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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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\r\n\tAccording to WHO, 2.3 billion people worldwide, suffer from permanent teeth caries. The prevalence of primary teeth is estimated at 530 million. Untreated dental caries is being considered the actual most common health condition. Dental caries affects people throughout their lifetime, being a major factor for oral pain, aesthetic impairment, edentulism. Untreated dental caries results in affecting adjoining oral tissues, and, finally, may lead to systemic complications.
\r\n\tPrevention represents a key factor in managing this condition and includes public health measures, addressing the risk factors, as well as access to oral health services. A regular dental examination is crucial for detecting early signs of caries, and timely treatment. Materials choice and proper handling, if restorative treatment is needed, are of utmost importance, to prevent a recurrence. State-of-the-art new types of restorative materials, such as antimicrobial composites, stimuli-responsive composites, or self-healing composites, together with the use of nanotechnology, represent some future choices for restorative biomaterials.
Solving an optimization problem consists in exploring a search space in order to maximize (or minimize) a given objective function. The complexities (in size or structure) of the search space and the function to be optimized lead to the use of radically different resolution methods. However, the so-called global optimization methods are generally the best suited ones considering their main advantage: that of identifying the promised regions and converging towards a global optimum.
The zero-order optimization Genetic Algorithm (GA), initially laid down by Holland [1], remain the most recognized and practiced form of Evolutionary Algorithms (EA) which are global stochastic optimization techniques that mimic Darwin’s principles of natural selection and genetic dynamics. In fact, known advantages of the GA include its ability to combine both exploration and exploitation in an optimal way [1] in addition to its ability to be used in the case of discontinuous objective functions, within disjoined and/or non-convex design spaces, and together with discrete, continuous, or even mixed design variables. Besides, as a population-based method, GA, if initially well-tuned, minimizes the risk to converge to a local optimum thanks to the simultaneous processing of the whole candidate solutions instead of, for instance, gradient-based methods, giving thus the designer a multitude of options.
Nevertheless, like any optimization technique, GA has also its drawbacks starting with the numerous parameters sensitivity analysis to do to maximize efficiency and have a good initialization of the algorithm. In addition to the most notable drawback which is generally the great number of required iterations, and they slow convergence, especially in the neighborhood of the global optimum. Indeed, although GAs can rapidly locate the region in which the global optimum exists, they take a relatively long time to locate the exact local optimum in the region of convergence. Each generation of the algorithm consists of many objective function evaluations resulting in a lot of computational time in addition to being very expensive.
To overcome this main limitation and lessen function evaluation time, different alternatives have been proposed. But particularly the trend of hybridization has been observed in many works carried out on metaheuristics over the past 20 years, where it consists of incorporating a faster Local Search (LS) (or individual learning) optimization algorithm into a GA in order to improve the performance of the global resulting method, often known as Memetic Algorithm (MA). This latter was first introduced by Moscato [2] and is representing one of the recent growing areas of research in evolutionary computation [3] by offering the important challenge of the tradeoff between global searching and local searching in terms of time and computational effort. In fact, this integration aims to keep advantages of both optimization methods while offsetting their both disadvantages [4] As LS algorithms are actually capable to find the local optimum with high accuracy and fast convergence but suffer from the problem of foothills. Hence through their integration with the population-based method, the time needed to reach the global optimum can be further reduced since the local knowledge is used to accelerate finding the most promising search region in addition to locating the global optimum starting within its attraction basin.
These hybrid algorithms have also been used under the name of hybrid evolutionary algorithms, Baldwinian evolutionary algorithms, Lamarckian evolutionary algorithms, cultural algorithms, or genetic LS. They also have been successfully applied to hundreds of real-world problems in a wide variety of domains ranging from aircraft [5], aerospace [6], pattern recognition [7], control systems [8], vehicle routing [9], pharmaceutical industry [10] etc.
An example of a hybrid GA applied to the mechanical structures’ optimization is presented in this chapter. This test case reflects the relevance of this hybridization in the mathematical resolution of optimization problems related to the aerospace field.
