ideas in a single volume, aggregate new maintenance experiences, apply new techniques and approaches, and report field experiences to establish new maintenance processes and management paradigms.
\r\n\t
Cetacea (whales and dolphins) is a natural group that has for centuries generated a great deal of misunderstanding and controversy regarding its proper place in natural classification. As late as 1945 Simpson wrote that “Because of their perfected adaptation to a completely aquatic life, with all its attendant conditions of respiration, circulation, dentition, locomotion, etc., the cetaceans are on the whole the most peculiar and aberrant of mammals.”
Although both molecular and paleontological data have provided a much better understanding of the placement of this group among mammals, there is no question that despite being studied and dissected by dozens of naturalists since Aristotle, these animals were always misclassified. This group provides an interesting case study for intellectual inertia in the history of science. In other words, why did so many scientists misplace this group in the natural classification despite the fact that they themselves were gathering critical information that showed the close relationship these animals had to what we know today as mammals?
The aim of this chapter is to explore this question. To that end I will (1) survey the naturalists who studied cetaceans providing clues of their true nature, (2) describe the intellectual environment in which their conclusions were made, and (3) discuss the factors behind this intellectual inertia.
For the purpose of this chapter I have only taken into consideration works that had some scientific basis and/or that in some ways influenced the process of placing cetaceans as mammals. Authors are enumerated based on the date of the major publication they produced on cetaceans. For synonyms in names of marine mammals through time see Artedi (1738) and Linnaeus (1758).
Aristotle b. Stagira, Chalcidice, Macedonia, today’s Greece, 384 BCE; d. Chalcis, Euboea, Ancient Greece, today’s Greece 322 BCE Biographical information on Aristotle is largely based on Barnes (1995).
In 367 BCE Aristotle moved to Athens to study at Plato’s Academy, and later travelled throughout Asia Minor and studied living organisms while at the island of Lesbos (344-342 BCE) where he collected a lot of information about marine mammals. He later created his own philosophical school, the Lyceum, in Athens where most of his written work was produced between 335 and 323 BCE.
Aristotle is the first natural historian from whom we have any extensive work. One of his surviving opuses is We used the text available at http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/history_anim.html
Humans
Viviparous quadrupeds (terrestrial mammals)
Oviparous quadrupeds (reptiles and amphibians)
Birds
Cetaceans
FishMalacia (squids and octopuses)
Malacostraca (crustaceans)
Ostracoderma (bivalve mollusks)
Entoma (insects, spiders, etc.)
Zoophyta (jellyfishes, sponges, etc.)
Higher plants
Lower plants
Based on the “kinds” of animals and the varieties he described we can distinguish somewhere between 550 and 600 species. Most of them he had observed directly and even dissected but others were based on tales and he warned about the accuracy of those descriptions. For example, although he mentioned information in numerous occasions provided to him by fishers, many times (but not always) he debunks some of the fallacies he heard based on his own observations, particularly when it came to reproduction.
Of what we would consider today as mammals (including cetaceans) he described about 80 and about 130 species of fishes, which, again, underlines the extensive work, he did on marine creatures, mostly while living at Lesbos. Under the genus “Cetacea” he included at least three species: (1) “dolphins” probably a combination of striped dolphin ( These citations for Historia Animalium follow the Bekker’ pagination.
The motives behind Aristotle classification system, particularly animals, were not biological in nature but rather philosophical. For him these creatures were evidence for rational order in the universe. This approach meant that species were rigid elements of the world and, thus, he never contemplated mutability or anything close to evolution, despite the fact that earlier Greek philosophers such as Anaximander envisioned the mutability of species. Furthermore, Aristotle’s motive for conducting this categorization was done in such a way that we can then identify the causes that explain why animals are organized the way they are. His investigation into those causes is carried out in other surviving biological works (e.g.,
Aristotle was able to distinguish between homology and analogy, recognizing cetaceans as a natural group with many similarities with other mammals (“viviparous quadrupeds”). He considered cetaceans as “blooded” animals, adding, “viviparous such as man, and the horse, and all those animals that have hair; and of the aquatic animals, the whale kind as the dolphin and cartilaginous fishes” (
However, Aristotle placed whales and dolphins below reptiles and amphibians, because their lack of legs, despite his physiological and behavioral observations that they were related more closely to “viviparous quadrupeds” than to fish.
Aristotle followed his teacher Plato in classifying animals by progressively dividing them based on shared characters. This is an embryonic form of today’s classification more fully developed by Linnaeus. The reason he ordered the different “genera” the way he did was because he considered “vital heat” (characterized by method of reproduction, respiration, state at birth, etc.) as an index of superiority placing humans at the very top. Men were superior to women because they had more “vital heat.” On this he followed Hippocrates’s ideas, since the Greek physician thought there was an association between temperature and soul.
Yet he was not fully satisfied by this approach given that a number of “genera” had characters that were shared across groups, particularly when compared with their habitats. For example, both fishes and cetaceans had fins, but they differ markedly on other characters such as reproduction (oviparous vs. viviparous) or organs (gills vs. lungs, respectively).
Many of Aristotle’s observations about cetaceans remain accurate. In terms of internal anatomy he mentioned that they have internal reproductive organs (
Regarding behavior and sensory organs he said that dolphins have a sense of smell but he could not find the organ (
He held that cetaceans are not fishes because they have hair, lungs (
These basic Aristotelian biological descriptions persisted for good and for bad until Charles Darwin’s evolutionary work. On one hand his descriptions were so accurate that Darwin admired Aristotle, to the point that he said privately that the intellectual heroes of his own time “were mere schoolboys compared to old Aristotle.” Darwin Correspondence Database,
http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-11875 accessed on 25 Feb 2012.
Aristotle’s influence on naturalists’ classification of life would extend until Darwin’s times when evolutionary views replaced the fixity of species as elements in nature.
Pliny the Elder b. as Gaius Plinius Secundus 23/24 CE in what is now Como, Italy; d. 25 August 79 CE near Pompeii, Italy.
He wrote a 37-volume
He devoted 9 of the 37 volumes to animals and ordered them according to where they live. Volume IX (Historia Aquatilium) of Naturalis Historia is devoted to aquatic creatures, whether living in oceans, rivers or lakes, whether vertebrate or invertebrate, real or mythical. Based on their size he categorized as “monster” anything big, whether it is a whale, a sawfish or a tuna (IX 2,3).
He grouped together all known species of cetaceans (cete) but constantly mixed their descriptions with those of other marine mammals such as seals as well as with cartilaginous fishes, such as some sharks (pristis). Pliny mentioned the three species cited by Aristotle: dolphins (delphinus, probably a combination of striped dolphin [Stenella coeruleoalba] and the common dolphin [Delphinus delphis], IX 12-34), porpoises (porcus marinus, the harbor porpoise [Phocoena phocoena], IX 45) and whales (ballaena, possibly a combination of large toothless whales [mysticetes] IX 12-13). Then he added a few more: the thursio or tirsio (probably the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus IX 34), the physeter (probably the sperm whale [Physeter macrocephalus] IX 8) found in the “Gallic Ocean” (probably the Bay of Biscay, IX 3, 4), the orca (probably the killer whale [Orcinus orca] IX 12-14), and the river dolphin from India (possibly Platanista gangetica, IX 46). He also mentioned some mythical creatures such as Homo marinus (Sea-Man, IX 10) and the Scolopendra marina (IX, 145) a mythical organism whose legend may be based on polychaetes, marine annelids characterized by the presence of many legs (Leitner 1972, p. 218).
Pliny recognized that neither whales nor dolphins have gills, that they suckle from the teats of their mothers, and that they are viviparous. In addition to these true facts copied from Aristotle, he mentioned exaggerations such as whales of four jugera (ca. 288 m) in length that because of their large size “are quite unable to move” (IX 2,3). In addition to some of the biological facts mentioned by Aristotle, Pliny adorns his narrative with all kind of casual tales about interactions between cetaceans and humans.
By lumping together all kinds of aquatic organisms it is hard to distinguish what he called “fish” and what he did not (see for example IX 44-45). His classification took a step back from Aristotle because he did not try for a comprehensive classification of animals. He failed to compare organisms based on shared or divergent characters. Many times he ordered creatures based on size, from the largest to the smallest. Yet, his work had great influence for 1700 years, which was unfortunate because he was an uncritical compiler of other people’s writings (even if they were contradictory). Pliny also created a number of unfounded impressions about the reality of nature. His only positive contribution was that he established the norm of always citing the sources of his information (in actuality 437 authors, whose works, in some cases, are no longer available).
