Key Size, Block Width Nb and Round Number Nr, (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002)
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"634",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Microbes, Viruses and Parasites in AIDS Process",title:"Microbes, Viruses and Parasites in AIDS Process",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The main goal in compiling this book was to highlight the situation in Africa in terms of AIDS and opportunistic diseases. Several chapters reveal great poverty, an apocalyptic situation in many parts of Africa. Global migration of people resulted in their exposure to pathogens from all over the world. This fact has to be acknowledged and accepted as African reality. New, unconventional hypotheses, not determined by established dogmas, have been incorporated into the book, although they have not yet been sufficiently validated experimentally. It still applies that any dogma in any area of science, and medicine in particular, has and always will hinder progress. According to some biologists, in the future, AIDS is very likely to occur in a number of variations, as a direct result of the ongoing processes in the global human society. Thus, we urgently need a comprehensive solution for AIDS, in order to be ready to fight other, much more dangerous intruders.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-601-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6528-6",doi:"10.5772/1143",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"microbes-viruses-and-parasites-in-aids-process",numberOfPages:404,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2543c14d9e20643f008b71e4e1e2e430",bookSignature:"Vladimir Zajac",publishedDate:"October 21st 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/634.jpg",numberOfDownloads:47174,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:13,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:21,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 3rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 7th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"36737",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimír",middleName:null,surname:"Zajac",slug:"vladimir-zajac",fullName:"Vladimír Zajac",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36737/images/1889_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Professor Zajac Vladimír, PhD. graduated from Comenius University (Bratislava, Slovakia) in 1973 and ever since has been working at the Cancer Research Institute, SAS (Bratislava), where he obtained his PhD degree in 1981, since then. He joined the Medical Faculty of the Comenius University as Associate Professor in Genetics in 2007. Dr. Zajac began working with bovine leukemia virus (BLV) in 1976., and has been engaged in the study of the role of bacteria in bovine leukosis and AIDS since 1990. The fundamental study was done in Prof. F. Wong-Staal’s laboratory (UCSD, San Diego). Since 1994, Dr. Zajac’s research is focused on hereditary forms of colon, breast and ovarian cancer. His cancer genetics study culminated in Prof. A. P. Monaco’s laboratory (University of Oxford). \nHis particular interest and life-long scientific work concerns the study of horizontal transfer of genetic information between eukaryotic and prokaryotic systems, with focus on retroviruses and the consequences of transmission in induction of cancer and AIDS.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Slovak Academy of Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"20642",title:"Clinical Manifestations of HIV-Infection in the Era of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy",doi:"10.5772/20766",slug:"clinical-manifestations-of-hiv-infection-in-the-era-of-highly-active-antiretroviral-therapy",totalDownloads:2180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sara Guillén, Luis Prieto, Marta Ruiz Jiménez and José T. Ramos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20642",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20642",authors:[{id:"40440",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose T",surname:"Ramos",slug:"jose-t-ramos",fullName:"Jose T Ramos"},{id:"58213",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Guillen",slug:"sara-guillen",fullName:"Sara Guillen"},{id:"58214",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Prieto",slug:"luis-prieto",fullName:"Luis Prieto"},{id:"58215",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",surname:"Ruiz Jimenez",slug:"marta-ruiz-jimenez",fullName:"Marta Ruiz Jimenez"}],corrections:null},{id:"20643",title:"HIV-1 Super Infection",doi:"10.5772/20748",slug:"hiv-1-super-infection",totalDownloads:1625,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Maria Pernas and Cecilio López-Galindez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20643",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20643",authors:[{id:"40379",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilio",surname:"Lopez-Galindez",slug:"cecilio-lopez-galindez",fullName:"Cecilio Lopez-Galindez"},{id:"55726",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Pernas",slug:"maria-pernas",fullName:"Maria Pernas"}],corrections:null},{id:"20644",title:"HIV/Aids Fact Sheet – Predisposing Factors the Nigeria Situation",doi:"10.5772/24359",slug:"hiv-aids-fact-sheet-predisposing-factors-the-nigeria-situation",totalDownloads:6091,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Dibua Uju",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20644",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20644",authors:[{id:"56845",title:"Dr.",name:"Uju Marie Esther",surname:"Dibua",slug:"uju-marie-esther-dibua",fullName:"Uju Marie Esther Dibua"}],corrections:null},{id:"20645",title:"Pearls and Pitfalls of HIV-1 Serologic Laboratory Testing",doi:"10.5772/23618",slug:"pearls-and-pitfalls-of-hiv-1-serologic-laboratory-testing",totalDownloads:2345,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jiasheng Shao, Yunzhi Zhang, Yi-Wei Tang and Hongzhou Lu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20645",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20645",authors:[{id:"36431",title:"Prof.",name:"Yi-Wei",surname:"Tang",slug:"yi-wei-tang",fullName:"Yi-Wei Tang"},{id:"49569",title:"Prof.",name:"Hong-Zhou",surname:"Lu",slug:"hong-zhou-lu",fullName:"Hong-Zhou Lu"},{id:"50447",title:"Dr.",name:"Yun-Zhi",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yun-zhi-zhang",fullName:"Yun-Zhi Zhang"},{id:"114855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiasheng",surname:"Shao",slug:"jiasheng-shao",fullName:"Jiasheng Shao"}],corrections:null},{id:"20646",title:"The Sub-Saharan African HIV Epidemic - “Successes and Challenges”",doi:"10.5772/22488",slug:"the-sub-saharan-african-hiv-epidemic-successes-and-challenges-",totalDownloads:1414,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Roos E. Barth and Andy I.M. Hoepelman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20646",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20646",authors:[{id:"47893",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",surname:"Hoepelman",slug:"andy-hoepelman",fullName:"Andy Hoepelman"},{id:"47909",title:"Dr.",name:"Roos",surname:"Barth",slug:"roos-barth",fullName:"Roos Barth"}],corrections:null},{id:"20647",title:"AIDS and Opportunistic Infections",doi:"10.5772/22390",slug:"aids-and-opportunistic-infections",totalDownloads:2733,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Aydin Çiledağ and Demet Karnak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20647",authors:[{id:"47557",title:"Dr.",name:"Demet",surname:"Karnak",slug:"demet-karnak",fullName:"Demet Karnak"},{id:"51897",title:"Dr.",name:"Aydın",surname:"Çiledağ",slug:"aydin-ciledag",fullName:"Aydın Çiledağ"}],corrections:null},{id:"20648",title:"Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia in AIDS Patients",doi:"10.5772/20082",slug:"pneumocystis-jirovecii-pneumonia-in-aids-patients",totalDownloads:2475,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jose M. Varela, Francisco J. Medrano, Eduardo Dei-Cas and Enrique J. Calderón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20648",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20648",authors:[{id:"34619",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Dei-Cas",slug:"eduardo-dei-cas",fullName:"Eduardo Dei-Cas"},{id:"37358",title:"Dr",name:"Enrique",surname:"Calderon",slug:"enrique-calderon",fullName:"Enrique Calderon"},{id:"52806",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Manuel",surname:"Varela",slug:"jose-manuel-varela",fullName:"Jose Manuel Varela"},{id:"52807",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Medrano",slug:"francisco-javier-medrano",fullName:"Francisco Javier Medrano"}],corrections:null},{id:"20649",title:"Bacterial and Parasitic Agents of Infectious Diarrhoea in the Era of HIV and AIDS - The Case of a Semi Rural Community in South Africa",doi:"10.5772/23500",slug:"bacterial-and-parasitic-agents-of-infectious-diarrhoea-in-the-era-of-hiv-and-aids-the-case-of-a-semi",totalDownloads:3050,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Samie A., Bessong P.O., Obi C.L., Dillingham R. and Guerrant R.L.",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20649",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20649",authors:[{id:"52247",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie"},{id:"58831",title:"Dr.",name:"Pascal",surname:"Bessong",slug:"pascal-bessong",fullName:"Pascal Bessong"},{id:"58834",title:"Dr.",name:"Rebecca",surname:"Dillingham",slug:"rebecca-dillingham",fullName:"Rebecca Dillingham"},{id:"93587",title:"Prof.",name:"Larry",surname:"Obi",slug:"larry-obi",fullName:"Larry Obi"},{id:"108046",title:"Prof.",name:"Richardt Littleton",surname:"Guerrant",slug:"richardt-littleton-guerrant",fullName:"Richardt Littleton Guerrant"}],corrections:null},{id:"20650",title:"Reducing Urogenital Infections Including HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa - Can Probiotics Be a Viable Paradigm?",doi:"10.5772/22066",slug:"reducing-urogenital-infections-including-hiv-in-sub-saharan-africa-can-probiotics-be-a-viable-paradi",totalDownloads:2556,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Kingsley C. Anukam, Enya B. Bassey and Emmanuel O. Osazuwa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20650",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20650",authors:[{id:"46075",title:"Dr",name:"Kingsley",surname:"Anukam",slug:"kingsley-anukam",fullName:"Kingsley Anukam"},{id:"52523",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassey",surname:"Enya",slug:"bassey-enya",fullName:"Bassey Enya"}],corrections:null},{id:"20651",title:"Poverty, Parasitosis and HIV/AIDS - Major Health Concerns in Tanzania",doi:"10.5772/23159",slug:"poverty-parasitosis-and-hiv-aids-major-health-concerns-in-tanzania",totalDownloads:3578,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Kennedy Daniel Mwambete and Mary Justin-Temu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20651",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20651",authors:[{id:"50859",title:"Prof.",name:"Mary",surname:"Justin-Temu",slug:"mary-justin-temu",fullName:"Mary Justin-Temu"},{id:"50867",title:"Dr.",name:"Kennedy",surname:"Mwambete",slug:"kennedy-mwambete",fullName:"Kennedy Mwambete"}],corrections:null},{id:"20652",title:"Collaborative Approach to Prevent Leprosy and HIV Coinfection in Abia, Ebonyi and Oyo States of Nigeria - Best Practices for a Healthier Population",doi:"10.5772/21378",slug:"collaborative-approach-to-prevent-leprosy-and-hiv-coinfection-in-abia-ebonyi-and-oyo-states-of-niger",totalDownloads:2136,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ezinne E. Enwereji, Chukwunenye I. Okereke and Kelechi O. Enwereji",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20652",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20652",authors:[{id:"42888",title:"Dr.",name:"Ezinne Ezinna",surname:"Enwereji",slug:"ezinne-ezinna-enwereji",fullName:"Ezinne Ezinna Enwereji"},{id:"52323",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwunenye",surname:"Okereke",slug:"chukwunenye-okereke",fullName:"Chukwunenye Okereke"},{id:"52327",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelechi Okechukwu",surname:"Enwereji",slug:"kelechi-okechukwu-enwereji",fullName:"Kelechi Okechukwu Enwereji"}],corrections:null},{id:"20653",title:"The Impact Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Infrastructures Have on People Living with HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe",doi:"10.5772/19431",slug:"the-impact-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-infrastructures-have-on-people-living-with-hiv-and-aids-in-z",totalDownloads:1984,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Natasha Potgieter,Tendayi B. Mpofu and Tobias G. Barnard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20653",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20653",authors:[{id:"34957",title:"Prof.",name:"Natasha",surname:"Potgieter",slug:"natasha-potgieter",fullName:"Natasha Potgieter"},{id:"55305",title:"Prof.",name:"Natasha",surname:"Potgieter",slug:"natasha-potgieter",fullName:"Natasha Potgieter"},{id:"55306",title:"Dr.",name:"Tobias George",surname:"Barnard",slug:"tobias-george-barnard",fullName:"Tobias George Barnard"}],corrections:null},{id:"20654",title:"Mycotic Leukonychia in HIV Patients",doi:"10.5772/19592",slug:"mycotic-leukonychia-in-hiv-patients",totalDownloads:3525,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Patricia Chang, Gabriela Moreno-Coutiño and Roberto Arenas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20654",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20654",authors:[{id:"35500",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Chang",slug:"patricia-chang",fullName:"Patricia Chang"},{id:"77625",title:"Prof.",name:"Arenas",surname:"Roberto",slug:"arenas-roberto",fullName:"Arenas Roberto"},{id:"77782",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Moreno-Coutiño",slug:"gabriela-moreno-coutino",fullName:"Gabriela Moreno-Coutiño"}],corrections:null},{id:"20655",title:"Cryptosporidiosis - From Epidemiology to Treatment",doi:"10.5772/21368",slug:"cryptosporidiosis-from-epidemiology-to-treatment",totalDownloads:3831,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Anane Sonia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20655",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20655",authors:[{id:"42833",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Anane",slug:"sonia-anane",fullName:"Sonia Anane"}],corrections:null},{id:"20656",title:"Toxoplasmosis in HIV/AIDS Patients - A Living Legacy",doi:"10.5772/19580",slug:"toxoplasmosis-in-hiv-aids-patients-a-living-legacy",totalDownloads:4322,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Veeranoot Nissapatorn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20656",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20656",authors:[{id:"35419",title:"Dr.",name:"Veeranoot",surname:"Nissapatorn",slug:"veeranoot-nissapatorn",fullName:"Veeranoot Nissapatorn"}],corrections:null},{id:"20657",title:"Use of Polymerase Chain Reaction for the Determination of About 2.5 kb fpvA and fpvB Gene Sequences in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Strains",doi:"10.5772/23983",slug:"use-of-polymerase-chain-reaction-for-the-determination-of-about-2-5-kb-fpva-and-fpvb-gene-sequences-",totalDownloads:1787,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Julie Osaretin Osayande",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20657",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20657",authors:[{id:"54745",title:"Dr.",name:"Julie",surname:"Osayande",slug:"julie-osayande",fullName:"Julie Osayande"}],corrections:null},{id:"20658",title:"The Role of Bacteria and Yeasts in AIDS",doi:"10.5772/19906",slug:"the-role-of-bacteria-and-yeasts-in-aids",totalDownloads:1542,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Vladimír Zajac, Zuzana Adamcikova, Vladimir Holec, Katarina Hainova, Viola Stevurkova, Lenka Wachsmannova and Vladimir Krcmery",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/20658",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/20658",authors:[{id:"36737",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimír",surname:"Zajac",slug:"vladimir-zajac",fullName:"Vladimír Zajac"},{id:"53188",title:"Mrs",name:"Zuzana",surname:"Adamčíková",slug:"zuzana-adamcikova",fullName:"Zuzana Adamčíková"},{id:"53189",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Holec",slug:"vladimir-holec",fullName:"Vladimir Holec"},{id:"88806",title:"Dr.",name:"Lenka",surname:"Wachsmannova",slug:"lenka-wachsmannova",fullName:"Lenka Wachsmannova"},{id:"90331",title:"MSc.",name:"Katarina",surname:"Hainova",slug:"katarina-hainova",fullName:"Katarina Hainova"},{id:"90332",title:"Mrs.",name:"Viola",surname:"Stevurkova",slug:"viola-stevurkova",fullName:"Viola Stevurkova"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/825.