The organization of the chapter is as follows: the second section is dedicated to the description of the different hybridization design including the combination between GAs and LS methods. General mechanisms of GAs are remained in the third section. Hybrid GAs are discussed in the fourth section then the test case with the problematic presentation and the obtained results is given in the fifth section. Finally, conclusions are given in the last section.
As mentioned before, in an optimization problem solving approach, it can be extremely beneficial to combine two solving techniques, knowing that it is possible to hybridize all exact and metaheuristic techniques. Hence, the hybridization can take place in one or more components of a research method. It can also consist in assembling several hybridization methods to form a single hybrid method. Two strategies can be used depending on the optimization technique which drives the hybrid method:
Strategy 1: we can approach the global optimum by a stochastic technique and then refine the result by successively applying a local one. In this case, the result will be ameliorated but unfortunately time consuming. An optimal way to use hybridization in this case may be by applying a global optimization method and find the right time to switch to a local one.
Strategy 2: we can try to find a local minimum and keep it as a winning solution if it is the best of all the local (global) minimums. For instance, in the method of multiple initializations or (multi Start), a local optimization technique is used several times at different stress points; the solution of the optimization problem would be then the best obtained result.
According to the author in [11], a taxonomy for hybrid meta-heuristics can be proposed by classifying them into three categories depending on their architecture (see Figure 1):
Hybridization classification.
Sequential hybridization: it is the most popular type; it performs different research methods sequentially so that the result of the first one serves as an initial solution for the next one.
Synchronous parallel hybridization: this hybridization is carried out by incorporating a particular research method in an operator. It is more complex to implement than the previous one. The aim is to combine a LS with a global search for the purpose of improving convergence.
Asynchronous parallel hybridization: the hybrid methods belonging to this class are characterized by an architecture such that two algorithms A and B are involved simultaneously, and each one adjusts the other. The Algorithms A and B share and exchange information throughout the research process.
A global view of the different possible hybridization schemes is shown in Figure 2 where we can see hybridization between stochastic (particularly metaheuristics) and analytical optimization methods. Indeed, the common point between all these hybridizations is that they try to merge the strengths and eliminate the weaknesses of the different concepts. Therefore, the efficiency of the search solution space can still be improved, and new opportunities emerged which may lead to even more powerful and flexible research methods.
Possible hybridization schemes.
GAs use a vocabulary inspired from natural genetics. However, the natural processes to which they refer is more complex [12]. They are iterative optimization procedures that repeatedly apply GA operators (such as selection, crossover, and mutation) to a group of solutions until some criterion of convergence has been satisfied. Note that the essential element of the genetic vocabulary is the “individual” that belongs to a set of individuals called “population”. The individual is made up of a “chromosome” which is itself made up of “genes” which contain the inheritance characteristics of the individual. The principles of “selection”, “crossover” and “mutation” are the main genetic operators that are inspired by the same natural processes. First, the selection operator includes generally two variants; the parental selection devoted for reproduction and the replacement selection devoted to keeping the population size constant by individuals who will survive in the next generation. A selection favors the best individuals but has also to give a chance to the less good to avoid the problems of premature convergence. Note that the “fitness” or “evaluation” function characterizing how well adapted the solution is to its environment, is closely related to the selection process. Then, the crossover operator involves combining the information from two parents to create one or two new individuals (or “offspring”) making it possible to diversify the population and explore more the research space. At last, the mutation operator causes a small perturbation on an individual’s chromosome thus allowing to guarantee gene diversity so that the algorithm does not get stuck in local minima. This process continues, throughout the generations, until the stop criteria is reached. The latter can be in various forms such as for example several global iterations defined in advance or the difference between the average population’s fitness and the best one.
It is also important to underline that during the implementation of the algorithm it is necessary to take into account the encoding of the different parameters. In fact, one of the characteristics of GAs is their need to a genetic representation of the desired problem using an encoding. Therefore, the algorithm can evaluate the fitness of every individual and computes the problem’s objectives and constraints based only on the encoding without any further knowledge of real parameters.