During the middle ages, little progress was made in the sciences. Students were urged to believe what they read and not to question conventional wisdom. Logic determined truth, not observation. Free thought was non-existent and minds were filled with mythological explanations for the unknown. Marine mammals were depicted as monsters and little new information was generated.
The Renaissance was a time of awakening and the religious ideology began to be questioned. The translations of the works of Aristotle and Pliny into Latin and the introduction of the printing press helped to spread the little knowledge accumulated until that time about natural history in the western world. For example, by 1500 about 12 editions of Aristotle’s Historia Animalium and 39 of Pliny’s Historia Naturalis had seen the light, which is evidence of the popularity of these works. During this age of discovery the finding of species that were never mentioned neither by Aristotle nor the Bible, opened up scientific curiosity about new creatures around the world. Thus, people once again began to seek new knowledge. However, in these times, naturalists were more compilers of information than investigators despite the fact that they were performing more dissections that in turn uncovered new taxonomic possibilities. Still, scientists relied on environmental aspects to classify animals. Collecting was a primary activity during this era (Alves 2010, p. 54).
Belon b. 1517, Soultière, near Cerans, France; d. April 1564, Paris, France.
His L\'Histoire Naturelle des Estranges Poissons Marins (1551) was the first printed scholarly work about marine animals. This book was expanded and published in French in 1555 as La Nature et diversité des poissons including 110 species with illustrations for 103 of them.
Belon not only reproduced information from Aristotle and Pliny but also added his own observations including comparative anatomy and embryology. For him “fish” was anything living in the water. He divided “fishes” in two large groups: the first was “fish with blood” (as Aristotle had done) that included not only actual fishes but also cetaceans, pinnipeds, marine monsters and mythical creatures such as the “monk fish,” as well as other aquatic vertebrates such as crocodiles, turtles, and the hippopotamus. He called a second group “fishes without blood” and consisted of aquatic invertebrates (see also Delaunay 1926).
He ordered what we know as cetaceans today in a vaguely descending order based on size: Le balene (mysticete whales, although in the illustration he depicted a cetacean with teeth), Le chauderon (sperm whale? although he mentions the sawfish), Le daulphin (common dolphins on which he devoted 38 pages of this 55-page book), Le marsouin (porpoise), and L’Oudre (bottlenose dolphin) (for a rationale on the identification of these species see Glardon 2011, p. 393-398). He dissected common dolphins (D. delphis) and porpoises (P. phocaena) acquired at the fish market in Paris brought in by Normandy fishers, and probably a bottlenose dolphin (T. truncatus) as well.
He described these marine mammals as having a placenta, mammae, and hair on the upper lip of their fetus. Belon wrote that apart from the presence of hind limbs, they conform to the human body plan with features such as the liver, the sternum, milk glands, lungs, heart, the skeleton in general, the brain, genitalia. He also dealt with issues of breathing and reproduction (although from the description it is clear that he never saw one of these animals giving birth, since he depicted the newborn surrounded with a membrane). He drew the embryo of a porpoise and the skull of a dolphin (Fig. 1). Despite all this he did not make the connection between cetaceans and “viviparous quadrupeds” and based his entire classification on environmental foundations, as he made clear in the introduction of his work.
Wotton b. 1492, Oxford, England; d. 5 October 1555, London, England.
Illustrations of marine mammals by Belon (1551): (a) and (b) are representations of the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis); (c) a porpoise (Phocaena phocaena); (d) a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus, although he uses the name of “Orca”) presumably giving birth; (e) the skull of a dolphin; (f) a porpoise fetus in a placenta, showing that he had actually dissected these animals.
Differentiis Animalium Libri Decem (1552), probably the first published book on natural history of the Renaissance. This was a 10-part (“books”) treatise that followed the classification structure by Aristotle while adding some comments from Pliny. In Book 8 (pp. 171-173) he placed Cete together with fishes because of the medium they inhabit. Except for entomology he did not conduct any original observations on animals nor include any illustrations. His contemporaries noted his lack of originality (Nutton 1985).
The list of cetacean species included Delphino (dolphins), Phocaena (porpoises), Balaena (mysticete whales), Orca (either the bottlenose dolphin or the killer whale) and Physeter (the sperm whale).
Rondelet b. 27 September 1507, Montpellier, France; d. 30 July 1566, Réalmont, Tarn, France
He enjoyed dissecting and did so frequently for both teaching and research purposes. He published Libri de Piscibus Marinis in quibus verae Piscium effigies expressae sunt (1554) with a second part titled Universae Aquatilium Historiae pars altera (1555) about both marine and freshwater animals. Both were later translated into French as L’histoire entière des poissons (1558, 599), a monograph for teaching purposes.
After writing about food, habitat, morphology, and physiology, he described 145 freshwater and 190 marine species that included at least seven species of cetaceans: delphino (common dolphin), phocaena (porpoise), tursione (bottlenose dolphin, although the illustration more resembles a porpoise), balaena vulgo and balaena vera (two different species of mysticetes whose true identities are difficult to ascertain), orca (killer whale), and physetere (sperm whale) (Fig. 2). He also included among cetaceans the priste (sawfish) and mythical animals such as Pliny’s scolopendra cetacea, the monstruo leonino (a lion covered with scales and with a human face), the pisce monachi habitu (a fish that looks like a monk), and the pisce Episcopi habitu (a fish that looks like a bishop) of which he was skeptic. All together his book contained more species than previous published works. Each species description included the animal’s name in different languages, their morphology (external and internal), feeding habits, and use as food for humans. Species were differentiated similarly to Aristotle as blooded and non-blooded. Although Aristotle inspired the entire book, including teleological considerations in his discussions, Rondelet added some original ideas, especially concerning anatomy and descriptions of the small cetaceans he dissected. Rondelet made correlations between form, function, and environment.
Illustrations of marine mammals by Rondelet (1554): (a) a dolphin showing a fetus surrounded by a placenta indicating it was a viviparous animal; (b) a porpoise; (c) an unidentified species of mysticete, probably a right whale because may have been observed by Rondelet during a whaling operation in the Atlantic; (d) an unidentified species of mysticete that he never saw as evidenced by the depiction of barbels above the mouth; (e) orca (Orcinus orca); (f) a sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus).
Despite noting differences, he grouped marine mammals with fish based on habitat. For example, he noted that fishes with scales lack lungs and have a three-chamber heart while what we know today as marine mammals have hearts with four chambers. He compared the anatomy of a dolphin to that of the pig and humans. Based on this and his descriptions of other internal organs, he considered marine mammals to be a type of aquatic quadruped. Yet, he did not propose a system of classification. He did not advance the notion of valid classification, but because of the quality of his descriptions his work remained as the main reference for about 100 years.
Gessner b. 16 March 1516, Zürich, Switzerland; d. 13 December 1565, Zürich.
Gessner followed Aristotle’s classification of animals when it came to their grouping by volume (Vol. 1: viviparous quadrupeds; Vol. 2: oviparous quadrupeds; Vol. 3: birds; Vol. 4: aquatic animals; Vol. 5: serpents). He ordered them alphabetically, like a “Dictionarium,” in each volume, which did not provide a rational classification based on relationships of any kind; on the other hand this alphabetical order facilitated its use as an encyclopedic source. Gessner’s intention was to collect any piece of information ever written about each animal by any author in history, he cited nearly 250 authors including Rondelet (Libri de Piscibus Marinis, 1554), Belon (De Aquatilibus,1553), and Salviani (Aquatilium Animalium, 1554). The latter only mentioned marine mammals in passim.
Some of the “Cetis” described by Gessner (1558): (a) and (b) two examples of marine monsters; (c) a whale attacking a ship and another being flensed during whaling operations. Both show mysteces with teeth, which indicates that Gessner never saw these animals. This exemplifies that Gessner was an uncritical compiler of information.
Information included names of the animals in various languages (some times more than a dozen) comprising epithets and etymology (even inventing common names in other languages when those names were not available), physical features, geographic distribution, the animal’s way of living including diseases and their cures, behavior, utility towards man (e.g., for food or medical purposes), and tales. His work was full of illustrations: some were very accurate showing that he had first-hand knowledge of the animal in questions while other were bizarre or just invented, especially when dealing with mythical creatures.