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"799",title:"Salmonella",subtitle:"A Dangerous Foodborne Pathogen",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba452d8a24ef16b1267d2854b28f6e6a",slug:"salmonella-a-dangerous-foodborne-pathogen",bookSignature:"Barakat S. M. Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/799.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2068",title:"Understanding Tuberculosis",subtitle:"New Approaches to Fighting Against Drug Resistance",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"077a11a53e4b135020092b8c1143f93c",slug:"understanding-tuberculosis-new-approaches-to-fighting-against-drug-resistance",bookSignature:"Pere-Joan Cardona",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2068.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78269",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pere-Joan",surname:"Cardona",slug:"pere-joan-cardona",fullName:"Pere-Joan Cardona"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"322",title:"Flavivirus Encephalitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"269535b3a2f21a46216f4ca6925aa8f1",slug:"flavivirus-encephalitis",bookSignature:"Daniel Růžek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/322.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33830",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Ruzek",slug:"daniel-ruzek",fullName:"Daniel Ruzek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3842",title:"Leishmaniasis",subtitle:"Trends in Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"861f3ca84eede677ba6cd863093d62f8",slug:"leishmaniasis-trends-in-epidemiology-diagnosis-and-treatment",bookSignature:"David M. Claborn",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3842.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169536",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Claborn",slug:"david-claborn",fullName:"David Claborn"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1273",title:"Non-Flavivirus Encephalitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fa857119b76ce546ccf16503e982a08e",slug:"non-flavivirus-encephalitis",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1273.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62638",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2061",title:"Salmonella",subtitle:"Distribution, Adaptation, Control Measures and Molecular Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"64584b0d61f32814e0ed682bf052b088",slug:"salmonella-distribution-adaptation-control-measures-and-molecular-technologies",bookSignature:"Bassam A. Annous and Joshua B. Gurtler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2061.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101172",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassam",surname:"Annous",slug:"bassam-annous",fullName:"Bassam Annous"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"971",title:"Malaria Parasites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d7a9d672f9988a6d5b059aed14188896",slug:"malaria-parasites",bookSignature:"Omolade O. Okwa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/971.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"544",title:"Anemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6b166fa7f2a834360680a40d0f170dc3",slug:"anemia",bookSignature:"Donald S. Silverberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/544.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78753",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald",surname:"Silverberg",slug:"donald-silverberg",fullName:"Donald Silverberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{},chapter:{},book:{}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11466",leadTitle:null,title:"Titanium Alloys - Recent Progress in Design, Processing, Characterization, and Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tTitanium alloys are used in the most advanced applications and to achieve greater everyday usage in all types of products, which is undoubtedly justified in terms of comprehending recent developments in their design, processing, and properties. These alloys are recognized as critical industrial structural materials and are effectively employed in a wide range of sectors such as automotive industries, aerospace, military, energy, and biomaterials. The optimization of material properties is based on a thorough understanding of physical metallurgy, alloys design processes, deformation mechanisms, the impact of extreme environments, or the interaction of protective layers and protected alloys, and is contextualized in relation to more recent development activities. This book will address the latest developments and potential applications of this lightweight, high-strength engineering alloy in terms of its design, processing, characterization, properties, and applications. Authors are encouraged to present papers on current achievements and the most significant contributions in modern titanium alloy grades that have the potential to influence future scientific innovation and research-based advancements in all fields.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-372-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-371-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-373-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"1c89c2e1b5d03b90db5b13d44479baa6",bookSignature:"Dr. Ram Krishna",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11466.jpg",keywords:"Extreme Temperature Application, High Strength, Corrosion Resistance, Electron Microscopy, Microstructure, Additive Manufacturing, Titanium Matrix Composite, Load-Displacement Curves, Selective Laser Melting, Sustainable Thermomechanical Processing, Weldability, Superplasticity",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 13th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Researcher in advanced materials and their advanced characterization techniques, Dr. Krishna completed his Ph.D. at the University of Leicester, UK, and held postdoctoral positions at the University of Manchester, UK, and North Carolina State University, US. Appointed as Associate Dean for the Industry Institute Interaction Cell at his college, he is a Fellow Member of The Institution of Engineers (India).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"296477",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram",middleName:null,surname:"Krishna",slug:"ram-krishna",fullName:"Ram Krishna",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/296477/images/system/296477.jpg",biography:"After getting his Master's degree in Materials and Metallurgical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Dr. Ram Krishna continued his studies at the University of Leicester in the United Kingdom, where he got his Ph.D. in 2011. He held postdoctoral positions at the University of Manchester in the United Kingdom and North Carolina State University in Raleigh, North Carolina. His knowledge includes a wide range of materials for high temperatures applications and understanding their behavior and performance through mechanical testing at high temperatures, as well as advanced characterization techniques, as evidenced by his h-index of 10 and designation as co-inventor of 13 patents. He has authored or coauthored more than 30 research papers that have appeared in journals and conference proceedings. His current research focuses on 3D printing and materials for 3D printing applications.",institutionString:"Madanapalle Institute of Technology & Science",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"441704",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Javor",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441704/images/20009_n.jpg",email:"ana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors, and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6320",title:"Advances in Glass Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d0a32a0cf9806bccd04101a8b6e1b95",slug:"advances-in-glass-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Vincenzo M. Sglavo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6320.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"17426",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo Maria",surname:"Sglavo",slug:"vincenzo-maria-sglavo",fullName:"Vincenzo Maria Sglavo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6802",title:"Graphene Oxide",subtitle:"Applications and Opportunities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"075b313e11be74c55a1f66be5dd56b40",slug:"graphene-oxide-applications-and-opportunities",bookSignature:"Ganesh Kamble",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"236420",title:"Dr.",name:"Ganesh",surname:"Kamble",slug:"ganesh-kamble",fullName:"Ganesh Kamble"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6517",title:"Emerging Solar Energy Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"186936bb201bb186fb04b095aa39d9b8",slug:"emerging-solar-energy-materials",bookSignature:"Sadia Ameen, M. Shaheer Akhtar and Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6517.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6188",title:"Solidification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0405c42586170a1def7a4b011c5f2b60",slug:"solidification",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6188.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6656",title:"Phase Change Materials and Their Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b257f8386280bdde4633d36124787f2",slug:"phase-change-materials-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Mohsen Mhadhbi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6656.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"228366",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"mohsen-mhadhbi",fullName:"Mohsen Mhadhbi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6805",title:"Electrical and Electronic Properties of Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6b6930e7ae9d0704f68b5c180526309",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-properties-of-materials",bookSignature:"Md. Kawsar Alam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6805.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199691",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Kawsar",surname:"Alam",slug:"md.-kawsar-alam",fullName:"Md. Kawsar Alam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6851",title:"New Uses of Micro and Nanomaterials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49e0ab8961c52c159da40dd3ec039be0",slug:"new-uses-of-micro-and-nanomaterials",bookSignature:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola, Jairo Useche Vivero and Andres Guillermo Marrugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6851.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"112233",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Marcelo Rubén",surname:"Pagnola",slug:"marcelo-ruben-pagnola",fullName:"Marcelo Rubén Pagnola"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9393",title:"Engineering Steels and High Entropy-Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d33466a3272f97353a6bf6d76d7512a5",slug:"engineering-steels-and-high-entropy-alloys",bookSignature:"Ashutosh Sharma, Zoia Duriagina, Sanjeev Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9393.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashutosh",surname:"Sharma",slug:"ashutosh-sharma",fullName:"Ashutosh Sharma"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7360",title:"Fillers",subtitle:"Synthesis, Characterization and Industrial Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4cb5f0dcdfc23d6ec4c1d5f72f726ab4",slug:"fillers-synthesis-characterization-and-industrial-application",bookSignature:"Amar Patnaik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7360.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43660",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amar",surname:"Patnaik",slug:"amar-patnaik",fullName:"Amar Patnaik"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9360",title:"Perovskite Materials, Devices and Integration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4068d570500b274823e17413e3547ff8",slug:"perovskite-materials-devices-and-integration",bookSignature:"He Tian",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9360.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259466",title:"Prof.",name:"He",surname:"Tian",slug:"he-tian",fullName:"He Tian"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"38442",title:"Reconfigurable Systems for Cryptography and Multimedia Applications",doi:"10.5772/30186",slug:"reconfigurable-systems-for-cryptography-and-multimedia-applications",body:'The area of reconfigurable computing has received considerable interest in both its forms: fine-grained (represented in FPGA) and coarse-grained architectures. Both architecture styles attempt to combine two of the important traits of General Purpose Processors (GPPs) and Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs): flexibility and speed (Hartenstein, 2001). It provides performance close to application-specific hardware and yet preserves, to a certain degree, the flexibility of general-purpose processors. In this chapter, we explore, evaluate, and analyze the performance of a reconfigurable hardware, namely MorphoSys, considering certain key applications targeted for such hardware(Hauck, 1998).
MorphoSys is a reconfigurable architecture designed for multimedia applications, digital signal and image processing, cryptographic algorithms, and networking protocols(Singh et al., 1998). In this chapter, we discuss application mapping, identify potential limitations and key improvements and compare the results with other reconfigurable, GPP, and ASIC architectures. In cryptography, we present the mapping and performance analysis of the Advanced Encryption Standard, namely Rijndael,(Daemen & Rijmen, 2002), along with another cryptography algorithm, namely Twofish, (Schneier et al., 1998). In image processing, we present linear filtering, and 2D and 3D computer graphics algorithms, (Diab & Majzoub, 2003), (Damaj et al, 2002). We present the mapping with detailed analysis, highlighting bottlenecks, proposing possible improvements, and comparing the results to other types of multimedia processing architectures(Maestre et al., 1999), (Mei et al, 2003), (Tessier & Burleson, 2001).