Figure 3 shows the optimization flowchart offered by GA whereas Reference [13] provides further discussion on the theoretical properties of GAs and on standard genetic operators.
Flowchart of the optimization procedure based on a genetic algorithm.
The most natural hybridization in the literature is the use of a single solution meta-heuristic algorithm embedded in a population-based meta-heuristic algorithm like the unmissable GA in order to improve the qualities of the solutions. In fact, whereas population-based meta-heuristics tend to diversify the search space by exploring it different parts, LS meta-heuristics tend to intensify the search by exploiting only one part of the space.
LS methods are based on a neighborhood relation and on a procedure exploiting this neighborhood. They consist in moving from one solution to another closer in the space of the candidate solutions, until a solution considered as optimal is found, or the allowed time is exceeded. We can therefore summarize the main idea of a LS as follows:
Start from an initial solution,
Improve that solution,
Repeat the process several times.
Hence, through the hybridization, individuals attempt to identify promising areas of the solution space which are then explored in more detail by LS methods. The best known among the latters are the simulated annealing, the tabu search or simply descent methods (iterated local searches).
Concerning the hybridization adopting the global GA, as its decision-making mechanics are based on random principles, this detailed research can be difficult to carry out. Heuristics therefore serve to fill this weakness. In a general way, at all generations, an individual (or some individuals) are randomly selected among the best in the population. Then, a set of solutions defining its (their) neighborhood is constructed. Afterwards, each of these neighbors is evaluated in order to check whether there is an improvement in the evaluation function. GA then manipulates solutions that have already been improved locally. This has the effect of allowing even more advantageous solutions to be generated more quickly. However, as there are several ways to hybridize GAs while maintaining a fairly modular program structure, a sequential approach could be advantageous in such a way that it is enough to let the GA run to a substantial level of convergence, then let the local optimization procedure follow up the process, for example by taking the
Note that usually the individuals that undergo LS are chosen uniformly at random, but it would be more efficient to use a tuning technique which consists of a primary conducted experiment aiming to find the optimal part of the population that should perform LS. This part is commonly referred to as the LS probability mentioned above that is used to run the actual experiment and remains fixed during the algorithm execution. In the literature, several techniques aim to reduce unnecessary local optimization and therefore additional calculation time, such as distribution-based techniques [15], fitness-based techniques [15] and LS potential [16] that have been proposed to select the optimal individuals among the given population that should do a LS. In the following, some main LS methods are remained.
Simulated annealing is an optimization technique inspired by the simulation methods of Metropolis (1950s) in statistical mechanics. It is distinguished by the introduction of a temperature parameter which is adjusted during research [17]. Moreover, in optimization, this method considers a neighborhood exploitation procedure which makes it possible to go towards a neighboring solution of less good quality with a non-zero probability, thus allowing to escape the local optima.
At the beginning, a “temperature” parameter T is determined and decreases throughout the algorithm to tend towards 0. The probability of accepting deteriorated solutions depends on the value of this parameter (the more the temperature T decreases, the more this probability decreases). The interest of simulated annealing lies in the fact that there is a proof of its asymptotic convergence. Thus, when certain conditions are verified (decrease diagram of T), we are guaranteed to obtain the optimal solution. However, the parameterization recommended by theory is not very realistic and it takes a long time to get to parameterize these methods. Note that this method may also require a stop criterion, if the “optimal” setting has not been found. Hybridization between GA and SA algorithms has been used in several domains [18, 19, 20].
Tabu search was introduced as a new strategy to escape local optima using a notion of memory [21]. Exploitation of the neighborhood makes it possible to move from the current solution to its best neighbor (this one not necessarily having a better quality than the current solution). To avoid cycling between a local optimum and its best neighbor, the method prohibits moving to a recently visited solution. To do this, a tabu list containing the attributes of the last visited solutions is kept up to date. Each new solution considered removes the oldest visited solution from this list. Thus, the search for the following current solution is done in the neighborhood of the current solution without considering the solutions belonging to the tabu list. However, the size of this list is a method parameter that is difficult to adjust. In addition, this strategy requires the definition of a stopping criterion. We find the hybridization between GA and TS in many applications such as image processing [22], computational grids [23] and flow shop scheduling problem [24].