Gessner included a 16-page-folio discussion about the dolphin very much along the lines of Aristotle and Pliny. As an uncritical compiler he included contradictory or totally false information such as mythical species and even “monsters.” In volume 4 he relied heavily on Belon and Rondelet. For example, Monachus marinus (sea monk, IV, p. 519) description was copied from Rondelet who, in turn, had received the description from Marguerite, Queen of Navarre, who heard it from Emperor Charles V’s ambassador, who had claimed to see the monster himself (Kusukawa 2010). He did not add much to what was already known. Among marine mammals he mentioned are the Balaena (mystecete whales, IV, p. 128) depicted more as sea monster than as an actual whale, Cetis diversis (IV, p. 207), an amalgam of marine monsters based on Olaus Magnus’s descriptions of sea monsters from seas from northern Europe, Hominis marinis (IV, p. 438), a collection of humanoid sea monsters such as the sea-monk and the sea-bishop. To certain extent he was skeptical of accuracy of some of these descriptions by other authors.
Many of the figures were made by others and copied directly from other books including those of “cetaceous” animals as was the case of a whale which was copied from Olaus Magnus’ map of the Northern Lands (IV, p. 176) (Fig. 3).
The last author who published anything of significance about marine mammals during the Renaissance was Aldrovandi b. 11 September 1522, Bologna, Italy; d. 4 May 1605, Bologna.
Depiction of some marine animals by Aldrovandi (1613): Some show that he actually saw some of those skeletal pieces such as (a) a tooth possible from a sperm whale, (b) a baleen and the prominent tooth of a narwhal (Monodon monoceros), (c) a rib and a vertebra, possibly of a large whale, and (d) a scapula. In other cases he illustrated whales with human-like emotions (e); whales with feet (f); sawfishes with cetacean characteristics (g); and Pliny’s “Scolopendra cetacea” (h), which perpetuated the notion that such animal existed. Overall he was a very uncritical compiler when it came to marine mammals.
He published De piscibus libri V, et De cetis lib. vnus (1613) where he defined “Pisces” as animals covered with scales and “aquatilis” as “anything else that lives in the water” while recognizing that cetaceans are air-breathing creatures. The species that he mentioned were the ones cited by his predecessors: Balaena, Physeter, Orca, Delphino, Phocaena, and Tursione, while including the Manate Indorum, Phoca, Pristi (the sawfish), and the mythical Scolopendra Cetacea. From the illustrations (Fig. 4) it is clear he never saw any of these animals with the exception of some of their skeletal parts. As an uncritical compiler of information he did not add anything new to the knowledge of these creatures and, yet, was cited by later authors.
In this period, observation and experimentation moved to the forefront of science. Classification was based on similarities and differences in characters. During this time English physicians travelled to Padua, Bologna and Paris to be trained in human dissection since the status of medicine in England was still poor. People involved in these kind of activities had a background in either medicine (or “physic” as it was called then) and/or theology (Kruger 2004). During this time the center of gravity of science moved from the Mediterranean world to northern Europe, mostly England.
The first researcher of the biology of marine mammals in this period was Johann Jonston b. 15 September 1603, Szamotuly, Poland; d. 8 June 1675, Legnica, Poland.
He dealt with cetaceans on pages 213-224 of his Historiae and included the same species as Aldrovandi: Balaena, Physetere, Orca, Delphino, Phocaena and the mythical scolopendra cetacea, the sawfish, pinnipeds, and the manatee among the cetaceans.
Charleton b. 2 February 1619, Shepton Mallet, Somerset, England; d. 24 April 1707, London, England.
Charleton was a follower of epicurean atomism (materialism) (Kargon 1964) and an eclectic (Lewis 2001), whose interest in natural history was more or less theological because, as he said, men were obligated into “naming & looking into the nature of all Creatures” (Boot 2005, p. 119). In other words, just as Ray and Willoughby did later, natural science was the search a divine pattern in nature, part of the research agenda of the Royal Society – to which Charleton belonged (Rolleston 1940, Sharpe 1973). His publications showed him more as a compiler than as an innovator. His major contribution to science was the discovery that tadpoles turn into frogs (Booth 2005, p. 1).
He published two books dealing with animal classification: Onomasticon zoicon (1668) and Exercitationes de Differentiis & Nominibus Animalium (1677) works that listed the names of all known animals (including some fossils) in the western world in several languages with a somewhat taxonomy discussion, including remarks about these animals habits and habitats that contained anatomical descriptions of two animals that he had dissected. As Belon did over a century before, he divided “fishes” as either “with blood” (vertebrates) and “without blood” (invertebrates). He grouped under “Cetaceos” not only actual cetaceans but also the sawfish, seals, walruses, manatees, hippopotamus and the mythical “scolopendra cetacea.” The actual cetaceans described were Balaena vulgaris (probably the right whale), Physeter, & Physalus (probably the fin whale but also other species), Cetus dentatus (the sperm whale), Pustes (indeterminate species, maybe the beluga), Orca (the killer whale), Monoceros (the narwhal), Delphinus (probably a composite of delphinidae), and Phocaena (the porpoise).
Tyson b. 20 January 1651 Clevedon, near Bristol, Somerset, England; d. 1 August 1708, London, England.
In Phocaena, or, The anatomy of a porpess dissected at Gresham Colledge, with a preliminary discourse concerning anatomy and natural history of animals (1680), he noted that “What we have here is a signal Example of the same between Land-Quadrupeds and Fishes; for if we view a Porpess on the outside, there is nothing more than a fish; for if we view a Porpess on the inside, there is nothing less. (...) It is viviparous, does give suck, and hath all its Organs so contrieved according to the standard of them in Land-Quadrupeds; that one would almost think of it to be such, but it lives in the Sea, and hath but two fore-fins.” Adding later “The structure of the viscera and inward parts have so great an Analogy [sic] and resemblance to those of Quadrupeds, that we find them here almost the same. The greatest difference from them seems to be in the external shape, and wanting feet. But here too we observed that when the skin and flesh was taken off, the forefins did very well represent an Arm, there being the Scapula, an of Humeri, the Ulna, and Radius, and bone of the Carpus, the Metacarp, and 5 digiti curiously joynted. The Tayle too does very well supply the defect of feet both in swimming as also leaping in the water, as if both hinder feet were colligated into one, though it consisted not of articulated bones but rather Tendons and Cartilages.”
Tyson’s description of the internal anatomy of the porpoise is remarkable, particularly when it comes to its nervous system (Kruger 2003). In many ways he thought that the “porpess” was the transitional link between terrestrial mammals and fish.
In his monograph Tyson surveyed contributions from previous authors. He corresponded with John Ray (see below). Ray had also dissected a porpoise (an exercise on which he reported in a published form in 1671), nine years before Tyson but was far more superficial and added very little to what other authors such as Rondelet had done. Tyson met Ray around 1683 and the latter invited Tyson to contribute to Willughby’s De Historia Piscium (Montagu 1943, p. 103).
Tyson was critical of encyclopedic approaches and relying on classical authors when it came to natural history. He set new standards in terms of direct observation and comparative anatomy. He also established an understanding of homology not seen since Aristotle. He proved to be a very competent observer of internal anatomy and he saw comparative anatomy as a means to explain the Great Chain of Being (or scala naturae or ladder of nature) as proposed by Plato and Aristotle.
A contemporary of Tyson was Samuel Collins b. 1618, Rotherfield, Sussex, England; d. 11 April 1710, Westminster, Middlesex, England. Biographical information obtained from: http://munksroll.rcplondon.ac.uk/Biography/Details/950 and accessed on 2 April 2012.
In addition to Tyson, Collins\'s anatomy draws largely upon the works of Thomas Willis. In the opening Epistle-Dedicatory to James II he claimed that various chapters "are illustrated by the Dissection of other Animals (which I have performed with Care and Diligence, speaking the wonderous Works of the Glorious Maker) rendering the Parts of Man\'s Body more clear and more intelligible." In volume two of his huge work he described numerous folio copper plates containing the most extensive comparative anatomy of the brain then existing, an expansive account of the functional significance of his findings, as well as practical clinical commentary.
Ray b. 29 November 1627, Black Notley, near Brainton, Essex, England; d. 17 January 1705, Black Notley, England. b. 22 November 1635, Middleton, Warwickshire, England; d. 3 July 1672, Middleton.
Ray’s first published work on cetaceans was Dissection of a Porpess (1671). He does a much better job in describing the internal anatomy of this animal when compared with Rondelet but does not get into the detail that Tyson achieved later. During the narrative of his findings he keeps noticing that a porpoise has a lot in common with the “quadrupeds”. Yet he persisted calling them “fishes.”
Ray published Historia piscium (1686), under Willughby\'s name 14 years after his patron death, though Ray himself contributed the vast majority of the content. He carried out the first serious attempt to achieve a systematic arrangement, the success of which can be attributed by the fact that it served as a basis for the systematics work of the following century. His approach was based on direct observation, collaboration with other researchers, and critical reading of previous authors.