General-purpose processor (GPP) is a confined hardware system that computes any task using existing instructions and registers. Thus, GPP is used to compute diverse range of applications. Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC), on the other hand, are used to implement a single fixed function. Therefore, ASICs have no flexibility and they can only execute a very limited type of the targeted applications known beforehand(Singh et al., 1998), (Kozyrakis, 1998), (Möller et al., 2006).
Combining the two main traits of the two design styles, namely GPPs and ASICs, reconfigurable systems stand halfway between traditional computing systems and application specific hardware(Kozyrakis & Patterson, 1998). Thus, reconfigurable hardware is a name referred to a system that can be reconfigured and customized in post-fabrication to execute a specific algorithm. MorphoSys, with its customizable logic and routing resources, can be configured, and customized during runtime. This feature provides the ability to compute a wide variety of applications. It shares characteristics of microprocessors, it can be programmed in post-fabrication, and of specific hardware, it can employ a specific algorithm or function to gain the speed(Hartenstein, 2001), (Ferrandi et al, 2005).
Reconfigurable computing is the hardware capability to adapt, configure, and customize itself to provide the best performance for a specific application. It is shifting some of the software complexity to the hardware itself. Fine-grain reconfigurable platforms have bitwise reconfigurable logic, for instance FPGAs. Coarse-grain reconfigurable platforms have more than one bit granularity. Coarse-grain reconfigurable platforms have the advantage of less power consumption and area over the fine-grain at expense of lower flexibility(Galanis et al, 2004), (Eguro & Hauck, 2003). For the multimedia applications, the foreseen potential of the reconfigurable computing in general and coarse-grain reconfigurable platforms in particular is well recognized. The goal of reconfigurable platforms, whether fine-grain or coarse-grain, is to provide high performance, close to ASIC and high flexibility close to general-purpose processors. As such, reconfigurable computing is seen as a major shift in the processor design and research(Hartenstein, 2001).
The parallelism feature of most of the coarse-grain platforms adds a distinctive yet essential advantage to such hardware. Recent work in mesh-based coarse-grain reconfigurable architectures includes GARP (UC Berkeley)(Hauser & Wawrzynek, 1997), MATRIX (CalTech)(Mirsky & DeHon, 1996), REMARC (Stanford)(Miyamori & Olukotun, 1998), and MorphoSys (UC Irvine)(Singh et al., 1998).
In view of all that, performance and hardware analysis should be investigated to identify all the bottlenecks and provide a realistic feedback in order to propose future improvements. Targeted applications, such as multimedia, cryptographic, and communication, should be mapped to determine the hardware behaviour. The analysis is intended to provide feedback on the hardware capability and highlight potential modifications and enhancements(Bosi, Bois, & Savaria, 1999). Unfortunately, most of the coarse-grain reconfigurable platforms, except the FPGA based platforms, lack-easy-to-use compiler and mapping tools to map such applications on the hardware under examination. Therefore, the mapping of the targeted applications for such hardware evaluation must be carried out manually. This hand-mapping process can provide valuable information to prospective compilers that eventually will emerge out of the implementation of wide range of applications(Majzoub & Diab, 2003), (Majzoub & Diab, 2006), (Majzoub et al, 2006), (Itani & Diab, 2004),(Bagherzadeh, Kamalizad & Koohi, 2003).
MorphoSys is one of the few coarse-grain reconfigurable platforms. Fig.1 shows the block diagram and internal structure of MorphoSys M1 chip and the logic block for each reconfigurable cell. MorphoSys consists of two main blocks: a RISC processor, TinyRISC, and the Reconfigurable Cell (RC) Array. The other supporting blocks are: the RC context memory, the frame buffer, and the DMA controller. The frame buffer as well as the context memory provides the data and instructions, respectively, in parallel fashion to the RC Array(Lee et al., 2000).
The computing power of the MorphoSys hardware liesin the reconfigurable device. It is divided into four quadrants.Fig.2 shows the internal interconnectivity of the RC system (Lee et al., 2000). As shown, three hierarchical levels define the interconnection meshwork. The first is a layer that connects each cell to its adjacent cell, i.e. upper, lower, and left cells. The second is an intra-quadrant connection that connects the RCs in the same row or column within the same quadrant. The third level of connectivity is an inter-quadrant connection that links any two cells in different quadrant but in the same column or in the same row. Fig.1 also shows the RC block diagram. It consists of multiplexers, ALU, four registers, variable shifter, and output register. The inputs for every RC are from the frame buffer, other RCs, and internal Registers (Singh et al., 1998).
MorphoSys Block Diagramand RC Logic Digaram
RC Array Communication Buses
Cryptography has grown to be a fundamental element to handle authenticity, integrity, confidentiality and non-reputability of private data flows through public networks. With the increasing demand for high performance hardware, and high level of security, better ciphers are making their way to replace agingalgorithms that have proven to be too weak or too slow for the current applications (Schneier, 1996). In this section, we discuss the mapping of the Rijndeal and Twofish encryption algorithms.
The Advanced Encryption Standard, AES, is a block cipher adopted as an encryption standard by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST, in November 2001 after a five-year standardization process. The block diagram of the Rijndael algorithm is shown in Fig.3. The figure shows the steps for both encryption and decryption cases (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002).
First, the input bits are arranged according to the length of the plain text to be encrypted. In the case of 128 bit length, the bits are arranged as 44 matrix of bytes; for 192, it will be 46 matrix of bytes; and for 256, it will be 48 matrix of bytes. The numbers 4, 6, and 8 are called the block width, Nb. The keys of the cipher are also arranged in the same fashion (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002).
Rijndael has three different types of Rounds; as shown in Fig.3:
The first is the
where
The Rijndael Algorithm(
The second is the
Some mathematical simplificationis carried out in order to reduce the multiplication computation. In the encryption case the multiplication is performed as shown in equation (2). Note that the multiplication operator is shown as to indicate that the multiplication is over Galois Field (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002).
The matrix used in the multiplication during the Inverse Mix-Column (
Rijndael has a variable number of iterations, Ni, for the
Ni = 9, where Nr = Number of rounds = 10, if both the block and the key are 128 bits long.
Ni = 11, where Nr = 12, if either the block or the key is 192 bits long, and neither of them is longer than that.
Ni = 13, where Nr = 14, if either the block or the key is 256 bits long.
Table 1. shows the key size, block width Nb and the corresponding Nr.
Key Size | |||
128 | 192 | 256 | |
Nb | 4 | 6 | 8 |
Nr | 9 | 11 | 13 |
Key Size, Block Width Nb and Round Number Nr, (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002)
The third type of round is called the
During decryption, all the steps are preformed in reversed order (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002).
The Round-Keys are derived from the original Cipher Key by means of the
The first Round-Key is given, as shown in equation (4), however,the remaining, Nr, Round-Key matrices are generated (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002). For example, for a block length of 128 bits, 10 Round-Keys matrices are needed: 9 for the Standard Rounds and 1 for the Final Round. For block length of 192 bits, 12 Round-Keys are needed and for 256 bits length 14 are needed.
Generating key schedule for Rijndael (
Then the remaining keys are generated (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002).Fig.4 shows the key schedule algorithm, where i denotesthe column number, iterating from 0 to Nb-1. The function S1(Ki-1) is a cyclic shift of the elements in Ki-1. For example, if Ki-1column is [k0x, k1x, k2x, k3x], then S1(Ki-1) is [k1x, k2x, k3x, k0x].
The
In this section, the performance results are presented. Some of the bottleneck problems are discussed, and possible solutions are proposed (Majzoub et al., 2006). Fig.5(a) shows the time cost of the four steps done in one iteration of the Standard Round. The figure shows the encryption and the decryption costs for all the key length cases. Clearly, the Sub-Bytes step, or the lookup table step, is dominating the computation time. The Sub-Bytesstep is taking 83% of the total Round cost in the best case and 97% in the worst case. The next bottleneck is the Mix-Column and InvMix-Column step. Both InvMix-Column and Mix-Column stepsare taking 2% in the best case and 16% in the worst case.
Time cost breakdown, (a)Encryption and Decryption, and (b) Inverse-Key (Inv-Key) Schedule.
Fig.5(b) shows the time cost of the Inverse Key Schedule performance results. Again, the Sub-Bytes and the InvMix-Column are the major bottlenecks. The Sub-Bytes is taking 60% in the best case and 74% in the worst case. The InvMix-Column is taking 22% in the best case and 35% in the worst case.
Fig.6 shows the RC Utilization during the encryption and decryption respectively. The figure shows the RC utilization for one iteration of the Standard Round. It is clear the 8×8 RC Array is fully utilized during the lookup table and partially utilized, but with high rate, during the Mix-Column and InvMix-Column.
As shown in Fig.6, there are 4 lookups in case of 256 covering the 4 rows. In the 192 case, there are 3 lookups to cover the 3 rows and in the case of 128 there are 2. During every lookup there is a full utilization and then a small stall when switching from one row to another. At the end of lookup step, the Mix-Column step starts. The Mix-Column utilizes half the RC Array in the 192 and 256 cases and quarter of the RC Array in the 128 case. The InvMix-Column almost utilizes the whole RC. In the utilization image, seem the lookup table and the InvMix-Column still dominates the major bottlenecks.
RC Utilization, Encryption and Decryption (Standard Round)
RC Utilization, Key and Inverse Key Schedule (One Round-Key)
Fig.7 shows the RC Utilization during the Key Schedule. The lookup table steps are utilizing half of the RC Array in the 256 and 192 cases. However, it utilizes the whole RC Array in the case of 128, this is because it is doing a redundant lookup on the other half to save few cycles. This can be changed to be like the 192 and 256 cases, especially if two keys need to be processed at a time. This way we can double the throughput in the cost of few cycles, which is better implementation anyway. The Inverse key shows the same results the key with the addition of the InvMix-Column. In the InvMix-Column case the utilization is a bit high. This is because the column mixing should be done for all the columns not for one like the case of the lookup.
As all the figures and analysis showed, the lookup table is the major bottleneck in terms of both RC utilization and time consuming. In order to improve the Rijndael on MorphoSys, the first idea to think of is implanting a lookup table. A good implementation of a lookup table in the system can improve the Rijndael performance tremendously. Although the InvMix-Column is of specific nature, there are still some improvements that can be proposed. Further work could be by implementing new bit wise instructions. Moreover, better results can be achieved also by implementing a second level of RC-Instruction level parallelism.
Fig.8 shows the RC instruction utilization. These results are for one iteration of the Standard Round for the three cases: 128, 192 and 256. The CMULBADD instruction is basically multiplying MUX_A input by the constant C and adding the result to MUX_B. The SR and SL are shifting to the right and left respectively. The analysis in these figures can clarify the importance of some of the instructions. The XOR, BTM, ADD, and SR are the most instructions utilized during the process(Singh et al., 1998). Note that the BTM instruction is a bit-wise instruction that counts the number of ones in a byte.
RC-Instruction Utilization, 128 and 192, and 256 cases (One Round)
It should be mentioned here that if the lookup table, the most extensive operation, is replaced by other means then this figure might change dramatically. One improvement could be by adding a parallelism at the RC instruction level. For instance, The XORing will have three operands instead of two. This reduces the XORing utilization by one third. Similar improvements can be done in the same fashion for the other instructions.
The fourth plot in Fig.8 shows the RC instruction utilization in the major steps. This figure clearly shows that if there is any further investigation, it should be in the lookup table and the InvMix-Column. Better implementation of the BTM instruction improves the results (Singh et al., 1998). For instance, implementing a similar BTM instruction but with XORing all the output instead of counting all the ones eliminates 8 cycles of the computation of every byte. We will elaborate on this issue later.
Fig.9 shows the final performance results for both the encryption and the decryption for the three plain text length cases. It shows also the performance results of the Key Schedule for the three plain text length cases.
Tables 2 and 3 show the performance results of the MorphoSys compared to the platforms submitted with the Rijndael proposal to the NIST (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002).
Rijndeal Performance Results
AES CD (ANSI C) | Brain Gladman (VC++) | |||||
Key | InvKey | Key | InvKey | Key | InvKey | |
128 | 2100 | 2900 | 305 | 1389 | 1040 | 1223 |
192 | 2600 | 3600 | 277 | 1595 | 1224 | 1829 |
256 | 2800 | 3800 | 374 | 1960 | 2758 | 3473 |
Key Schedule compared to other platforms showing number of cycles, (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002).