The descent methods are quick and simple to implement but generally do not lead to the best optima because they stop as soon as a local optimum is found [25]. In order not to get stuck on this local optimum, there are various strategies which allow the search to continue after having found an optimum. One strategy to overcome the abrupt stopping of the search for a local optimum is to iterate the descent method. The following steps are carried out from the found optimum:
Apply a perturbation on the current solution,
Apply a descent method on that solution.
Chose via an acceptance criterion if the new optimum becomes the current solution and go back to the first step until the stop criterion is reached. Common stop criteria are the execution time, the number of iterations and the number of total evaluations.
The disturbance can consist in restarting a solution taken randomly in the search space or in choosing a solution in a neighborhood far from the optimum or even in choosing a neighbor of the same quality as the optimum.
Heuristic Iterative Local Search (ILS) [26] is based on a simple idea: instead of repeatedly applying a LS procedure from randomly generated solutions, ILS generates the starting solution for the next iteration by applying a perturbation on the local optimum found at the current iteration. This is done in the hope that the disturbance mechanism provides a solution located in the attraction basin of a better local optimum. Therefore, the disruption mechanism is a key part of ILS. In addition, an acceptance criterion defines the conditions that the new local optimum must meet in order to replace the current local optimum (Figure 4). Thus, the acceptance criterion, combined with the disruption mechanism, helps to control the trade-off between intensification and diversification. However, many acceptance criteria which reconcile the two objectives can be applied [12]. Hybridization between GA and ILS is one of the simplest and common hybridizations that can be found in several works [27, 28, 29].
From a local minimum s, a disturbance of the latter generates a minimum s’ from which a LS is launched to arrive at a third local minimum s” potentially better than s.
The Variable Neighborhood Search (VNS) is a meta-heuristic algorithm [30], based on the principle of systematic neighborhood change during LS. Indeed, at the initialization step, a set of neighborhood structures must be defined. These neighborhoods can be chosen arbitrarily, but often a sequence ordered in size growing neighborhoods is used. The VNS procedure consists of three stages: (1) the disturbance (shaking), (2) the LS and (3) the displacement. Recently, a variety of problems have involved hybridization between GA and VNS [31, 32, 33].
We consider here the following optimization problem: search for the minimum mass of an inter-stage skirt made of composite sandwich with Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) skins and aluminum Nida core (composites are fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core) that are located between the first stage and the second stage situated on the upper part of a linear launcher (Figure 5).
Simplified model of the sandwich composite inter-stage skirt (in red) located on the upper part of the linear launcher.
The structure is subjected to pressure oscillations from upstream solid propellant engines to ensure “payload comfort”. The skirt therefore has a filtering role in order to limit the vibratory levels at the top of the launcher. To best dampen these oscillations, the structure must be mechanical sized according to a compromise between rigidity and flexibility linked to the need to hold in buckling, in addition to composite manufacturing constraints (mirror symmetry, balancing, grouping) [34]. Note that we need to optimize only one skin plus the core hence the final result is obtained by symmetry.
Mathematically speaking, we can write the optimization problem as follows:
Subject to:
To solve the above optimization problem, we have chosen the global GA. In fact, during the mechanical sizing of a composite structure, plies thicknesses are often predetermined, and plies orientations are usually restricted to a small set of angles due to manufacturing constraints and/or limited availability of experimental data. Most of the time, this gives rise mathematically to a discrete optimization problem. Hence GA is a suitable optimization method that we also decided to hybridize with a LS method to overcome the drawbacks of GA cited throughout this chapter.