Historia Piscium is divided into two parts that were printed separatedly: the first is the narrative and the second, titled Ichthyographia, were the illustrations. Many libraries today have both bound together. As sources Ray used authors mentioned earlier in this chapter: Rondelet, Salviani, Gessner, Aldrovandi and Belon, among others. Yet, far from merely compiling information from them, Ray insisted in very comprehensive descriptions of species and discarded all monsters and mythical creatures mentioned by his predecessors. Ray not only removed narratives of marine invertebrates but also other aquatic animals such as the crocodile and the hippopotamus. He divided his subject matter into three groups: cetaceans, cartilaginous fishes, and bony fishes. He recognized that when it comes to reproduction and internal anatomy cetaceans are identical to the “viviparous quadrupeds.” Still, he kept cetaceans within the “piscium” despite the fact that he was well aware that they were biologically distinct from fishes.
In his narrative of species Ray moved away from in the practical aspects related to these animals. Aspects such as usage for medical purposes were very common among previous authors because of their medical background. Yet, Ray was very keen at compiling names on the belief that a universal language could be construct based on the knowledge of nature. As Kusukawa (2000) has argued convincingly, Ray believed that there was a need for “a construction of a universal language based on a table that properly expressed the natural order and relations between things.” Hence a precise description and classification was the route to achieve that goal. The final product counted not only on the intellectual support of the Royal Society’s members who provided constructive criticism and moral support but also their financial support. The cost of publishing Historia Piscium was not only very high, mostly because of the expense of the illustrations (187 plates), but also the 500 copies printed sold poorly. As a consequence the Society could not print Isaac Newton’s Principia.
Ray’s third publication related to marine mammals was Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis (1693). By then he was totally convinced that cetaceans were not fishes: “For except as to the place on which they live, the external form of the body, the hairless skin and progressive swimming motion, they have almost nothing in common with fishes, but remaining characters agree with the viviparous quadrupeds.” He placed today\'s terrestrial mammals (including the manatee) among the ‘hairy animals’ very close to the Cetaceum genus (cetaceans).
In Synopsis Ray included a section called Pisces Cetacei seu Belluae marinae where he expressed that these animals breath and give birth like the “oviparous quadrupeds.” He grouped them into two categories according to the presence of teeth much as we do today separating odontocetes from mysticetes. Ras was the first in doing so. The species he cited were Balaena vulgaris (Rondelet), Balaena (Fin-Fish), Physeter or Balaena physeteris, Orca (Rondelet & Belon), Cete (Sperm whale), Pot Walfish, Albus piscis cetaceus (white fish), Monoceros cetaceo (Narhual islandis), Delphino antiquorum (dolphin, from Rondelet), Phocaeno (Rondelet & Belon), dissecting a specimen of the latter in 1669.
Illustrations from Tyson’s (1680) description of the internal anatomy of a porpoise. Notice the remarkable accuracy of the depictions.
Ray developed a division of animals characterized by having blood, breathing by lungs, two ventricles in the heart, and being viviparous. Ray subdivided this group into aquatic (cetaceans) and terrestrial or quadruped including sirenians (manatees and dugongs). He rejected tales of fabulous animals while perfecting Aristotle’s classification by diving vertebrates into those having hearts with two ventricles (mammals and birds) from those with a single ventricle (reptiles, amphibians and fish). He also advanced the understanding of other groupings. He established the significance of the generic principle, defined species, and was a leading contributor to the gigantic task of classification.
Ray came close to recognizing mammals as a separate group based on “warm-blood,” vivipary, and hair. He conceded the relationship of cetaceans with viviparous quadrupeds; described genera and species; established ordinal classification of mammals; systematic phrases and names; used of descriptive phrases as well as monomial names (a taxonomic name consisting of a single word); a dichotomous (“A is B or not B”) classification of mammals. Yet, he lacked the vision or intellectual courage to reunite marine mammals with their terrestrial relatives and still placed the former with the fish “in accordance with common usage.” Still he was possibly the best naturalist of the seventeenth century.
Artedi b. 10 March 1705, Anundsjö, Västernorrland, Sweden; d. 27-28 September 1735, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Artedi separated actual fishes from cetaceans (which he called “plagiuri”) based on the plane of the caudal fin. He described 7 genera and 14 species including the manatee and the “siren” as follows:
Order:Plagiuri
Physeter
Balaena major (Ray, p. 15)
Balaena macrocephala (Ray, p. 16)
Delphinus
Delphinus (Phocaena) (Art. Syn. 104)
Delphinus (Delphin) (Art. Syn. 105)
Delphinus (Orca) (Art. Syn. 106)
Balaena
Balaena vulgaris (Ray p. 6, 16)
Balaena edentula Fin-Fish (Ray p. 6, 10)
Balaena tripinnis (Ray 16)
Balenae (Balaena tripinnis) (Ray 17)
Monodon
Monoceros pisces (Will. 42, Ray 11, Charleton 168)
Catodon
Balaena minor (Ray p. 15)
Balaena major (Ray p. 17, Will. P. 41)
Trichechus
Manatus (Rondelet p. 490, Gessner p. 213, Charleton 169, Aldrovandi 7
28, Jonston 223)
Siren
Homo marinus
Artedi established the basic classification of fishes that lasted for about 200 years and separated cetaceans into a totally different order than fishes; he apparently knew that they were different, but still tradition was difficult to break and thus he included them into his ichthyological treatise. He also established the basic branching of animal groups into Class, Maniples (Families), Genera, and Species, a system that was to be closely followed by Linnaeus (Wheeler 1987, Broberg 1987). His work set the foundations for what Linnaeus would culminate as the definitely recognition of cetaceans as distinct group within mammals.
Linnaeus (or Linné) b. 23 May 1707, Stenbrohult, Småland, Sweden; d. 10 January 1778, Uppsala, Sweden.
Even some of Linnaeus students were developing a better understanding of cetaceans as being really close to “viviparous quadrupeds.” That was the case of Pehr Löfling b. 1729, Valbo, Sweden; d. 22 February 1756, Guayana, Venezuela.
With all of this background, the botanist Linnaeus was ready to revolutionize biological classification and in the 10th Edition (1758) of his fundamental work Systema Naturae, he introduced the term Mammalia, and included Cete among them. For Linnaeus, mammals were united by having hair, being viviparous, and producing milk. He coined the term cetacea and separated them from fishes and grouped them with the rest of the viviparous quadrupeds based on the following characteristics: two-chamber heart, breathing by lungs, hollow ears, internal fertilization, and production of milk.
Thus, Linnaeus revolutionized the science of systematics by developing a fully natural system of classification, using consistently the binomial nomenclature, and designing species with Latinized names (genus and species). He developed a hierarchy (class, order, genus, species) as proposed by Artedi, with species defined as similar individuals bound together by reproduction, which also set the basis of the biological species concept. The use of telegraphic speech-like (very short sentences) diagnosis for species descriptions and the standardization of synonymies (same species with different names) in order to reach a taxonomic consensus made his classification even more useful since from now on one could find clarity on what a particular species was tracing its description to other authors. He also doubled the number of species described by Ray. Thus, despite the fact that he was not a zoologist per se nor was involved in dissection of animals, he was far from a compiler in that he applied critical thinking to the way he ordered nature.
This progress is even more remarkable when considering that Linnaeus was far from an evolutionist. For him species were fixed except for small variations due to climatic/local conditions. Yet, Linnaeus was, without question, the founder of systematics and the one who laid the foundations for the naturalists to become specialists and, therefore, opened the door for the first group of marine mammal specialists, now that these creatures were not longer considered “fishes.” It was not until Linnaeus that the science of taxonomy made the strides that have lead us to where we are today in our understanding of the natural world. Linnaeus understood biological principles and placed animals in groups based on homologies rather than using environment to drive classification, and this was what allowed him to recognized cetaceans as a distinct group within mammals.
Persuing at the information provided above there are a number of discernable patterns. One is the preponderance of pre-Linnean researchers interested in marine mammals who had a medical background of some sort. That is not surprising because medicine was the closest thing to science as a career existed until the eighteenth century. Also, being interested in medicine created more opportunities to dissect animals and, therefore, understanding of their internal anatomy that was particularly crucial in establishing the homology between cetaceans and the “viviparous quadrupeds.” Yet, this positive influence was marred by the proliferation of encyclopedists who, for the most part, were uncritical compilers of other authors’ information. However, the major impediment to any attempts to develop a natural classification for cetaceans was the insistence on classifying them by virtue of the environment in which they live, something that even diverted the thoughts of keen observers such as Ray and Artedi, despite of abundant evidence to the contrary having been collected since Aristotle.