MorphoSys En/Dc | ||||||
128 | 4065 | 8390 | 950 | 363 | 23000 | 2021/2236 |
192 | 4512 | 10780 | 1125 | 432 | 27600 | 3546/4041 |
256 | 5221 | 12490 | 1295 | 500 | 32300 | 5426/6010 |
Performance results for Encryption/Decryption compared to other platforms, showing number of cycles, (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002).
The MorphoSys shows acceptable results compared these platforms. However, and since the proposal submission, there were many implementations on FPGAs and ASIC platforms (Sklaos & Koufopavlou, 2002). These implementations showed a throughput that MorphoSys cannot compete with. For instance, the throughput ranged from 248 up to 3650 MBps which is very high throughput compared to our results. In contrast, the MorphoSys platform is much more flexible than the ASIC or FPGA. A wide range of applications can be implemented on MorphoSys, taking advantage of the fact that MorphoSys is a low power consumption platform (Majzoub & Diab, 2006). Saying all this, still the MorphoSys can and should be improved in order to compete with other platforms.
In this section, the Twofish cipher, one of the five finalists considered in the advanced encryption standard (AES) competition is implemented on MorphoSys. Twofish is a 128-bit cipher that supports keys with length of 128-, 192- or 256-bits. It is the successor of Blowfish, a well-established cipher without any known flaws (Schneier et al., 1998). The Twofish cipher has many qualities that make it interesting for a research. It has been designed to offer different possibilities of trade-offs between space and speed, thus it can be mapped efficiently to hardware devices such as FPGAs, SmartCards and RCs(Majzoub & Diab, 2003), (Schneier 1996).
Fig.10 shows the overall structure of the Twofish algorithm. As shown, the input is first latched into a register. It is then separated into four words and XORed with four subkeys K0,K1,K2 and K3. This step is referred to as the input whitening. The data then goes through a F-function module where various rotations, transformations and permutations are applied. The F-function is made of two g-functions containing key-dependant S-boxes, a Maximum Distance Separable (MDS),(Schneier et al., 1998), matrices and a Pseudo-Hadamard Transform (PHT), (Schneier et al., 1998); all of which will be described later. After performing 16 rounds of the F-function, the four data words are once again XORed with another four subkeys K4,K5,K6 and K7 to produce the cipher text. This step is called the output whitening(Schneier et al., 1998).
In this section, we explain the mapping details of the Twofish algorithm on MorphoSys platform. The computationally expensive operations, such as the S-box, MDS and PHT, are performed in the reconfigurable part of the MorphoSys. While the other operations, for instance data loading and saving operations are executed in the TinyRISC processor. Fig.10shows the overall steps of the Twofish algorithm.
The Twofish steps are as following:
Overall Structure of Twofish Algorithm
XOR with k-Subkeys: This operation can be done either by adding or XORing. In our implementation, we used XORing as it is faster.
Output Whitening:This phase is exactly the same as the input-whitening step, which is basically XORing with output subkeys.
The key schedule has to provide 40 words of expanded key K0,…, K39. Twofish is defined for keys of length N = 128, N = 192, and N = 256. A constant k is defined as k = N/64. Key generation begins by deriving three key vectors each half the length of the original key(Schneier et al., 1998). The first two are formed by splitting the key into 32-bit parts. These parts are numbered starting from zero, the even-numbered are Me, and the odd-numbered are Mo. This can be expressed by equation (6).
The first two vectors areMe=(M0,M2,…,M2k-2) and Mo=(M1,M3,…,M2k-1). The calculation of the vectors Mo and Me are straightforward. We just have to separate the odd bytes from the even ones. Afterwards the expanded key words should be derived from Me and Moand stored in the memory to be used later. The key computations are performed offline and then stored in main memory to be used later in the encryption.
The key scheduling operation is shown in Fig.11. Initially, 2i and 2i+1 words are passed to the S-Boxes so that the M vector is initially XORed with values represent S(2i) or S(2i+1). This is because the 2i and 2i+1 values are predefined and do not change with different key values. For each expanded key word the vector Me or Mois XORed with a number taken from the frame buffer represents S(2i) or S(2i+1). The RC instructions used to calculate the h-function in the context memory are the same ones used to calculate F function with some modifications. Some additional planes in context memory are used to resolve the difference in the h- and g-functions. Before the PHT step, the word k2i+1is rotated 8 bits to the left.
Key Schedule for Twofish
Afterwards, the PHT is performed. Then, the last four bytes are rotated by nine bits. The final result is transferred to the cell in the first row. The content is then loaded from this cell to the registers in the TinyRISC using RCRISC instruction.
In the case of 256 bits, there are eight bytes. In the case of the 192 bits, there are three bytes in each vector. Finally, in the case of the 128, there are 2 bytes in each vector. As stated before, the odd bytes should be separated from the even ones. Each vector has four bytes. On the other hand, the S vector is derived through multiplying the Key K (256, 192, or 128 bits) by the RS matrix. The key K is divided into 8 bytes groups and multiplied by the RS matrix as shown in equation (7).
Similar to the MDS matrix the multiplication should take place over Galois field with irreducible polynomial, 101101001.
The performance analysis of the Twofish algorithm is shown in Table 4.. Fig.12 shows the performance results with key lengths of 128, 192 and 256 respectively compared to other platforms. Twofish has been tested in different architectures, for instance Pentium Pro, Pentium II, UltraSPARC, PowerPC 750, and 68040 smart card(Majzoub & Diab, 2003), (Majzoub & Diab, 2010).
Table 5. shows the speedup achieved by the MorphoSys system. As shown,as far as encryption, MorphoSys shows better results than 68040 processor only. However, in terms of the key-schedule the MorphoSys architecture provides a minimum of 3.8 speedup ratio compared to Pentium Pro. The overall speed up shows that MorphoSys is 1.86 times faster than Pentium Pro.
Architecture | Cycles to Encrypt | Cycles to Key (256) | Overall Cycles |
MorphoSys | 3541 | 3557 | 7098 |
Pentium Pro | 315 | 13500 | 13815 |
Pentium II | 315 | 16000 | 16315 |
UltraSPARC | 750 | 24900 | 25650 |
PowerPC 750 | 590 | 22200 | 22790 |
68040 | 3500 | 96700 | 100200 |
Architecture | Cycles to Encrypt | Cycles to Key (192) | Overall Cycles |
MorphoSys | 2884 | 2797 | 5681 |
Pentium Pro | 315 | 10700 | 11015 |
Pentium II | 315 | 14100 | 14415 |
UltraSPARC | 750 | 21600 | 22350 |
PowerPC 750 | 590 | 17100 | 17690 |
68040 | 3500 | 63500 | 67000 |
Architecture | Cycles to Encrypt | Cycles to Key (128) | Overall Cycles |
MorphoSys | 2324 | 2037 | 4361 |
Pentium Pro | 315 | 7800 | 8115 |
Pentium II | 315 | 8200 | 8515 |
UltraSPARC | 750 | 16600 | 17350 |
PowerPC 750 | 590 | 12200 | 12790 |
68040 | 3500 | 53000 | 56500 |
Performance Analysis compared to other architectures (128 key)
Architecture | Encrypt | Key (128) | Overall |
MorphoSys | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Pentium Pro | 0.13 | 3.8 | 1.86 |
Pentium II | 0.13 | 4 | 1.95 |
UltraSPARC | 0.32 | 8.14 | 3.97 |
PowerPC 750 | 0.25 | 6 | 2.93 |
68040 | 1.5 | 26 | 13 |
Speedup normalized to MorphoSys
Twofish Performance Results
The implementation of the Twofish on MorphoSys clarifies some of the pros and cons of the system. The encryption process takes more time than the keying process. This is due to the fact that the encryption process involves more sequential operations. There are 16 repeated rounds that should finish considering 128 bits input and output each round. This can be done using an 8-bit bus only, that is available at the RC level. Accordingly, the 16 rounds cannot be parallelized further. On the other hand, there are a lot more that can be parallelized in key scheduling. The expensive matrix multiplication and the hash tables are converted and mapped into parallel and simpler mathematical operations that can benefit from the MorphoSys architectural attributes.
In this section, we discuss two image manipulation algorithms, namely linear filtering and computer graphics transformation.
Filtering is a technique for amending or enhancing an image. Images can be of low quality due to a poor image contrast or, more usually, from an improper usage of the available range of possible brightness and darkness levels. In performing image enhancement, we compute an enhanced version of the original image. The most basic methods of image enhancement involve pointoperations, in which the value of any given pixel in the output image is determined by applying an algorithm to the values of the pixels in the neighborhood of thecorresponding input pixel. A pixel’s neighborhood is some set of pixels, defined by their locations relative to that pixel. The most common point operation is the linear contrast stretching operation, which seeks to maximally utilize the available gray-scale range. In other words, in linear filtering, the value of an output pixel is a linear combination of the values of the pixels in the input pixel’s neighborhood(Diab & Majzoub, 2003). Linear filters are useful for image enhancement, which includes noise-smoothing, sharpening or simply emphasizing certain features and removing others. Usually, an image is dimmed because ofimproper exposure setting. Images are also blurred by motion in the scene or by inherent optical problems. The benefactor of image enhancement either may be a human observer or a computer vision program performing some kind of higher-level image analysis, such as target detection or scene understanding.
Multi-dimensional convolution is a common operation in signal and image processing with applications to digital filtering and video processing (Diab & Majzoub, 2003). Thus, many approaches have been suggested to achieve high-speed processing for linear convolution, and to design efficient convolution architectures.
Linear filtering can be implemented through the two-dimensional convolution. In 2D convolution, the value of the output pixel is computed by multiplying elements of two matrices and summing the results. One of these matrices represents the image itself, while the other matrix is the filter kernel or the computational molecule (Diab & Majzoub, 2003).
The sliding window, filter kernel, centers on each pixel in an input image and generates new output pixels. The new pixel value is computed by multiplying each pixel value in the neighborhood with the corresponding weight in the convolution kernel and summing these products. This is placed step by step over the image, at each step creating a new window in the image the same size of kernel, and then associating with each element in the kernel a corresponding pixel in the image.
This operation is shown in Fig.13, which is the general case of the convolution operation. The image size is MN pixels and the kernel is RS elements.
An MN image processed using an RS convolution kernel
This "shift, add, multiply" operation is termed the "convolution" of the kernel with the image. If the kernel is an odd-sized (2rx + 1)(2ry + 1) RS kernel and I1(x,y) is the image, then the convolution of K with I1 is written as:
The 2D convolution operation can be summarized by the following steps:
Rotate the convolution kernel 180 degrees to produce a computational molecule.
Determine the centre pixel of the computational molecule.
Apply the computational molecule to each pixel in the input image.
This can be expressed by equation (9). If the kernel size is 33 and I1(x,y) is an 88 pixel image, then:
The value of any given pixel in I2 is determined by applying the computational molecule k to the corresponding pixel in I1. This can be visualized by overlying k on I1, with the center pixel of k over the pixel of interest in I2. Then each element of k must be multiplied by the corresponding pixel in I1, and sum the results. For example, to determine the value of the pixel (4,5) in I2, overlay k on I1, with the center pixel of k covering the pixel (4,5) in I1 as shown in Fig.14.
The 88 pixels image and the computational molecule at pixel (4,5)
Perform this procedure for each pixel in I1 to determine the value of each corresponding pixel in I2.
1 | MM to FB | 28 cycles (4 insts + 25 NOPs) |
MM to CM | 74 cycles (1 inst + 73 NOPs) | |
2 | 2D convolution operation | 24 cycles |
RC to FB | 8 cycles | |
3 | F to MM | 28 cycles (2 insts and 26 NOPs) |
Performance results of the three stages of overall operation on MorphoSys.
Case (1) | 162 | 2.5 |
Case (2) | 32 | 0.5 |
Performance results on MorphoSys.
Number of cycles per pixel | |
MorphoSys | 0.5 |
C40 coprocessor | 2 |
MorphoSys Case(2) compared to C40.
Some of the elements of the computational molecule may not overlap actual image pixels at the borders of an image. In order to compute output values for the border pixels, a special technique should be used in this algorithm. This technique pads the image matrix with zeroes. In other words, the output values are computed by assuming that the input image is paddedon the edges with additional rows and columns of zeros.