First of all, an appropriate representation of the problem is recommended through the encoding of all the parameters. In fact, the initial population of the GA is composed of a set of skin plies (sandwich case) characterized by fiber orientations. Thus, an individual in the population is equivalent to a laminate (set of plies) and can simply be represented by an orientation chromosome (see Figure 6). Plies and core thicknesses of the structure are predefined based on composite design constraints [35] and are not considered herein as optimization variables. Therefore, an individual (a laminate) is represented by one chromosome regrouping one skin plies characterized by orientation angles (0°, 90°, ± 45°, ± 30°), encoded according to 5 possible values {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} called the chromosome domain where particularly add where 0° is encoded by 0, 90° is encoded by 1, ± 45° is encoded by 2, “no ply” is encoded by 3 and finally ± 30° is encoded by 4. “no ply” is encoded by 3.
The genetic representation of the design variables.
To handle constraints, concerning the composite manufacturing ones, a repair strategy is adopted during the decoding phase (Figure 7). More explanation about these constraints handling method could be seen in [36]. Whereas mechanical constraints (buckling and stiffness) are managed through the genetic selection operator.
Example of the decoding and repair strategy.
The proposed Hybrid Genetic Algorithm (HGA) herein is based on a strong and sequential cooperation between GA and a descent LS technique for the entire course of the algorithm where the LS optimization is integrated at the beginning of the GA previous to the genetic operators to intensify research only around selected promising solutions. Hence, the adopted scheme is as follows: for every new iteration, the best individual reached by the GA is selected as an initialization for the LS method. Then, a set of two neighbors is built following a well-defined structure. The latter aims to verify if there is any neighboring orientation that allows an improvement of the individual’s fitness by randomly selecting a gene related to the orientation and flipping it to either the previous or the next value in the concerned chromosome’s domain while of course respecting all manufacturing constraints via the repair cited repair strategy. For example, if the selected gene’s code is 2, the value of this gene will be replaced by 1 in the first neighbor and by 3 in the second one. However, if the randomly selected gene is the domain’s upper bound (4) or the lower one, then the two neighbors are built by flipping firstly the gene to the previous value in the domain (3) then to the lower bound (0) or conversely.
Afterwards, each neighbor is evaluated and if one’s fitness turns out to be better, then it is introduced in the population to replace the first individual and so onFigure 7 shows an example of the decoding and repair stategy where the steps decoding then reparing are explained, the randomly selected gene’s code is 2, corresponding to 90°. In order to respect the balancing composite rule, that gene should be replaced by -30° (repair) so the entire laminate respects the composite design constraints. The Figure 8 shows the adopted HGA flowchart.
Flowchart of the optimization procedure based on the hybrid genetic algorithm (HGA).
A comparative study between the classical GA and the proposed HGA is presented in the following. GA and HGA are implemented in a Python 3 environment and computed based on the same parameters (see Table 1). Note that at each iteration, the algorithms run through a database containing individuals already assessed with their respective fitness calculated through the finite element analysis program called NASTRAN [37] and look for the latter from the stacks previously evaluated. Besides, two criteria are implemented to stop the running of GA: the first stops the algorithm after a fixed number of generations have been created whereas the second stops after a given number of generations without improvement of the best individual in the population. This second criterion assures a certain quality of the best design, even if it is only relative to the previous best design. The comparison criterion is the fitness and the execution time associated with the number of iterations to achieve convergence. Concerning the HGA, the stop criteria is a prior fixed number of iterations.
Parameters | Values |
---|---|
Total number of iterations | 100 |
Number of individuals per generation | 30 |
Chromosomes’ size | 8 |
Mutation probability | 0,2 |
Mutant gene per individual | 1 |
Crossover probability | 1 |
Number of individuals chosen during the selection | 1 |
Number of iterations for the LS | 5 |
Number of neighbors per individual | 2 |
Initialization of the algorithms’ parameters.
Table 2 summarizes the optimization results. After 100 iterations, the best reached laminate is composed of 6 plies per skin against 8 initially and respects all the design constraints of composite structures thanks to the adopted decoding and repair strategy. Besides both stiffness and buckling constraints are satisfied with margins of +39.2% and + 5.9% for GA and HGA, respectively. Furthermore, the total mass is decreased by 8.4% compared to reference. This shows that generally all genetic processes perform well by offering a convincing solution. In fact, the program converges always towards the optimal solution. However, HGA provides a decrease from 26 to 18 in the number of needed iterations to converge with a gain of 24 minutes on the associated elapsed time. Thereby, HGA can outperform the standard GA on this sandwich composite structure optimization problem which highlight the hybridization mechanism and its capacity in the improvement of convergence.