Finally, we should not overlook the role played by intellectual inertia in the development of science. As Horder (1998) clearly demonstrated, scientists need to know the history of their field to avoid errors of the past, something that has also been argued for specific fields of biology (see Romero 2009, Chapter 1).
Pseudocereal grains are considered as good sources of protein with a balanced amino acid profile. Proteins from pseudocereal grains have recently gained increasing popularity due to their nutritional, functional, and biological properties. Proteins from quinoa, amaranth, and chia are among the most extensively studied pseudocereal proteins in terms of characterization of physicochemical, functional, and biological properties. The functionality of proteins from other less known pseudocereals, such as kiwicha and cañihua, still remains to be explored. Although proteins from pseudocereal grains are indicated to show good functionality, some processes may be required to modify the structure and improve the functionality of pseudocereal proteins. Structural and functional properties of various pseudocereal proteins are recently reviewed [1, 2, 3]. This chapter presents an overview of the structural and functional properties of pseudocereal proteins, the effects of methods used for protein extraction and fractionation on protein functionality, and several methods applied for modification of structure and optimizing the functionality of pseudocereal proteins.
Quinoa (
Various physical, chemical, and biological modification methods are applied to pseudocereal proteins to improve functionality. Enzymatic hydrolysis is a commonly applied strategy to improve not only the functional but also the bioactive properties of plant-based proteins. Guo et al. [7] recently reviewed the biological activities of quinoa protein hydrolysate and peptides. In a recent study, Daliri et al. [8] applied enzymatic hydrolysis to quinoa protein concentrate with pancreatin and investigated the changes in emulsifying, foaming, and antioxidant properties. Quinoa protein concentrate was obtained from defatted quinoa flour with alkaline extraction followed by the isoelectric precipitation method. Hydrolysis with pancreatin at 40°C for 180 min was reported to result in the highest degree of hydrolysis (∼19%). Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis revealed that different functional groups, such as free regions of hydroxylic amino acids, aromatic amino acids, and free amino groups, originated in the hydrolysate due to the hydrolyzing action of pancreatin. The obtained hydrolysate was reported to show better antioxidant properties in terms of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging activity. Solubility, emulsifying and foaming activities of the hydrolysate were found to be higher than that of the native protein. On the other hand, the native protein showed better emulsion and foam stabilizing properties [8].
Maillard reaction is used as a tool to modify structural properties and improve the functionality and biological activity of proteins. In a recent study, Teng et al. [9] investigated the effect of glycosylation with xylose on the structural and functional properties of quinoa protein. Quinoa protein isolate (96% protein) was obtained from defatted quinoa flour with alkaline extraction followed by an isoelectric precipitation method. Glycosylation via Maillard reaction was performed by mixing quinoa protein isolate with mannose or xylose with varying proportions in phosphate buffer and heating at 60°C for 4 h. The optimum ratio of quinoa protein to monosaccharide was determined to be 2:1 based on the degree of grafting and browning index analyses. The electrophoretic profile of samples revealed that glycosylation had significant effects on the depolymerization and remodeling of molecular aggregates of quinoa protein. The specific surface area and absorption capacity of quinoa protein were indicated to increase after glycosylation. Solubility, water and fat absorption capacities, emulsifying activity, and stability of glycosylated quinoa protein were reported to be significantly higher than that of the native protein. Moreover, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative activities of quinoa protein were indicated to increase after the glycosylation reaction [9].
Amaranth (
Figueroa-González et al. [12] investigated the effects of pH-shifting and ultrasonication treatments on the structure, physicochemical, and foaming properties of amaranth protein. Amaranth protein isolate (83% protein) was obtained from defatted amaranth flour with alkaline extraction-isoelectric precipitation method. Amaranth protein dispersions were prepared in distilled water (30 mg/mL, pH 7.0) and protein was modified by five different treatments—pH-shifting at pH 2.0 and 12.0, sonication (750 W) for 10 min at an amplitude of 50%, and pH-shifting (at pH 2.0 and 12.0) followed by sonication. After the modification treatments, amaranth protein dispersions were dried at 35°C for 45 h in the oven to avoid protein denaturation. Alkaline pH-shifting followed by sonication was reported to result in a significant decrease in the hydrodynamic diameter of amaranth protein. On the other hand, hydrodynamic diameter of protein was observed to increase after the acidic pH-shifting treatment. The isoelectric point of amaranth protein increased from 4.0 to 4.2 after the alkaline pH-shifting treatment and to 4.5 after the combined alkaline pH-shifting and ultrasound treatments. However, ultrasound treatment alone was reported to decrease the isoelectric point of amaranth protein to 3.5. Alkaline pH-shifting and ultrasound treatments were reported to induce changes in the secondary structure fractions of amaranth protein. Moreover, both pH-shifting treatments and combination of pH-shifting and ultrasound treatments resulted in changes in the sulfhydryl groups and disulfide bonds of amaranth protein. Both pH-shifting treatments were reported to improve the solubility of amaranth protein, where the highest protein solubility was observed in the sample treated with a combination of alkaline pH-shifting and ultrasound. The foaming capacity and stability of amaranth protein were reported to increase significantly after all treatments except for the acidic pH-shifting treatment. Moreover, treatments applied were indicated to improve the
Das et al. [13] investigated the effects of pH treatment and the extraction pH on the physicochemical and functional properties of amaranth protein isolate. Amaranth protein isolate was obtained from defatted amaranth flour with alkaline extraction at different pH values (9.0, 10.0, 11.0, and 12.0) followed by isoelectric precipitation (pH 4.5). Amaranth protein isolates were subjected to pH treatments at pH 3.0–9.0 and tested for functionality. The protein content of amaranth proteins extracted at different pH values changed between 56 and 85%, where the isolate obtained at pH 9.0 showed the highest purity, solubility, and particle size but the lowest yield. The authors reported that maintaining the extraction and treatment pH values at 9.0 resulted in significant improvements in functional properties including solubility, water and oil binding capacities, emulsifying and foaming properties. Extraction and treatment at pH 9.0 were also indicated to result in better thermal properties and improved gelation characteristics. Moreover, emulsifying, foaming, and gelation properties of amaranth protein isolates were reported to be affected by the particle size, wettability, and solubility [13].
Enzymatic modification is recently applied as a useful tool to improve the functionality and biological activity of amaranth protein. Kamal et al. [14] prepared amaranth protein hydrolysates using bromelain, chymotrypsin, and pronase E enzymes at three different hydrolysis durations (2, 4, and 6 h). Bioactive peptides were identified by LC-MS-QToF analysis. Amaranth protein hydrolysates were reported to contain bioactive peptides with inhibitory properties against enzymatic markers linked with hypertension and diabetes [14].
In another recent study, Karimi et al. [15] investigated the effects of using selective hydrolyzed protein of amaranth on sourdough fermentation, bread quality, and shelf life. Amaranth protein isolate was obtained from defatted amaranth flour using the alkaline extraction-isoelectric precipitation method. Protein hydrolysates were prepared with Alcalase® treatment for 3 h. The authors reported that amaranth protein hydrolysates increased the growth of
Kiwicha (
The protein content of chia (
Julio et al. [22] prepared different protein fractions of albumins, globulins, glutelins, and prolamins from chia protein-rich fraction of chia seeds, a by-product of chia oil extraction process. The solubility profile of chia protein-rich fraction, globulins, and prolamins was observed to be similar and made a peak at pH 9.0. On the other hand, maximum solubility was observed at pH 5.0 for glutelin and albumin fractions. Detailed emulsion characterization tests including destabilization kinetics and particle size distributions revealed that globulin fraction resulted in the most stable emulsion systems. The authors reported that higher pH values resulted in improved stability in emulsions stabilized with globulins, glutelins, and chia protein-rich fraction [22].
Urbizo-Reyes et al. [23] prepared chia protein hydrolysates with ultrasound treatment followed by microwave-assisted hydrolysis. For this purpose, chia seed mucilage and chia seed oil were extracted from the seeds prior to protein hydrolysis. Chia protein hydrolysates were prepared using Alcalase® or sequential hydrolysis with Alcalase® and Flavourzyme®. Enzymatic hydrolysis reaction was conducted using a conventional or microwave-assisted system. Chia protein hydrolysates obtained using sequential hydrolysis with microwave treatment were reported to show significantly higher
Teff (
Teff flour is widely used in formulations of gluten-free bread and bakery products. Adebowale et al. [25] compared the characteristics of protein fractions in three different teff types with sorghum with the main focus on bread-making quality. The major protein fraction in teff was reported to be prolamin. Aqueous alcohol-soluble protein fraction was indicated to be rich in glutamine and leucine. The authors suggested that differences in the electrophoretic profile of proteins indicated that teff prolamin is less polymerized compared to sorghum prolamin. Functional properties of teff prolamins useful in bread making were attributed to the differences in thermal profile, lower polymerization, and hydrophobicity [25].