The execution speed of the algorithm is used to evaluate the performance of the MorphoSys system with an operational frequency of 100 MHz, as a platform to demonstrate the implementation of 2D convolution on RC systems. For this mapping of the 2D convolution operation, the time of the whole operation can be divided into three categories as shown in Table 6: the loading from main memory to the context memory (CM) and frame buffer, the 2D convolution operation then RC Array to Frame Buffer, and the loading from the Frame Buffer (FB) to the Main Memory.As a result of this, the performance can be calculated with (Case (1)) or without (Case (2)) the loading from and saving to memory. For each case, the corresponding performance results are shown in Table 7. The performance results compared to an FPGA-based 2D convolution coprocessor for the TMS320C40 DSP microprocessor (C40) from Texas Instruments (TI). The comparison is shown in Table 8 (Diab & Majzoub, 2003).
Transformations are a fundamental part of computer graphics. Transformations are used to position, shape, and change viewing positions of objects, as well as change how they are viewed (e.g. the type of perspective that is used) (Damaj et al, 2002).
There are many types of transformations used in computer graphics, such as translation, scaling, rotation, shear, and composite transformations.These transformations can also be combined to obtain more complex transformations. The purpose of composing transformations is to increasethe efficiency by applying a single composed transformation, rather than applying a series of transformations, one after the other.
Transformation can be as simple as a matrix multiplication operation. Multiplying a matrix A with matrix B would mean multiplying one row of A with one column of B and then adding their results yielding (c11) of the result matrix C. Matrices A, B, and C are considered to be dense matrices. The matrix-matrix multiplication involves O(n3) operations on a single processing plat form, since for each element Cij of C, we must compute
Considering translation, scaling, and rotation, the following matrices are used to perform the overall operation:
Translation:
Scaling:
Rotation, in our case we took the rotation angle to be 90 around the z-axis:
The resultant transformation will be:
To get the results: matrix W should be multiplied by the coordinate vectors of the points to be translated. With MorphoSys capabilities, the transformation can be done for eight elements at once. Translated Points Matrix:
The performance is based on the execution speed of the algorithms. The MorphoSys system is considered to be operational at a frequency of 100 MHz. The algorithm takes 70 cycles in order to terminate. The cycle time for the MorphoSys is 1/100 MHz i.e. the cycle time is equal to 10 nsec. Thus the speed in matrix elements per cycle is equal to 4.38 cycles for each element. Accordingly, the time for the algorithm to terminate is equal to 2.56 sec (Damaj et al, 2002).
After presenting the obtained results of the mapped algorithm, a comparison is done with the same algorithms mapped onto some Intel micro-processing systems. In this research the chosen processors are the Intel 80486 and Pentium. Note that the instructions used are upward compatible with newer Intel processors. Note that the chosen systems have comparable frequencies of 100 ~ 133 MHz.
The above mapped matrix-matrix multiplication algorithm, has its direct positive effect on fast computations for graphics geometrical transformations. Especially, that a matrix is a general enough representation to implement any geometrical transformation: Translation, Rotation, Scaling, Shear, or any composition of these. Performance analysis is compared with other reconfigurable systems, such as FPGAs with one prototype chosen from this field: RC-1000 from CELOXICA as shown in Table 10.
Morphosys | 70 | 1 | |
Pentium | 1328 | 18.97 | |
80486 | 3354 | 47.91 | |
General Composite Algorithm Using Matrix Algorithm “64-Elements”. | MorphoSys | 45 | 1 |
Pentium | 2551 | 56.67 | |
80486 | 6773 | 150.5 |
Comparisons with other systems.
General Composite Algorithm Using Matrix Algorithm “16 Elements”. | MorphoSys | 70 | |
RC-1000 | 12 | 5.8 | |
General Composite Algorithm Using Matrix Algorithm “64-Elements”. | MorphoSys | 45 | |
RC-1000 | 12 | 3.7 |
Comparisons with RC-1000 FPGA.
In this section we discuss some of the bottlenecksand problems we faced during the implementation of the Rijndael (Daemen & Rijmen, 2002), Twofish (Schneier et al., 1998), 2D convolution (Diab & Majzoub, 2003), and 3D transformation (Damaj et al, 2002) algorithms on MorphoSys(Singh et al., 1998). First, the lookup table should be considered to improve the performance, with an appropriate tradeoff of area and power. Second, the BTM instruction should be improved so that it can produce the result in one cycle.
The implementation of the lookup table can follow two approaches: local versus global lookup table. A local approach would implement a lookup table for every RC. These lookup tables can be accessed through one of the RC internal Multiplexers. Filling these lookup tables can follow the same Frame-Buffer-Data-Distribution scheme, which means same Row/Column would have the same data or completely unshared data are sent to every one. Whether the lookup table is place on or off the RC, the drawback of this method is that it increases the RC size greatly, and thus, the area of the whole chip, which make the system hard to scale. Moreover, it puts a heavy load on the buses in loading the data to the tables to fill the 64 RCs tables. The advantage of this method is that it speeds the lookup access. So this method is the optimal in terms of speed but it is the worst in terms of area. In this option the size of the lookup table should be small and scaling up the RC Array size to more than 8×8 would be difficult.
A more global approach is to put one lookup table outside the RC Array that all the RCs can access. This option requires less area. It is feasible to increase the size of the lookup table here into the size of the frame buffer itself. The cost of loading data into the lookup table is then the same as the Frame Buffer. This global lookup table could be placed between the Frame Buffer and the RC Array. The data coming from the Frame Buffer to RC Array is multiplexed to the address bus of this lookup table and the needed data are passed to the RCs from this table. The distribution of the data on the RCs follows the same Frame-Buffer-Data-Distribution scheme. The disadvantage of this method is that all the RCs have the same lookup table. If another lookup table is needed then it should be reloaded. Another disadvantage is that it takes more time to access it by the RCs. The time is at least double the time accessing the Frame Buffer. This method will have lower performance.
A middle solution between the two methods is to have 8 lookup tables, where each one would cover one Row/Column. This way the access timeis fast, because every lookup table is covering only one Row or Column. More over it will be reasonable in terms of area, because instead of 64 lookup tables only 8 are needed in this approach.Ideally, the speed up in case of lookup hardware implementation will be 96% in the best case and 82% in the worst per one round in the case of the Rijndeal algorithm. This improvement puts the MorphoSys into high competitive level with other platforms.
On the other hand, to improve the fine-grain capabilities in MorphoSys, the BTM instruction should be changed. For instance, it should be ANDing MUX_A and MUX_B and then XORing the bits of the output result instead of counting the 1’s. For instance,this implementation will save several cycles in the Mix and InvMix- Column. Other schemes could be implemented as well, so that the MorphoSys can handle fine-grain operations with a very good performance.
Instruction Mnemonic | Description |
BWAX | ANDing MUX_A and MUX_B, then XORing all the output bits in the result |
BWRA | ORing MUX_A with MUX_B, then ANDing all the bits in the output result |
BWRP | XORing MUX_A with MUX_C, then ORing the result with MUX B, then ANDing all the bits in the output result |
CNCT | Concatenate the lower 8 bits from both MUX_A and MUX_B. |
ORALL | ORing MUX_A, MUX_B, and MUX_C |
ANDALL | ANDing MUX_A, MUX_B, and MUX_C |
XORALL | XORing MUX_A, MUX_B, and MUX_C |
The proposed new RC-Instructions
In order to improve the bit wise operations some new instructions should be implemented. Table 7 shows the proposed RC-instructions. Also, it is very useful to introduce another MUX_C to the RC. MUX_C can be identical to MUX_A. As the bus overhead to the RC itself already paid, it is useful to increase the use of these buses.
The first instruction, BWAX, is a bit wise XOR of input coming from MUX_A. The second instruction is calculating terms in Modulo-2 algebra. This instruction can help implementing new Modulo-2 compiler. The third instruction is to calculate Boolean terms. This instruction will help implementing a Boolean algebra compiler. These instructions are very useful in the Mix-Column and its inverse (InvMix-Column) in Rijndael as well as the MDS in Twofish.
The concatenate instruction is necessary to exploit the 16 bus width. Since the frame buffer bus is only 8 bits, the other 8 bits of the RC Array are uselessmost of the time, the RC bus width is 16 bits. So it is better either to reduce the RC bus width to 12, or may be 8, or to implement new instructions that can make use of the 16 bits. The other three instructions are to implement another level of parallelism on the RC level. These logical instructions are very easy to implement and can greatly help the performance. Since most of the cryptographic applications, as well as multimedia type of applicationsrequiresiterative and repetitive operations on different data.
In this chapter we implemented a number of multimedia applications, namely Rijndael, Twofish, image filtering and computer graphics algorithms. This implementation was carried out on a coarse grained reconfigurable architecture, MorphoSys, designed and implemented at UC Irvine. Furthermore, we presented the results of such implementations along with analyses and highlights of the current bottlenecks and problems. Solutions and possible workarounds are suggested to improve the performance results and further improve the MorphoSys hardware as a viable solution for multimedia applications.
Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs), a multipotent stem/progenitor cell type, were initially described in bone marrow by Friedenstein et al. as rapid adherence to tissue culture vessels and the discrete “fibroblast” colonies approximately 50 years ago [1, 2]. Julius Cohnheim, a German-Jewish pathologist, firstly proposed that a fibroblast-like cell population for nonhematopoietic cells in bone marrow were involved in wound repair over 150 years ago [3]. In the late 1980s, Caplan firstly coined the name “mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)” [4]. Since then, MSCs have gained much attention over the last three decades. Many laboratories focusing on MSCs have developed diverse methods to isolate and expand MSCs from a variety of tissues. While the assessment of characteristics of MSCs is necessitated in different platforms/laboratories, most researchers come to acknowledge the lack of a universally accepted criteria to define MSCs. To address this question of cell equivalence, the Mesenchymal and Tissue Stem Cell Committee of the International Society for Cellular Therapy (ISCT) proposes three minimal criteria to define MSCs [5]: property of MSC plastic adherence, the expression of specific cellular surface antigen, and capacity for trilineage mesenchymal differentiation (osteogenesis, chondrogenesis and adipogenesis).
Human MSCs from different tissues have the varied phenotypic features, the morphologic inconsistency, and heterogeneous functional behavior [6, 7, 8]. Indeed, the properties of stem cell have not been well established yet. Due to the unknown
MSCs have been considered as a promising therapeutic tool in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. MSCs are well known to be present in almost every type of adult tissues, such as bone marrow [10, 11, 12], adipose tissue [10, 13, 14], lung [11, 15], synovial tissue [16, 17], dental pulp and periodontal ligament [18]. Notably, it has become apparent that MSCs are identified in the various human embryonic tissues, such as fetal bone marrow [19], fetal liver [20], aorta gonad-mesonephros and yolk sac [21], as well as multiple neonatal birth-associated tissues, such as placenta [10, 22, 23], amniotic and chorionic membrane [23, 24], umbilical cord tissue [10, 23, 24, 25], and umbilical cord blood [26, 27]. Therefore, different platforms/laboratories may use different type of tissue sources and methodologies for isolation and expansion of MSCs. This chapter firstly outlines protocols for standardized isolation and expansion of human bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-MSCs), a major source of human MSCs, as well as BM-MSCs’ characteristics, cryopreservation and thawing. Protocols for the preparation of MSCs derived from the other tissue types are similar to that of BM-MSCs, except tissue sample processing differentially. Human BM-MSCs are estimated at a very low frequency at approximately 0.001–0.01% of total nucleated cells [28, 29], and, therefore, human BM-MSCs are likely to be kind of difficult to isolate and harvest. This chapter will then focuses on optimal functional assays and application on the basis of our previous studies, which would be useful for researchers working with MSCs in basic research and translational and clinical applications, such as osteogenesis, chondrogenesis, adipogenesis, colony forming unit-fibroblast (CFU-F) assay, 3-D cellular co-culture, MSC homing and migration. Last but not least, the long-term culture associated alterations of MSCs’ properties will be also discussed in this chapter.
Growth medium (pH 7.1–7.5): Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM)-low glucose (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO), 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS, heat-inactivated) (Atlanta Biologicals, Lawrenceville, GA), 0.37 g% sodium bicarbonate, and 1% penicillin–streptomycin. Adjust growth medium to pH 7.1–7.5.
Ficoll-Paque (Density gradient medium) (Stem Cell Technologies, Cambridge, MA).
1 × Phosphate buffered saline (PBS), pH 7.2.
1 × PBS + 2% + 1 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA).