Laminate (°) | S < 2e8 (N/m) | B | M (Kg) | Convergence (Iterations/Time CPU) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
NASTRAN | [45/0/30/0/−30/0/45/90] | 1.9e8 | 2.73 | 357 | — |
GA | [30/0/−30/30/−30/90] | 1.4e8 | 2.15 | 327 | 26/70 min |
HGA | [30/0/−30/30/−30/90] | 1.4e8 | 2.15 | 327 | 18/54 min |
Results of the comparative study between GA and HGA.
In this chapter we have underlined the importance of the process of hybridization in ameliorating the global genetic algorithm behavior and especially its convergence. In fact, although genetic algorithms are effective complete search algorithms able to combine both exploration and exploitation with crossover and mutation operators, they suffer from being computationally expensive and can hence be improved using local search methods, so they can be made competitive with other algorithms when the search space is too large to explore. More generally, the combination of metaheuristics based on population as well as on local search, may offer more effective and dynamic methods for the solution of several problems.
The following important questions were asked: (1) when to apply local search optimization (2) to which individuals in the genetic algorithm should local searches be applied, and (3) what are the possible hybridizations that could improve the optimization results. Some answers to these questions have been provided particularly the reminder of the hybridization strategies and its different possible architectures in addition to the main local search methods known by their relevant coupling with the classical genetic algorithm. The latter being able to undergo different forms of hybridization thanks to its flexibility which is nevertheless one of its strongest points.
The application possibilities of these approaches are unlimited but in this chapter the test case that was presented is about an optimization algorithm combining traditional genetic operators with an iterated local search method specially designed to pursue the problem of mechanical sizing of a composite structure. The genetic algorithm was chosen as the global optimization tool because of its ability to deal with non-convex and discrete optimization problems, of which the design of laminated composites is an example. Besides, its flexible structure makes it possible to integrate the management of different mechanical and manufacturing constraints through genetic operators and the implementation of specific optimization processes such as the decoding and repair strategy. The developed hybrid algorithm was validated by comparing its results to those obtained via the classical genetic algorithm as well as a reference finite element analysis software. That test case showed hence that the developed hybrid genetic approach is able to obtain efficient results in a real-world problem related to the aerospace sector.
The author wishes to thank the French National Center for Space Studies that partially supported this work.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Early studies are focusing on the miRNA profile as a biomarker in disease. As discovery of human miRNAs increased in the setting of disease, the research focus was gradually shifted towards miRNA therapeutic strategy for diagnostic and treatment of disease. Increasing evidences suggest that miRNAs are the next important class of antisense therapeutic molecules, which have significant advantage over antisense such as siRNAs because miRNAs are naturally occurring endogenous molecules. Aberrant alteration of the endogenous miRNAs has been linked to the development of certain diseases. Correcting these altered miRNAs by their mimics or inhibitors has been developed as potential therapeutic approaches. Some of the miRNA-based therapeutics are processed in preclinical and clinical trial for treatment hepatitis C, liver cancer, and other diseases. Currently, the major focus in the development of miRNA-based therapeutics is how to increase the miRNA stability and optimize delivery systems for specific disease with minimal off-target effect. This chapter will first overview the miRNA biogenesis, patho- and physiologic function, and regulation of miRNA molecules. Then, we discuss the miRNA-based potential therapeutic approaches and implication in disease.",book:{id:"6987",slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Andrew Walayat, Meizi Yang and DaLiao Xiao",authors:[{id:"188957",title:"Dr.",name:"DaLiao",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",slug:"daliao-xiao",fullName:"DaLiao Xiao"},{id:"269866",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Walayat",slug:"andrew-walayat",fullName:"Andrew Walayat"},{id:"283826",title:"Dr.",name:"Meizi",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"meizi-yang",fullName:"Meizi Yang"}]},{id:"65601",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84455",title:"Epigenetic Modifications in Plants under Abiotic