Common buckwheat (
Xue et al. [29] investigated the effects of high-intensity ultrasound treatment and Maillard reaction on structural, interfacial, and emulsifying properties of buckwheat protein. Buckwheat protein isolate was prepared from defatted buckwheat flour with alkaline extraction method followed by isoelectric precipitation. Buckwheat protein isolate-dextran conjugates were prepared via Maillard reaction combined with ultrasound treatment. The secondary and tertiary structures and surface hydrophobicity of buckwheat protein isolate-dextran conjugates obtained with ultrasonication were observed to be different than those of conjugates obtained with classical heating. As a result of the modifications in protein structure, emulsifying properties and surface activity of conjugates obtained with ultrasonication were reported to be improved compared to classical heating [29].
In another recent study, Wu et al. [30] investigated the effect of extraction pH on structure, functional properties, and digestibility of tartary buckwheat protein. Protein isolates were prepared from defatted tartary buckwheat flour using alkaline extraction at different pH values (pH 7.0–13.0) followed by isoelectric precipitation. Tartary buckwheat flour and protein isolates were separated into albumin, globulin, prolamin, and glutenin fractions based on Osborne-type protein fractionation. Protein extraction at alkaline conditions was reported to increase protein extraction yield. Increased extraction pH was indicated to decrease the albumin content of tartary buckwheat protein isolate while glutenin content increased. The solubility of isolates extracted at pH > 12.0 was observed to decrease. On the other hand, emulsion stability increased at the same conditions that were attributed to increased surface hydrophobicity. The differences observed in
In addition to functional properties, buckwheat protein and derived bioactive peptides are reported to show various biological properties, including cholesterol-lowering activity, blood pressure controlling enzyme inhibitory activity, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities that suggest the potential use of buckwheat protein and peptides as functional food ingredients [3].
Cañihua (
Enzymatic hydrolysis was applied to cañihua protein for obtaining peptides with biological activities. Chirinos et al. [34] derived hydrolysates and peptides from cañihua protein concentrate. Protein concentrate (79% protein) was obtained from defatted cañihua meal with alkaline extraction-isoelectric precipitation method. Cañihua protein concentrate was subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis with Alcalase®, Neutrase®, and Flavourzyme® at 50°C up to 240 min. The hydrolysates obtained were purified via ultrafiltration and size exclusion chromatography to obtain three peptide fractions. The authors reported that cañihua protein can be considered as a good source of bioactive peptides with antioxidant and angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activities. Specifically, cañihua protein hydrolysate obtained with Neutrase®-Alcalase® sequential hydrolysis for 180 min was indicated to show good
In another recent study, Moscoso-Mujica et al. [35] also applied enzymatic hydrolysis to cañihua protein. Cañihua flour was obtained from the seeds of two different varieties (Ramis and Cupi-Sayhua) and defatted prior to protein extraction. Protein fractions of albumins, 7S globulins, 11S globulins, and glutelins were obtained based on solubility differences and subjected to sequential hydrolysis with Alcalase® and pepsin-pancreatin. Hydrolysates with varying degrees of hydrolysis were obtained and tested for antimicrobial activity against
Pseudocereals are indicated as good protein sources with a balanced amino acid profile. Nutritional composition and protein characteristics of pseudocereal grains change depending on the seed variety and growing conditions. Moreover, the methods used for protein extraction and fractionation affect protein structure, composition, and hence, functionality. Enzymatic hydrolysis has been shown to be a useful tool for obtaining peptides from pseudocereal proteins with biological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antihypertensive properties. Proteins and peptides from pseudocereal grains can be potentially utilized as ingredients in innovative product formulations due to their nutritional quality, functional properties, and biological activities. More research is needed to investigate the effects of pseudocereal proteins on end-product quality to elucidate the potential and increase the utilization of pseudocereal proteins as food ingredients.
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
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Pampanin and Magne O. Sydnes",authors:[{id:"139987",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sydnes",slug:"sydnes",fullName:"Sydnes"},{id:"143899",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Pampanin",slug:"daniela-pampanin",fullName:"Daniela Pampanin"}]},{id:"40697",doi:"10.5772/51040",title:"Selective Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Waters and Waste Waters Using Ion Exchange Methods",slug:"selective-removal-of-heavy-metal-ions-from-waters-and-waste-waters-using-ion-exchange-methods",totalDownloads:19314,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:93,abstract:null,book:{id:"2549",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",fullTitle:"Ion Exchange Technologies"},signatures:"Zbigniew Hubicki and Dorota Kołodyńska",authors:[{id:"42116",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska"},{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki"}]},{id:"33450",doi:"10.5772/37583",title:"Measurement of the Nanoscale Roughness by Atomic Force Microscopy: Basic Principles and Applications",slug:"measurement-of-the-nanoscale-roughness-by-atomic-force-microscopy-basic-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:21254,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:89,abstract:null,book:{id:"2282",slug:"atomic-force-microscopy-imaging-measuring-and-manipulating-surfaces-at-the-atomic-scale",title:"Atomic Force Microscopy",fullTitle:"Atomic Force Microscopy - Imaging, Measuring and Manipulating Surfaces at the Atomic Scale"},signatures:"R.R.L. De Oliveira, D.A.C. Albuquerque, T.G.S. Cruz, F.M. Yamaji and F.L. Leite",authors:[{id:"1164",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Lima",surname:"Leite",slug:"fabio-leite",fullName:"Fabio Leite"},{id:"136651",title:"MSc.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"ricardo-de-oliveira",fullName:"Ricardo De Oliveira"},{id:"136652",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diego",middleName:"Aparecido Carvalho",surname:"Albuquerque",slug:"diego-albuquerque",fullName:"Diego Albuquerque"},{id:"136653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tersio",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"tersio-cruz",fullName:"Tersio Cruz"},{id:"136657",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaji",slug:"fabio-yamaji",fullName:"Fabio Yamaji"}]},{id:"63161",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80495",title:"Modelling of Adsorption Kinetic Processes—Errors, Theory and Application",slug:"modelling-of-adsorption-kinetic-processes-errors-theory-and-application",totalDownloads:3916,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:85,abstract:"Adsorption has become a competitive method in the field of wastewater and air treatment. Adsorption kinetics is one of the main factors that must be understood before the applicability of any adsorbent. In every adsorption process, linear or non-linear analysis of the kinetics is applied. The goodness of fit index (coefficient of correlation or sum of squares) is applied to access the best model. The usage of linear or non-linear from of the adsorption kinetics has an impact on the distribution of error function. Almost in every adsorption study, linear forms have been used to conclude the best kinetic model that influence the adsorption mechanism—which might be an error. Therefore, this review highlights the mistakes in the usage of linear and non-linear models. The applicability of the adsorption kinetics in wastewater treatment is also illuminated.",book:{id:"7486",slug:"advanced-sorption-process-applications",title:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Sorption Process Applications"},signatures:"George William Kajjumba, Serkan Emik, Atakan Öngen, H. Kurtulus Özcan\nand Serdar Aydın",authors:[{id:"26340",title:"Dr.",name:"Kurtulus",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"kurtulus-ozcan",fullName:"Kurtulus Ozcan"},{id:"250972",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Aydin",slug:"serdar-aydin",fullName:"Serdar Aydin"},{id:"251149",title:"Dr.",name:"Serkan",middleName:null,surname:"Emik",slug:"serkan-emik",fullName:"Serkan Emik"},{id:"251150",title:"Dr.",name:"Atakan",middleName:null,surname:"Öngen",slug:"atakan-ongen",fullName:"Atakan Öngen"},{id:"251152",title:"Mr.",name:"George William",middleName:null,surname:"Kajjumba",slug:"george-william-kajjumba",fullName:"George William Kajjumba"}]},{id:"62303",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79374",title:"Modified Titanium Dioxide for Photocatalytic Applications",slug:"modified-titanium-dioxide-for-photocatalytic-applications",totalDownloads:3975,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:73,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has been widely used as a photocatalyst in many environmental and energy applications due to its efficient photoactivity, high stability, low cost, and safety to the environment and humans. However, its large band gap energy, ca. 3.2 eV limits its absorption of solar radiation to the UV light range which accounts for only about 5% of the solar spectrum. Furthermore, the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 is also limited by the rapid recombination of the photogenerated electron-hole pairs. When used in water treatment applications, TiO2 has a poor affinity toward organic pollutants, especially hydrophobic organic pollutants. Several strategies have been employed to reduce its band gap energy, its electron-hole recombination rates as well as enhance its absorption of organic pollutants. In this chapter, we review some of the most recent works that have employed the doping, decoration, and structural modification of TiO2 particles for applications in photocatalysis. Additionally, we discuss the effectiveness of these dopants and/or modifiers in enhancing TiO2 photoactivity as well as some perspective on the future of TiO2 photocatalysis.