Trypan blue, 0.4%.
Freezing medium: 90% FBS and 10% (v/v) dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO).
Trypsin–EDTA solution 0.25% (Sigma, St. Louis, MO).
RosetteSep™ Human Mesenchymal Stem Cell Enrichment Cocktail (Stem Cell Technologies, Cambridge, MA).
Nalgene® Cryo 1°C Freezing Container.
Cryogenic storage vials.
Suitable box for storage in liquid nitrogen.
Tissue culture ware: T25 flasks, T75 flasks, 100-mm tissue culture dishes, 6-well plates.
Hemocytometer.
Water bath at 37°C.
Biological safety cabinet class II.
Bench centrifuge with swinging bucket rotor.
Inverted phase microscope.
Sterile conical centrifuge tubes (15 and 50 mL).
Sterile cell culture plastic pipettes (2, 5, 10, 25 mL).
Automatic pipettor.
1.5 mL eppendorf tubes.
Make sure BM sample, 1 × PBS + 2% FBS + 1 mM EDTA, Ficoll-Paque and centrifuge are all at room temperature.
Spray the sample tube with 70% ethanol and conduct the isolation of BM-MSCs in the Biological Safety cabinet.
For 10 mL size of BM, divide BM sample into two 50 mL conical tubes at room temperature. Add 50 μl RosetteSep Human Mesenchymal Stem Cell Enrichment Cocktail per mL of bone marrow and mix well.
Incubate for 20 minutes at room temperature.
Dilute sample with about same volume of 1 × PBS + 2% FBS + 1 mM EDTA solution; mix gently.
Prepare two 50 mL conical tubes with 10 mL Ficoll-Paque each tube. Layer the diluted sample on top of Ficoll-Paque. Be careful to minimize mixing of Ficoll-Paque and sample. Tilt the tube to 45 degree angle and slowly add the sample drop by drop to form a layer on top.
Centrifuge at 1200 × g for 10 minutes at room temperature in a swinging bucket rotor and set the centrifuge to brake on.
Remove the enriched cells from the Ficoll-Paque. Collect the interphase containing the mononuclear cells. Be sure not to touch the red pellet at the bottom. It is advisable to remove some of the Ficoll-Paque and a bit of upper plasma layer in order to endure complete recovery of the desired cells.
Wash enriched cells with the 5× volume of 1 × PBS + 2% FBS + 1 mM EDTA solution. Spin 300 × g for 10 minutes.
Carefully discard the supernatant and resuspend cells in 1 mL of MSC growth medium per tube. Perform a viable cell count with a hemocytometer using Trypan blue.
Seed cells into one T-75 flask finally for 10 mL size marrow (a final cell concentration of 0.5–1.5 × 106 cells/cm2). 12 mL of MSC growth medium is supplemented.
Put the flask in incubator at 37°C with 5% humidified CO2 for 48 hours to allow cells to attach.
After 48 hours, observe with phase contrast microscopy and then remove growth medium and non-adherent cells.
Wash cells twice with pre-warmed medium and add 13 mL of fresh MSC growth medium. Return the flask to the incubator.
Change growth medium every 3 days and observe the cellular colony forming.
CFU-F become in the next 3–5 days. Continue to culture until the cells reach 80% confluence in the 2 weeks.
Remove the medium and wash with PBS 2–3 times.
Add 3–4 mL pre-warmed trypsin–EDTA solution to cover cells in the flask. Return the flask to the incubator for 5 minutes.
Check with phase contrast microscopy. When most cells become detached, gently tap the side of the flask.
Add 5 mL growth medium to the flask to stop Trypsin–EDTA action. Resuspend cells by pipetting and transfer the entire cell suspension into a 15 mL conical tube.
Centrifuge at 400 × g for 5 minutes.
Remove the supernatant and resuspend the cells in 2–3 mL pre-warmed PBS. Centrifuge at 400 × g for 5 minutes.
Repeat step 22.
Harvest cells. This culture is considered as passage 0.
Count cells and reseed cells at an optimum density of 5000 cells/cm2 in the appropriate tissue culture ware.
After 24 hours, remove the growth medium and wash the cells attached to the plate once with PBS.
Add the appropriate volume of fresh culture medium and incubate the cells for 2–3 days.
When the culture reaches 80–90% confluence, remove the culture medium and wash with PBS 2–3 times.
For trypsinization, add an appropriate volume of pre-warmed trypsin–EDTA solution to cover the entire cellular surface. Return the flask to the incubator for 5 minutes.
Observe under a phase contrast microscope. When most cells become detached, gently tap the side of the flask.
Add the appropriate volume of growth medium to stop Trypsin–EDTA action. Mix and collect the mixture of the entire cell suspension into a 15 mL conical tube.
Centrifuge at 400 × g for 5 minutes at room temperature.
Remove the supernatant without disturbing the cell pellet and resuspend the cells with an appropriate volume of pre-warmed PBS.
Wash and centrifuge at 400 × g for 5 minutes again.
Harvest cells. This culture is passage 1. MSCs at passage 1 can be frozen in liquid nitrogen (see the next) or continue to serially passage.
The following antibodies are used in flow cytometry analysis of MSC characterization, CD29-PE, CD34-PE, CD44-PE, CD73-PE, CD90-PE, CD45-FITC, CD147-FITC, HLA DR-FITC, IgG1-PE, and IgG1-FITC (BD Biosciences). IgG1 immunoglobulin is used as isotype negative controls and passage 3 MSCs are characterized using PE or FITC conjugated antibodies against the cellular surface markers.
Remove the growth medium and wash cells with pre-warmed PBS twice.
Add the pre-warmed trypsin–EDTA solution to the flask. Return the flask to the incubator for 5 minutes.
When most cells become detached, gently tap the side of the flask.
Add growth medium to the flask. Mix and transfer the entire cell suspension into a 15 mL conical tube.
Centrifuge at 400 × g for 5 minutes.
Remove the supernatant and resuspend the cells in the pre-warmed PBS.
Centrifuge at 400 × g for 5 minutes.
Carefully discard the supernatant and resuspend cells with pre-warmed PBS.
Centrifuge at 400 × g for 5 minutes.
Harvest cells.
Count cells and make it a single cell suspension at concentration of 1x106 cells/mL in PBS.
Add 250 μL cellular suspension to the appropriate number of FACS tubes.
Add antibodies to the FACS tubes – 10 μL per antibody per tube.
Incubate the FACS tubes for 20–25 minutes at room temperature on a shaker to prevent aggregation.
Then spin down FACS tubes at 150 rpm for 5 minutes.
Wash twice with PBS.
Add 2 mL MSC growth media.
Centrifuge the tubes at 150 rpm for 5 minutes.
Pipette off the supernatant.
Add 250 μL MSC growth media.
Run samples through the FACS machine.
Of note, perform all following steps under sterile conditions.
Place freezing medium on ice.
Harvest the cultivated MSCs, as described above (steps 1–10 in Section 2.3).
Resuspend MSCs in freezing medium at a concentration of 5–10 × 105 cells/mL.
Transfer cells into appropriate cryogenic storage vials or tubes and close the lid.
Place the vials in the pre-cooled Cryo 1°C Freezing Container quickly and store at −80°C directly.
After 24 hours, transfer the cryogenic storage vials to the suitable boxes to liquid nitrogen for long-term storage.
Perform all following steps under sterile conditions.
Place the frozen vial of MSCs rapidly into a 37°C water bath.
Gently swirl the cryovial until the ice in the vial has melted.
After thawing, transfer the entire content of the cryovial into a sterile 15 mL conical tube containing 5 mL of pre-warmed PBS.
Gently swirl and centrifuge at 400 × g for 5 minutes.
Aspirate supernatant completely.
Wash again.
Count and reseed cells at a density of 5000 cells/cm2 in the appropriate tissue culture ware.
Osteogenic medium: MSC growth medium supplemented with 50 μM ascorbic acid phosphate (AsAP) (Wako Chemicals USA, Richmond, VA), 0.1 μM dexamethasone (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO), and 10 mM β-glycerol phosphate (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO).
Several osteogenic markers, such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP), leptin receptor, and cathepsin K, are used as the indicator of early osteogenesis [28], calcium deposition as the indicator of late-stage osteogenesis [28, 29]. ALP activity and calcium deposition are exemplified to assess osteogenic differentiation of human MSCs from passage 4 (Figure 1).
Osteogenic culture of human BM-MSCs. Representative images (10×) of human BM-MSC osteogenesis on day 12 (A), day 17 (B), and day 26 during osteogenic culture.
Collect cells from passage 4.
Prepare cellular suspension in growth medium.
Plate cellular suspension in 6-well plates at 1 × 105 cells/well in triplicate.
After 24 hours, remove the growth medium and wash cells with osteogenic medium once.
Add 2 mL osteogenic medium in each well.
Culture cells in incubator at 37°C with 5% humidified CO2.
Change osteogenic medium every 3 days.
Measure ALP activity about 1–2 weeks after MSC osteogenetic culture [29, 30]. Aspirate medium and gently wash cells twice with PBS.
Add 600 μL of lysis buffer (0.5% Triton-X 100 in molecular grade ddH2O) to each well and then scrape the cells off the surface using the end of a pipette tip.
Transfer lysates to centrifuge tubes. Prepare 15 mL conical tubes equal to the number of tubes maintaining lysates.
Dissolve the contents of a 40 mg capsule of phosphatase substrate (Sigma) in 10 mL ddH2O. Scale up if necessary.
Add 500 μL of 1.5 M alkaline buffer solution (Sigma) to each tube. Add 500 μL of phosphatase substrate solution into each tube. Keep tubes in 37°C water bath.
Vortex samples and add 100 μL of each lysate to 15 mL tubes within 30 seconds. Fifteen minutes after the first sample is added, add 1 mL of 1 N NaOH to each tube in 30 second intervals removing tubes from water bath. The reaction will take place for 15 minutes at 37°C for each tube.
Prepare standard curve (Sigma) (Note: prepare 100 nmol/mL solution of p-nitrophenol by combining 100 μL of 10 mM p-nitrophenol standard solution with 9.9 mL 0.02 N NaOH).
Add 300 μL of standards and samples in triplicate to a 96-well plate.
Measure the absorbance using excitation filter of 405 nm. One enzyme unit of ALP is defined as the quantity of enzyme which produces 1 nmol p-nitrophenol per 15 minutes [29].
Aspirate or pipette out all culture medium from each well of the 6-well culture plate that contains induced or control cells to be tested.
Rinse the cells twice with PBS. Add 200 μL of PBS to the side of each well, not to dislodge the cells. Aspirate off the PBS and re-rinse.
Add 125 μL of 0.5 N HCl to each well.
Scrape the cells off of the surface using a cell scraper and transfer the cells and HCl to a 1.5 mL polypropylene microcentrifuge tube with a tight fitting cap.
Add an additional 125 μL of 0.5 N HCl to each cell to recover any cells remaining in the well, and transfer this to the appropriate tube.
Samples may be capped tightly and stored at −20°C if they are not to be tested immediately.
Extract the calcium from the cells by shaking the tubes on an orbital shaker for 4 hours at 4°C. If using frozen samples, allow extra time for samples to thaw.
Centrifuge the sample tubes at 500 g for 2 minutes.
Carefully collect the supernatant with extracted calcium, without disrupting the cell pellets, and transfer these to a new tube.
Prepare a standard curve with the calcium standard and determine the amount of calcium in each control and osteogenesis-induced samples. Follow the instructions provided in the Stanbio Total Calcium LiquiColor® Procedure No. 0150 (Stanbio Laboratory).
Three μL of sample vs. 297 μL of assay reagent (1:100 ratio for sample to reagent) for 96-well plate is used for each calcium determination. Assay reagent is mixed by equal volume of two solutions (Color Reagent and Base Reagent) provided in the kit. Distribute the assay reagent by multipipettor after adding samples. Absorbance is read at 550 nm.
Unused sample extract may be re-frozen for future re-assay. If the reading was out of range, the sample can be diluted with ddH2O in a total volume of 3 μL (e.g. 1 μL of sample+2 μL of ddH2O) and re-assayed again.
PuraMatrix™ hydrogel (BD Biosciences) is a 16-amino acid synthetic peptide hydrogel composed of a repeating sequence of arginine, alanine, aspartate, and alanine (RADA16) [31], which is widely used for 3-D culture.