Stress",slug:"epigenetic-modifications-in-plants-under-abiotic-stress",totalDownloads:1590,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Plants face a plethora of biotic and abiotic stresses ranging from extreme temperatures to salinity, drought, nutritional deficiencies, chemical toxicity, and pathogen attacks. As a consequence, plants have acquired several sophisticated regulatory mechanisms that allow them to cope with such adverse conditions. Epigenetic regulation plays a key role in the mechanisms of plant response to the environment, without altering DNA sequences. Epigenetics refers to heritable alterations in chromatin architecture that do not involve changes in the underlying DNA sequence but alter gene expression through DNA methylation or histone modifications. The epigenetic regulation of the plant genome is a highly dynamic process that fine-tunes the expression of a pertinent set of genes under certain environmental or developmental conditions. Over the past two decades rapid advancements in the field of high throughput sequencing unveil epigenetic information at genome wide level in various plant species. In view of the adverse effects of global climatic change, utilizing epigenetic differences for developing improved crop varieties is of paramount importance.",book:{id:"7995",slug:"epigenetics",title:"Epigenetics",fullTitle:"Epigenetics"},signatures:"Garima Singroha and Pradeep Sharma",authors:[{id:"142882",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradeep",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"pradeep-sharma",fullName:"Pradeep Sharma"},{id:"281215",title:"Dr.",name:"Garima",middleName:null,surname:"Singroha",slug:"garima-singroha",fullName:"Garima Singroha"}]},{id:"32799",doi:"10.5772/33525",title:"GC3 Biology in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes",slug:"gc3-biology-in-eukaryotes-and-prokaryotes",totalDownloads:1990,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"1723",slug:"dna-methylation-from-genomics-to-technology",title:"DNA Methylation",fullTitle:"DNA Methylation - From Genomics to Technology"},signatures:"Eran Elhaik and Tatiana Tatarinova",authors:[{id:"95992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:"Valerievna",surname:"Tatarinova",slug:"tatiana-tatarinova",fullName:"Tatiana Tatarinova"},{id:"105570",title:"Dr.",name:"Eran",middleName:null,surname:"Elhaik",slug:"eran-elhaik",fullName:"Eran Elhaik"}]},{id:"63488",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80874",title:"Nontransformative Strategies for RNAi in Crop Protection",slug:"nontransformative-strategies-for-rnai-in-crop-protection",totalDownloads:2088,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"RNAi in crop protection can be achieved not only by plant-incorporated protectants through plant transformation (transgenic) but also by nontransformative strategies such as formulations of sprayable dsRNAs used as direct control agents, resistance factor repressors, or developmental disruptors. Therefore, the RNAi-based biopesticides are expected to reach the market also in the form of nontransgenic strategies such as sprayable products, stem injection, root drenching, seed treatment, or powder/granule. While the delivery of dsRNA by transgenic expression is well established, it requires generations of crop plants and is costly, which may take years and delays for practical application, depending on the regulatory rules, plant transformability, genetic stability, and public acceptance of genetically modified crop species. DsRNA delivery as a nontransgenic approach was already published as a proof-of-concept work, so it is time to point out some directions on how the real potential for agriculture and crop protection is.",book:{id:"7331",slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",fullTitle:"Modulating Gene Expression - Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies"},signatures:"Deise Cagliari, Ericmar Avila dos Santos, Naymã Dias, Guy Smagghe\nand Moises Zotti",authors:null},{id:"64492",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82105",title:"Antisense Oligonucleotides, A Novel Developing Targeting Therapy",slug:"antisense-oligonucleotides-a-novel-developing-targeting-therapy",totalDownloads:3426,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) have been validated as therapeutic agents and an important tool in molecular biology. Indeed, ASOs are used either in vitro or in vivo to generate mRNA selective knockouts. They can be used for human therapy since ASOs can inhibit specifically target genes especially whose are difficult to target with small molecules inhibitors or neutralizing antibodies. However, despite their specificity and broadness of use, some practical obstacles remain unsolved in antisense pharmacology, such as insufficient stability due to nucleases degradation activity, and poor cellular delivery as a result of low cellular uptake difficult biological membrane crossing. Moreover, in many cases, potential off-target effects and immunostimulation