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"John Moma and Jeffrey Baloyi",authors:[{id:"250026",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Moma",slug:"john-moma",fullName:"John Moma"},{id:"250963",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Baloyi",slug:"jeffrey-baloyi",fullName:"Jeffrey Baloyi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68496",title:"Moisture Sorption Isotherms and Isotherm Model Performance Evaluation for Food and Agricultural Products",slug:"moisture-sorption-isotherms-and-isotherm-model-performance-evaluation-for-food-and-agricultural-prod",totalDownloads:1960,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Moisture sorption characteristics of agricultural and food products play important roles in such technological processes as drying, handling, packaging, storage, mixing, freeze-drying and other processes that require the prediction of food stability, shelf life, glass transition and estimation of drying time and texture and prevention of deteriorative reactions. They are useful in the computation of thermodynamic energies of moisture in the products. An understanding of moisture sorption phenomena in products, moisture sorption isotherm (MSI) determination techniques and moisture sorption isotherm model evaluation procedures would be useful in the development or selection, modeling and controlling as well as optimization of appropriate processes to make for enhanced efficiency. The phenomena addressed in this chapter are equilibrium moisture content (EMC)-water activity (aw) relationships and MSI types, temperature influence on isotherms and occurrence of moisture sorption hysteresis. MSI measurement techniques highlighted are the gravimetric, vapor pressure manometric (VPM), hygrometric and inverse gas chromatographic and the use of AquaLab equipment. Commonly used moisture sorption isotherm models (BET, GAB, modified GAB, Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Hailwood-Horrobin, modified Halsey, modified Henderson, modified Chung-Pfost and modified Oswin) were selected, and their evaluation procedures using moisture sorption data were outlined. Static gravimetric technique involving the use of saturated salt solution appears to be the most widely used and recommended method of determining the EMC of agricultural and food products. Most of the MSI models can be fitted to moisture sorption data thorough linearization by logarithmic transformation, while others can be solved using such expression as second-order polynomial. Model goodness of fit can be determined using standard (SE) error of estimate, coefficient of determination (R2), mean relative percentage deviation (P) and fraction explained variation (FEV). The acceptance of a model depends on the nature of its residual plots. A model is considered acceptable if the residual plots show uniform scatter around the horizontal value of zero showing no systemic tendency towards a clear pattern. A model is better than another model if it has lower SE, lower P, higher R2 and higher FEV. Although it appears as if a generalized MSI model is yet to exist, it is recommended that the Ngoddy-Bakker-Arkema (NBA) model should be given thorough going and extensive testing on the MSI of different categories of food as it could prove true to its generalized model posture due to the fundamental nature of its derivation.",book:{id:"8012",slug:"sorption-in-2020s",title:"Sorption in 2020s",fullTitle:"Sorption in 2020s"},signatures:"Ndubisi A. Aviara",authors:[{id:"303694",title:"Prof.",name:"Ndubisi",middleName:null,surname:"Aviara",slug:"ndubisi-aviara",fullName:"Ndubisi Aviara"}]},{id:"63788",title:"Disinfection Methods",slug:"disinfection-methods",totalDownloads:3200,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Water must be made safe to drink, and an important step in ensuring water safety is disinfection. Disinfectants are added to water to kill disease-causing microorganisms. Ground water sources can be disinfected by “The Water Treatment Rule,” which requires public water systems for disinfection. Chlorination, ozone, ultraviolet light, and chloramines are primary methods for disinfection. However, potassium permanganate, photocatalytic disinfection, nanofiltration, and chlorine dioxide can also be used. Organic material is naturally present in water. Certain forms of chlorine can react with these organic materials and result in the formation of harmful by-products; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has anticipated maximum levels for these contaminants.",book:{id:"7478",slug:"photocatalysts-applications-and-attributes",title:"Photocatalysts",fullTitle:"Photocatalysts - Applications and Attributes"},signatures:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq, Zobia Afsheen, Amjad Khan and Amjad\nKhan",authors:[{id:"228353",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saqib",middleName:null,surname:"Ishaq",slug:"muhammad-saqib-ishaq",fullName:"Muhammad Saqib Ishaq"},{id:"246559",title:"Dr.",name:"Zobia",middleName:null,surname:"Afsheen",slug:"zobia-afsheen",fullName:"Zobia Afsheen"},{id:"246561",title:"Mr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"},{id:"271289",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"amjad-khan",fullName:"Amjad Khan"}]},{id:"41887",title:"Microbial Techniques for Hydrocarbon Exploration",slug:"microbial-techniques-for-hydrocarbon-exploration",totalDownloads:6504,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"2351",slug:"hydrocarbon",title:"Hydrocarbon",fullTitle:"Hydrocarbon"},signatures:"M.A. Rasheed, D.J. Patil and A.M. Dayal",authors:[{id:"143475",title:"Dr",name:"Mohammed Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Rasheed",slug:"mohammed-abdul-rasheed",fullName:"Mohammed Abdul Rasheed"},{id:"144630",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayal",middleName:null,surname:"Anurodh",slug:"dayal-anurodh",fullName:"Dayal Anurodh"}]},{id:"58999",title:"The DFT+U: Approaches, Accuracy, and Applications",slug:"the-dft-u-approaches-accuracy-and-applications",totalDownloads:4446,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter introduces the Hubbard model and its applicability as a corrective tool for accurate modeling of the electronic properties of various classes of systems. The attainment of a correct description of electronic structure is critical for predicting further electronic-related properties, including intermolecular interactions and formation energies. The chapter begins with an introduction to the formulation of density functional theory (DFT) functionals, while addressing the origin of bandgap problem with correlated materials. Then, the corrective approaches proposed to solve the DFT bandgap problem are reviewed, while comparing them in terms of accuracy and computational cost. The Hubbard model will then offer a simple approach to correctly describe the behavior of highly correlated materials, known as the Mott insulators. Based on Hubbard model, DFT+U scheme is built, which is computationally convenient for accurate calculations of electronic structures. Later in this chapter, the computational and semiempirical methods of optimizing the value of the Coulomb interaction potential (U) are discussed, while evaluating the conditions under which it can be most predictive. The chapter focuses on highlighting the use of U to correct the description of the physical properties, by reviewing the results of case studies presented in literature for various classes of materials.",book:{id:"6193",slug:"density-functional-calculations-recent-progresses-of-theory-and-application",title:"Density Functional Calculations",fullTitle:"Density Functional Calculations - Recent Progresses of Theory and Application"},signatures:"Sarah A. Tolba, Kareem M. Gameel, Basant A. Ali, Hossam A.\nAlmossalami and Nageh K. Allam",authors:[{id:"175824",title:"Dr.",name:"Nageh",middleName:"K.",surname:"Allam",slug:"nageh-allam",fullName:"Nageh Allam"},{id:"398157",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah A.",middleName:null,surname:"Tolba",slug:"sarah-a.-tolba",fullName:"Sarah A. Tolba"},{id:"398158",title:"Dr.",name:"Kareem M.",middleName:null,surname:"Gameel",slug:"kareem-m.-gameel",fullName:"Kareem M. Gameel"},{id:"398162",title:"Dr.",name:"Basant A.",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"basant-a.-ali",fullName:"Basant A. Ali"},{id:"398163",title:"Dr.",name:"Hossam A.",middleName:null,surname:"Almossalami",slug:"hossam-a.