3-D culture of human BM-MSCs on PuraMatrix hydrogel as follows.
The stock of 1% peptide solution can be sonicated for 30 minutes to decrease its viscosity and then diluted with sterile ddH2O to a final concentration of 0.25% (w/v).
300 μL of 0.25% gel solution is loaded into each well of the 24-well plate until it is uniformly spread.
The gelation is initiated by slowly dripping the medium along the wall of the well. 300 μL of medium is again added carefully on top and the plate is incubated at room temperature for one hour equilibration.
After the peptide has assembled into hydrogel, the medium is changed two times over one hour to equilibrate the growth environment to physiological pH.
The equilibrated samples are stored overnight at 37°C incubator and the cells are seeded the next day.
Prepare the total of 4 × 104 cells suspended in MSC growth medium and 4 × 104 cells are seeded onto the hydrogel. The following day (Day 0), the medium will be replaced by osteogenic medium.
Von Kossa staining can be conducted at day 24 after differentiation [30]. MSCs are rinsed with the Tyrode’s balanced salt solution and fixed with 10% buffered formalin (Fisher Scientific) for 30 minutes.
Incubated with 2% silver nitrate solution for 10 minutes in the dark.
Rinse with ddH2O and expose to light for 15 minutes.
Bright-field images of stained samples are captured with an inverted microscope.
To generate a 0.25% final concentration of PuraMatrix™ hydrogel for cells encapsulation, one part of 1% PuraMatrix™ hydrogel is diluted with same volume of sterile 20% sucrose, to reach 0.5% PuraMatrix™ hydrogel in 10% sucrose, and then mix with one part of 2× concentration of cells resuspended in 10% sucrose.
For 24-well plates, 300 μL of PuraMatrix mixture is loaded into each well and 300 μL of medium is layered on top of the gel. The gelation of the PuraMatrix is completed in an incubator for 60 minutes.
Change medium the next day.
Von Kossa staining can also be conducted, as described above, or collect cells as follows for other experiments.
Mechanically disrupt BD PureMatrix™ and cells in the well or cell culture insert by pipetting the media and gel up and down.
Transfer to a 15 mL conical tube.
Rinse out the well or cell culture insert using PBS.
Centrifuge at 150 × g for 5 minutes. Discard supernatant. The pellet at the bottom of the tube contains cells and BD PuraMatrix fragments.
Resuspend pellet in 2 mL of PBS. Spin and collect pellet again.
Resuspend pellet in 1 mL of trypsin–EDTA and incubate at 37°C for 5–10 minutes. This will help separate cells that are still attached to each other.
Add 5 mL PBS to spin cell pellet again.
Aspirate the supernatant (do not disturb the gel). Resuspend pellet again in 1 mL of trypsin–EDTA and incubate at 37°C for 5–10 minutes.
Add 5 mL PBS to spin cell pellet again.
Aspirate the supernatant. Carefully take out one third of the gel pellet. Do not disturb the bottom (two-third) part of the gel.
Wash with PBS twice.
Add appropriate amount of lysis buffer to perform cell lysis and collect cell sample.
Chondrogenic medium: 95% DMEM high-glucose medium (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO), 1% 1 × ITS+1 solution (BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA), 1% Pen-Strep, 100 μg/mL sodium pyruvate (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), 50 μg/mL AsAP, 40 μg/mL L-proline (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO), 0.1 μM dexamethasone, and 10 ng/mL recombinant human TGF-β3 (Lonza, Walkersville, MD).
Passage 4 human BM-MSCs are used for chondrogenic differentiation. Chondrogenic differentiation is induced by chondrogenic medium (Figure 2).
In order to form a chondrogenic pellet, approximately 2.5 × 105 human BM-MSCs are centrifuged down in a 15 mL conical tube at 150 × g for 5 minutes at room temperature.
Five hundred μL of chondrogenic medium is used to resuspend the 2.5 × 105 cells to a final concentration of 0.5 × 106 cells/mL.
Cells are centrifuged down again. Place the 15 mL conical tube in the incubator at 37°C with 5% humidified CO2.
MSCs are shaped into the pellet after 24 hours incubation without disturbance.
The cell pellet is fed every 3 days for about 2–4 weeks and, after that, the chondrogenic pellet is harvested and sample processing is described as follows for immunohistochemistry analysis (e.g. examination of the expression levels of Collagen II, X and Aggrecan) [29, 32].
Chondrogenic culture of human BM-MSCs. Representative images (10×) of immunohistochemical staining of collage II (A) and aggrecan (B) in pellet culture samples at day 17 during chondrogenesis [
Day 1: Fixation and dehydration
Rinse specimen in PBS.
Fix samples for 45 minutes in acid-formalin at 4
Rinse specimen in PBS twice.
Embed specimen in 2% agarose.
Transfer to vial and treat with 50% absolute ethanol for 1 hour at room temperature.
Transfer to 70% Absolute ethanol for 1 hour at room temperature.
Transfer to 95% Absolute ethanol for 1 hour at room temperature.
Repeat the step 7.
Transfer to 100% absolute ethanol for 1 hour at room temperature.
Leave specimen at 4
Day 2: Clearing and infiltration
Transfer to 100% CitriSolv (Fisher Scientific, catlog 22-143-975) for 1 hour at room temperature.
Transfer to 100% CitriSolv for 1 hour at 55
Transfer to 1:1 mixture of CitriSolv/Micro-cut paraffin for 1 hour at 55
Repeat the step 3.
Transfer to 100% Micro-cut paraffin for 1 hour at 55
Repeat the step 5.
Day 3: Embedding
Transfer to 100% Micro-cut paraffin for 1–2 hours at 55
Position specimen in Peel-Away mold with 100% paraffin.
Allow specimen to harden overnight.
Specimen may be sectioned the following day.
Conduct immunohistochemistry.
Adipogenic medium: DMEM (1 g/L glucose), 10% FBS, 1% penicillin/streptomycin, 10 mg/mL insulin, 1 mM dexamethasone, 0.5 mM methylxanthine, and 200 mM indomethacin.
Passage 4 human BM-MSCs are used for adipogenic differentiation. Adipogenic differentiation is induced by adipogenic medium.
Harvest cells from passage 4, as described in the previous section.
Resuspend cells in adipogenic medium carefully.
Transfer the single cell suspension in triplicate to 6-well plates (1 × 105 cells/well).
Culture cells in the incubator at 37°C with 5% humidified CO2 for 3 weeks.
Change medium every 2–3 days.
After 3 weeks, aspirate adipogenic medium and wash cells twice with PBS.
Cells are fixed in ice-cold methanol for 10 minutes.
Aspirate methanol completely and wash cells twice with ddH2O.
Add Oil Red O staining reagent to the wells to stain lipid vacuoles at room temperature and mix slowly about 20 minutes on a shaker plate.
Aspirate Oil Red O staining reagent and wash cells twice with ddH2O.
Observe and check the stained cells with phase contrast microscopy.
CFU-F assay can be used
Collect cells from passage 4.
Prepare the single cell suspension in growth medium and seed cells in the 6-well plates in triplicate at three different densities, 1.5 × 105, 2.5 × 105, and 5 × 105 cells/well, in 2 mL growth medium, respectively.
Culture cells in the incubator at 37°C with 5% humidified CO2 for two weeks.
Change medium twice each week and check with phase contrast microscopy daily to prevent overgrowth. Stop cell culture as soon as colonies are forming visibly and proceed with the Giemsa staining of CFU-F colonies on a benchtop as follows.
Wash the culture dishes twice with PBS.
Fix cells by adding 2 mL methanol to each well for 5 minutes at room temperature.
Gently remove the methanol and discard into the bio-hazardous waste.
Air dry the culture vessels and add the diluted Giemsa staining solution for 5–10 minute at room temperature.
Remove Giemsa staining solution and wash twice with ddH2O.
Count visible colonies manually with a diameter greater than 5 mm.
There are various 2-D or 3-D, dyeing or not dyeing, co-culture models of human MSCs and other cell sources to study cell–cell interaction, cell proliferation, MSCs’ immunomodulatory capacity, and the cellular contribution of each cell type. These methods making co-cultures of MSCs and other cells are well-established, such as co-cultures of MSCs and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells [33, 34], MSCs and T cells [35], MSCs and human hematopoietic stem cells [36], MSCs and umbilical vein endothelial cells [37]. MSC-cancer cell (PC-9) co-culture will be described in this section (Figure 3).
Human BM-MSCs-PC-9 co-culture. Representative images ((A) 5×; (B) 20×) of co-cultures of human BM-MSCs labeled with CellTracker™ red dye and PC-9 cells transfected with copGFP, nuclei counterstained with DAPI.
Culture MSCs in an appropriate tissue culture ware (e.g. a 6-well plate)
Remove culture medium and wash with PBS twice.
Prepare CellTracker™ working solution in MSC growth medium. Make stock solution of lipophilic tracers in DMSO at 2 mM. Dilute the stock solution in MSC growth medium at 2 μM.
Add the working solution in the tissue culture vessel to cover the entire cell surface.
Incubate for 5 minutes or less in incubator at 37°C with 5% humidified CO2.
Remove the CellTracker™ working solution.
Wash with MSC growth medium once.
Add MSC growth medium and return the tissue culture vessel to the incubator.
PC-9 cells labeling with copGFP (Santa Cruz, sc-108083) is performed using the lentiviral technique. Lentivirus is produced by using Lipofectamine™ 2000 (Invitrogen), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. After transfection, PC-9 cells expressing copGFP may be isolated via puromycin (2 μg/mL) selection.
Continue to serially passage.
Collect PC-9 cells for cell co-culture.
Harvest MSCs with CellTrcker™ red dye and wash with PBS once.
Prepare the single cell suspension in growth medium at an appropriate cell concentration and transfer the cell suspension in a 6-well plate or a special chamber.
Culture cells in the incubator at 37°C with 5% humidified CO2 for about 3 hours to allow cells to attach.
Change fresh growth medium slowly.
Add PC-9 cells in the 6-well plate (the same cell number of MSCs). Gently tap the side of the flask.
Return the 6-well plate to the incubator and culture cell overnight.
Check the cell co-culture under the contrast microscope and image under microscopy.
The intercellular communication can be executed through a direct cell–cell interaction or through paracrine signaling mediated by a combination of active molecules. The major signaling molecules include cytokines, growth factors, chemokines, which can be generated and expressed in a wide variety of cell types including tumor cells and MSCs in response to multiple signals such as inflammatory or tumor microenvironment. Circulating MSCs are driven by such signaling molecules to home and subsequently migrate into the sites of tissue injury or disease. It is critical for the ability of MSCs to migrate and identify the injury sites for tissue repair and regeneration. Clinical data are still lacking for MSCs’ homing and distribution of transplanted MSCs in the body, albeit a large number of
There are different approaches for improvement of MSC homing and migration. In this section,
Harvest MSCs and prepare cell suspension in the serum-free medium.
Transfer the cell suspension to the upper layer of a transwell insert at a density of 4 × 104 cells/cm2 and allow cells to migrate to the lower compartment containing MSC growth medium overnight in the incubator at 37°C with 5% humidifies CO2.
Cells from the upper chamber of transwell are migrated. Gently scrape the MSCs using the cotton swab at the upper layer of the membrane.
The migrated MSCs at the lower layer are stained with 0.1% crystal violet.
Check the cells and image under a light microscope.
Count the number of stained MSCs manually.
It is well known that MSCs demonstrate biological alterations in the course of
During further cultivation, MSCs demonstrate the altered common immunological surface markers. Comparison of the early and late passages of BM-MSCs reveals that no differences are observed between passage 2 and 6 MSCs in expression of CD44, CD90, CD105, HLA-ABC, and HLA-DR, while CD106 is downregulated in MSCs of passage 6 [41]. Research has also reported that the expression pattern of the common surface markers maintains consistently with consecutive passaging up to passage 8 of BM-MSCs [40]. In contrast, the positive expression of the common surface markers such as CD73, CD90 and CD105 presents at the passage 30 of human adipose-derived MSCs (AD-MSCs) [42] and human umbilical cord MSCs (UC-MSCs) [43].
MSCs exhibit a high proliferation rare at lower passage and, however, the rapid growth kinetics decrease gradually with consecutive cell passaging. A linear correlation is observed between cumulative population doubling and days in culture up to passage 6–8 of human BM-MSCs and the passage-dependent decrease in the proliferation rate is also observed beyond that period [40]. A reduction in the proliferation in the course of long-term cultivation has been reported in human dental pulp tissue-derived MSCs [44] and human tonsil-derived MSCs [45].