are also part of the problems derived from their use. In this review, we will discuss ASOs, their chemistry, limitation of use, some solutions to increase stability, and finally some of their therapeutical application.",book:{id:"6987",slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Sara Karaki, Clément Paris and Palma Rocchi",authors:[{id:"273516",title:"Dr.",name:"Palma",middleName:null,surname:"Rocchi",slug:"palma-rocchi",fullName:"Palma Rocchi"},{id:"275051",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Karaki",slug:"sara-karaki",fullName:"Sara Karaki"},{id:"282578",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Paris",slug:"clement-paris",fullName:"Clement Paris"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66368",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Editing Technologies and Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",totalDownloads:1192,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"8891",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}]},{id:"64290",title:"Strand Displacement Amplification for Multiplex Detection of Nucleic Acids",slug:"strand-displacement-amplification-for-multiplex-detection-of-nucleic-acids",totalDownloads:2213,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The identification of various targets such as bacteria, viruses, and other cells remains a prerequisite for point-of-care diagnostics and biotechnological applications. Nucleic acids, as encoding information for all forms of life, are excellent biomarkers for detecting pathogens, hereditary diseases, and cancers. To date, many techniques have been developed to detect nucleic acids. However, most of them are based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology. These methods are sensitive and robust, but they require expensive instruments and trained personnel. DNA strand displacement amplification is carried out under isothermal conditions and therefore does not need expensive instruments. It is simple, fast, sensitive, specific, and inexpensive. In this chapter, we introduce the principles, methods, and updated applications of DNA strand displacement technology in the detection of infectious diseases. 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There are 29 different crops and fruit trees in 42 countries, which have been successfully modified for various traits like herbicide tolerance, insect/pest resistance, disease resistance and quality improvement. GM crops are grown worldwide and its area is significantly increasing every year. Many countries have very strict rules and regulations for GM crops and are also a trade barrier in some situations. Hence, identification and testing of crops for GM contents is important for identity and legitimacy of transgene to simplify the international trade. Normally, molecular identification is performed at three different levels, i.e., DNA, RNA and protein, and each level has its own importance in testing about the nature and type of GM crops. In this chapter, current scenario of GM crops and different molecular testing tools are described in brief.",book:{id:"8891",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Shahid Nazir, Muhammad Zaffar Iqbal and Sajid-ur-Rahman",authors:null},{id:"38872",title:"Repetitive DNA: A Tool to Explore Animal Genomes/Transcriptomes",slug:"repetitive-dna-a-tool-to-explore-animal-genomes-transcriptomes",totalDownloads:4726,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"2748",slug:"functional-genomics",title:"Functional Genomics",fullTitle:"Functional Genomics"},signatures:"Deepali Pathak and Sher Ali",authors:[{id:"33032",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"sher-ali",fullName:"Sher Ali"},{id:"141455",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepali",middleName:null,surname:"Pathak",slug:"deepali-pathak",fullName:"Deepali Pathak"}]},{id:"64492",title:"Antisense Oligonucleotides, A Novel Developing Targeting Therapy",slug:"antisense-oligonucleotides-a-novel-developing-targeting-therapy",totalDownloads:3423,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) have been validated as therapeutic agents and an important tool in molecular biology. 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In this review, we will discuss ASOs, their chemistry, limitation of use, some solutions to increase stability, and finally some of their therapeutical application.",book:{id:"6987",slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Sara Karaki, Clément Paris and Palma Rocchi",authors:[{id:"273516",title:"Dr.",name:"Palma",middleName:null,surname:"Rocchi",slug:"palma-rocchi",fullName:"Palma Rocchi"},{id:"275051",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Karaki",slug:"sara-karaki",fullName:"Sara Karaki"},{id:"282578",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Paris",slug:"clement-paris",fullName:"Clement Paris"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"396",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"