-almossalami",fullName:"Hossam A. Almossalami"}]},{id:"40233",title:"Ammonia as a Hydrogen Source for Fuel Cells: A Review",slug:"ammonia-as-a-hydrogen-source-for-fuel-cells-a-review",totalDownloads:9263,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"2795",slug:"hydrogen-energy-challenges-and-perspectives",title:"Hydrogen Energy",fullTitle:"Hydrogen Energy - Challenges and Perspectives"},signatures:"Denver Cheddie",authors:[{id:"141157",title:"Dr.",name:"Denver",middleName:null,surname:"Cheddie",slug:"denver-cheddie",fullName:"Denver Cheddie"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"86",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81502",title:"Investigation of Synthesis Methods for Improved Platinum-Ruthenium Nanoparticles Supported on Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube Electrocatalysts for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells",slug:"investigation-of-synthesis-methods-for-improved-platinum-ruthenium-nanoparticles-supported-on-multi-",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104541",abstract:"This book chapter reports on various catalyst synthesis methods (impregnation, polyol, modified polyol, and microwave-assisted modified polyol methods) to determine which method would result in the most electrochemically active platinum-ruthenium (PtRu) electrocatalyst supported on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) for methanol oxidation reaction in an acidic medium. Different techniques were used to characterize the synthesized catalysts, including the high-resolution transmission electron microscope used for morphology and calculating particle sizes, and X-ray diffraction for determining crystalline sizes. The electroactive catalyst surface area, ECSA of the electrocatalysts was determined using cyclic voltammetry (CV), while the electroactivity, electron kinetics, and stability of the electrocatalysts towards methanol oxidation were evaluated using CV, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and chronoamperometry, respectively. The microwave-assisted modified polyol method produced the PtRu/MWCNT electrocatalyst with the most enhanced electrocatalytic activity compared to other PtRu/MWCNT catalysts produced by the impregnation, polyol, and modified polyol methods.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Adebare Nurudeen Adewunmi, Sabejeje Akindeji Jerome, Su Huaneng and Lindiwe Eudora Khotseng"},{id:"79547",title:"Nickel Foam Electrode with Low Catalyst Loading and High Performance for Alkaline Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells",slug:"nickel-foam-electrode-with-low-catalyst-loading-and-high-performance-for-alkaline-direct-alcohol-fue",totalDownloads:149,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100287",abstract:"Nickel foam has a unique three-dimensional (3-D) network structure that helps to effectively utilize catalysts and is often used as an electrode support material for alkaline direct alcohol fuel cells. In this chapter, first, the effect of nickel foam thickness on cell performance is explored. The results show that the thickness affects both mass transfer and electron conduction, and there is an optimal thickness. The thinner the nickel foam is, the better the conductivity is. However, the corresponding three-dimensional space becomes narrower, which results in a partial agglomeration of the catalyst and the hindrance of mass transfer. The cell performance of 0.6 mm nickel foam electrode is better than that of 0.3 and 1.0 mm. Secondly, to fully exert the catalytic function of the catalyst even at a lower loading, a mixed acid-etched nickel foam electrode with lower Pd loading (0.35 mg cm−2) is prepared then by a spontaneous deposition method. The maximum power density of the single alkaline direct ethanol fuel cell (ADEFC) can reach 30 mW cm−2, which is twice the performance of the hydrochloric acid treated nickel foam electrode. The performance improvement is attributed to the micro-holes produced by mixed acids etching, which enhances the roughness of the skeleton and improves the catalyst electrochemical active surface area.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Qian Xu, Jiajia Zhang and Chunzhen Yang"},{id:"77862",title:"Characterization, Photoelectric Properties, Electrochemical Performances and Photocatalytic Activity of the Fe2O3/TiO2 Heteronanostructure",slug:"characterization-photoelectric-properties-electrochemical-performances-and-photocatalytic-activity-o",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98759",abstract:"The Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite was synthesized on FTO subtract via hydrothermal method. The crystal structure, morphology, band structure of the heterojunction, behaviors of charge carriers and the redox ability were characterized by XRD, HR-TEM, absorption spectra, PL, cyclic voltammetry and transient photocurrent spectra. The as-prepared Fe2O3/TiO2 photocatalysts with distinctive structure and great stability was characterized and investigated for the degradation of methylene blue (MB) dye in aqueous solution. The ability of the photocatalyst for generating reactive oxygen species, including O2− and.OH was investigated. It was revealed that the combination of the two oxides (Fe2O3 and TiO2) nano-heterojunction could enhance the visible response and separate photogenerated charge carriers effectively. Therefore, the remarkable photocatalytic activity of Fe2O3/TiO2 nanostructures for MB degradation was ascribed to the enhanced visible light absorption and efficient interfacial transfer of photogenerated electrons from to Fe2O3 to TiO2 due to the lower energy gap level of Fe2O3/TiO2 hybrid heterojunctions as evidenced by the UV–Vis and photoluminescence studies. The decrease of the energy gap level of Fe2O3/TiO2 resulted in the inhibition of electron–hole pair recombination for effective spatial charge separation, thus enhancing the photocatalytic reactions. Based on the obtained results, a possible mechanism for the improved photocatalytic performance associated with Fe2O3/TiO2 was proposed. The Fe2O3/TiO2 nanocomposite has a specific capacity of 82 F.g−1 and shows a higher capacitance than Fe2O3.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Salah Kouass, Hassouna Dhaouadi, Abdelhak Othmani and Fathi Touati"},{id:"76150",title:"Heterogeneous Electrocatalysts for CO2 Reduction to Value Added Products",slug:"heterogeneous-electrocatalysts-for-co-sub-2-sub-reduction-to-value-added-products",totalDownloads:221,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97274",abstract:"The CO2 that comes from the use of fossil fuels accounts for about 65% of the global greenhouse gas emission, and it plays a critical role in global climate changes. Among the different strategies that have been considered to address the storage and reutilization of CO2, the transformation of CO2 into chemicals and fuels with a high added-value has been considered a winning approach. This transformation is able to reduce the carbon emission and induce a “fuel switching” that exploits renewable energy sources. The aim of this chapter is to categorize different heterogeneous electrocatalysts which are being used for CO2 reduction, based on the desired products of the above mentioned reactions: from formic acid and carbon monoxide to methanol and ethanol and other possible by products. Moreover, a brief description of the kinetic and mechanism of the CO2 reduction reaction) and pathways toward different products have been discussed.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"M. Amin Farkhondehfal and Juqin Zeng"},{id:"74671",title:"C-H Activation/Functionalization via Metalla-Electrocatalysis",slug:"c-h-activation-functionalization-via-metalla-electrocatalysis",totalDownloads:220,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95517",abstract:"In conventional methods, C−H activations are largely involved in the use of stoichiometric amounts of toxic and expensive metal & chemical oxidants, conceding the overall sustainable nature. Meanwhile, undesired byproducts are generated, that is problematic in the scale up process. However, electrochemical C−H activation via catalyst control strategy using metals as mediators (instead electrochemical substrate control strategy) has been identified as a more efficient strategy toward selective functionalizations. Thus, indirect electrolysis makes the potential range more pleasant, and less side reactions can occur. Herein, we summarize the metalla-electrocatalysis process for activations of inert C−H bonds and functionalization. These Metalla-electrocatalyzed C−H bond functionalizations are presented in term of C−C and C−X (X = O, N, P and halogens) bonds formation. The electrooxidative C−H transformations in the presence of metal catalysts are described by better chemoselectivities with broad tolerance of sensitive functionalities. Moreover, in the future to enhance sustainability and green chemistry concerns, integration of metalla-electrocatalysis with flow and photochemistry will enable safe and efficient scale-up and may even improve reaction times, kinetics and yields.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Guilherme M. Martins, Najoua Sbei, Geórgia C. Zimmer and Nisar Ahmed"},{id:"74780",title:"Recent Trends in Development of Metal Nitride Nanocatalysts for Water Electrolysis Application",slug:"recent-trends-in-development-of-metal-nitride-nanocatalysts-for-water-electrolysis-application",totalDownloads:251,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95748",abstract:"Nanocatalysts for sustainable water electrolysis is strongly desirable to promote the commercialization of H2 as the alternate clean energy source for the future. The goal is cheaper hydrogen production from sea and low grade water by minimizing the energy consumption and using low cost cell components & non-noble metal catalysts. The conductivity of metal nitrides and their ability to carry out Hydrogen Evolution Reaction and Oxygen Evolution Reaction at relatively low overpotential render these one of the frontline candidates to be potentially utilized as the catalyst for low cost H2 production via electrolysis. In this chapter, the potential of metal nitride catalyst towards fulfilling the above objective is discussed. The synthesis of various metal nitride catalysts, their efficiency towards electrode half reactions and the effectiveness of these class of nanocatalyst for electrolysis of sea water is elaborated. A review of recent literature with special reference to the catalyst systems based on non-noble metals will be provided to assess the likelihood of these nanocatalyst to serve as a commercial grade electrode material for sea water electrolysis.",book:{id:"10381",title:"Electrocatalysis and Electrocatalysts for a Cleaner Environment - Fundamentals and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10381.jpg"},signatures:"Akhoury Sudhir Kumar Sinha and Umaprasana Ojha"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. 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