The differentiation ability of human BM-MSCs vary in long-term culture manifested by the significant reduction in expression levels of the osteogenic markers, such as ALP and osteocalcin, and adipogenic markers, such as fatty acid binding protein-4 and lipoprotein lipase at the late passages [45]. It has been reported that 25% samples of BM-MSCs from different donors in the 8th passage and the 20% in the 10th passage lost their osteogenic differentiation potential [46]. Similarly, 10% BM-MSC samples in the 6th passage, the 50% in the 8th passage, and the 60% in the 10th passage also lost their adipogenic differentiation [46]. In contrast, an
Replicative senescence is known as the irreversible growth arrest of the mitotic cells and is induced by telomere shortening. The expression of senescence markers such as senescence-associated β-galactosidase, heterochromatin protein-1, and p16INK4a increase during aging [47, 48]. Molecular damage and epigenetic alterations occur in aging stem cells [49], which can result in the impairment of stem cell function.
There are various signaling pathways involved in the senescence of MSCs, including oxidative damage [50, 51], age-related defects [52], and senescence associated up-regulation of microRNAs [53]. MSC senescence can be observed with long-term
Senescent cells secrete a complex combination of interleukins, chemokines, growth factors, proinflammatory/inflammatory cytokines, which compose the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) [61, 62]. One previous report has shown that conditioned medium (CM) collected from senescent BM-MSC culture at passage 10 is able to trigger senescence in young cells [63]. The key factors of senescent MSC CM needed for triggering senescence in the young MSCs have been characterized as insulin-like growth factor binding proteins 4 and 7, which are linked to cellular senescence and apoptosis [63]. Similarly, monocyte chemoattractant proten-1 (MCP-1), as a dominant component of the SASP, is markedly increased in the conditioned medium of the late-phase MSCs and MCP-1 treatment significantly increase the senescence phenotypes of umbilical cord blood-derived MSCs via its cognate receptor chemokine receptor 2 signaling cascade [64]. Senescence-associated changes are observed in the metabolome of MSCs during replicative senescence, including down-regulation of nicotinamide ribonucleotide and up-regulation of orotic acid, which may be used to monitor the cellular senescent state during culture expansion of MSCs [65].
Sarcoma represents a very heterogeneous group of relatively rare tumors and a variety of different studies have investigated to support the MSC origin of sarcoma. There are a number of cellular and molecular mechanisms of MSC transformation for better understanding of MSCs’ contribution to sarcomagenesis [66]. The majority of published research articles indicate that various sarcoma types have been shown MSCs’ origin. Several group have reported spontaneous transformation in human and murine MSCs after long term culture [67, 68, 69, 70]. For example, one study has reported that murine BM-MSCs are spontaneously transformed at passage 29 under standard conditions and that these transformed MSCs are able to generate fibrosarcoma in immunocompromised mice [70]. Accumulated chromosomal abnormalities, such as chromosome instability, chromosomal imbalances and aneuploidy, are suggested to be associated with the transformation of BM MSCs [70]. Indeed, chromosomal aberrations (chromosomal level) in
There are also studies that have not detected the transformation of MSCs in long-term culture [74, 75, 76]. One previous study reports that human BM-MSCs do not undergo malignant transformation after long-term
MSCs provide huge opportunities in translational medicine for treatment of a range of diseases or medical conditions. MSCs are multipotent stem cells and such cells can be isolated from various tissues including bone marrow, a major source of human MSCs. Given that a large number of MSCs are required for the clinical application,
This work was supported in part by Henan Provincial Engineering Research Center for Immune Cell and Stem Cell Treatment, China and Henan Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Differentiation and Modification, China.
No competing interests for this work.
AD-MSCs | Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell/stromal cells |
ALP | Alkaline phosphatase |
AsAP | Ascorbic acid phosphate |
BM-MSCs | Bone marrow-derived MSCs |
CM | Conditioned medium |
CFU-F | Colony forming unit-fibroblast |
DMEM | Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium |
DMSO | Dimethyl sulphoxide |
EDTA | Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid |
FBS | Fetal bovine serum |
ISCT | International Society for Cellular Therapy |
MCP-1 | Monocyte chemoattractant proten-1 |
MHC | Major histocompatibility complex |
MSCs | Mesenchymal stem cell/stromal cells |
PBS | Phosphate buffered saline |
SASP | Senescence-associated secretory phenotype |
UC-MSCs | Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell/stromal cells |
In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, below is a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
",metaTitle:"Advertising Policy",metaDescription:"IntechOpen partners with third-party companies to serve ads and/or collect certain information when you visit our website. These companies may collect non-personally identifiable information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) during your visit to IntechOpen's website.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/advertising-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"1. IntechOpen partners with third-party companies to serve ads and/or collect certain information when you visit our website. These companies may collect non-personally identifiable information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) during your visit to IntechOpen's website.
\\n\\n2. All advertisements and commercially sponsored publications are independent from editorial decisions.
\\n\\n3. IntechOpen does not endorse any product or service marked as an advertisement on IntechOpen website.
\\n\\n4. IntechOpen has blocked all the inappropriate types of advertising.
\\n\\n5. IntechOpen has blocked advertisement of harmful products or services.
\\n\\n6. Advertisements and editorial content are clearly distinguishable.
\\n\\n7. Editorial decisions will not be influenced by current or potential advertisers and will not be influenced by marketing decisions.
\\n\\n8. Advertisers have no control or influence over the results of searches a user may conduct on the website by keyword or topic search.
\\n\\n9. Types of advertisments:
\\n\\n- Advertisements in the Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, and Social Sciences and Humanities sections of the IntechOpen website are programmatic (based on user behaviour such as web pages visited, content viewed, etc.)
\\n\\n- Advertisements in the Life Sciences and Health Sciences sections of the IntechOpen website are programmatic as well as contextual based on the content of the respective books and chapters. IntechOpen's third party partner eHealthcare Solutions (EHS) is a unique marketing platform that specializes in connecting niche audiences with healthcare brands.
\\n\\nYou may view their privacy policy here: https://ehealthcaresolutions.com/privacy-policy/
\\n\\n10. IntechOpen Advertising Sales department makes the decisions about the types of advertisements to include or exclude. Placement of advertising is at the discretion of IntechOpen. IntechOpen retains the right to reject and/or request modifications to the advertisement. An advertisement that is visible online, will be withdrawn from the site at any time if the Editor(s) or Author(s) request its removal.
\\n\\n11. Users can make decisions about accepting advertisements. Users can block all the advertisements by using ad blockers. Users can send all the complaints about advertising to: info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2021-04-28
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'1. IntechOpen partners with third-party companies to serve ads and/or collect certain information when you visit our website. These companies may collect non-personally identifiable information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) during your visit to IntechOpen's website.
\n\n2. All advertisements and commercially sponsored publications are independent from editorial decisions.
\n\n3. IntechOpen does not endorse any product or service marked as an advertisement on IntechOpen website.
\n\n4. IntechOpen has blocked all the inappropriate types of advertising.
\n\n5. IntechOpen has blocked advertisement of harmful products or services.
\n\n6. Advertisements and editorial content are clearly distinguishable.
\n\n7. Editorial decisions will not be influenced by current or potential advertisers and will not be influenced by marketing decisions.
\n\n8. Advertisers have no control or influence over the results of searches a user may conduct on the website by keyword or topic search.
\n\n9. Types of advertisments:
\n\n- Advertisements in the Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, and Social Sciences and Humanities sections of the IntechOpen website are programmatic (based on user behaviour such as web pages visited, content viewed, etc.)
\n\n- Advertisements in the Life Sciences and Health Sciences sections of the IntechOpen website are programmatic as well as contextual based on the content of the respective books and chapters. IntechOpen's third party partner eHealthcare Solutions (EHS) is a unique marketing platform that specializes in connecting niche audiences with healthcare brands.
\n\nYou may view their privacy policy here: https://ehealthcaresolutions.com/privacy-policy/
\n\n10. IntechOpen Advertising Sales department makes the decisions about the types of advertisements to include or exclude. Placement of advertising is at the discretion of IntechOpen. IntechOpen retains the right to reject and/or request modifications to the advertisement. An advertisement that is visible online, will be withdrawn from the site at any time if the Editor(s) or Author(s) request its removal.
\n\n11. Users can make decisions about accepting advertisements. Users can block all the advertisements by using ad blockers. Users can send all the complaints about advertising to: info@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2021-04-28
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[],filtersByRegion:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"13"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"52f8a3a1486912beae40b34ac557fed3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11630",title:"Life in Extreme Environments - Diversity, Adaptability and Valuable Resources of Bioactive Molecules",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c39aa5fd22296ba53d87df6d761a5fc",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Afef Najjari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11630.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11632",title:"Updated Research on Bacteriophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d34dfa0d5d10511184f97ddaeef9936b",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11632.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11633",title:"Pseudomonas aeruginosa - New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a7cd19791397a27a80526be0dc54bd8a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Osama Darwesh and Dr. Ibrahim Matter",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11633.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"298076",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Osama",surname:"Darwesh",slug:"osama-darwesh",fullName:"Osama Darwesh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11634",title:"Mycobacterium - Epidemiology, Prevention, Diagnostic, and Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"aa972af90c14eb4ef39b6dc71911f623",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Awelani Mutshembele",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11634.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"468847",title:"Dr.",name:"Awelani",surname:"Mutshembele",slug:"awelani-mutshembele",fullName:"Awelani Mutshembele"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11635",title:"Towards New Perspectives on Toxoplasma gondii",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2d409a285bea682efb34a817b0651aba",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Saeed El-Ashram, Dr. Guillermo Téllez and Dr. Firas Alali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11635.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"209746",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",surname:"El-Ashram",slug:"saeed-el-ashram",fullName:"Saeed El-Ashram"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11796",title:"Cytomegalovirus - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4e442adc2808f68ccc1aeac17e6ae746",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Seyyed Shamsadin Athari and Dr. Entezar Mehrabi Nasab",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11796.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"139889",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Shamsadin",surname:"Athari",slug:"seyyed-shamsadin-athari",fullName:"Seyyed Shamsadin Athari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11797",title:"Clostridium difficile",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4cb066b44bb8d4a8b93a627de26e3ebf",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11797.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11798",title:"Listeria monocytogenes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"678ca4185133438014939804bf8a05e6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Cristina Saraiva, Dr. Sónia Saraiva and Prof. Alexandra Esteves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11798.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"226197",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Saraiva",slug:"cristina-saraiva",fullName:"Cristina Saraiva"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11799",title:"Salmonella - Past, Present and Future",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6ddb13c31fb19c6f79d19f11ceeb860e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Hongsheng Huang and Dr. Sohail Naushad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11799.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"342722",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hongsheng",surname:"Huang",slug:"hongsheng-huang",fullName:"Hongsheng Huang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11800",title:"Cyanobacteria - Recent Advances and New Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"645b037b086ec8c36af614326dce9804",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Archana Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11800.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11801",title:"Roundworms - A Survey From Past to Present",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5edc96349630be8bb4e67170be677d8c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Nihal Dogan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11801.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"169552",title:"Dr.",name:"Nihal",surname:"Dogan",slug:"nihal-dogan",fullName:"Nihal Dogan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:38},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:65},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:116},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:23},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4430},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",slug:"campylobacter",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d553bd4f6f1c4b115ca69bd19faac7dc",slug:"hazardous-waste-management",bookSignature:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar, Kavitha Sankarapandian and Yukesh Kannah Ravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9625",title:"Spinocerebellar Ataxia",subtitle:"Concepts, Particularities and Generalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"365a7025fd46eb45de2549bdd9d50b98",slug:"spinocerebellar-ataxia-concepts-particularities-and-generalities",bookSignature:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"221787",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Bozzetto Ambrosi",slug:"patricia-bozzetto-ambrosi",fullName:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"41",title:"Plant Biology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-plant-biology",parent:{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:135,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:4200,numberOfWosCitations:8846,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4721,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11983,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"41",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10940",title:"Plant Hormones",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5aae8a345f8047ed528914ff3491f643",slug:"plant-hormones-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Christophe Hano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10940.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10795",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:"Perspectives in Agriculture",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5a7932b74fe612b256bf95d0709756e",slug:"plant-stress-physiology-perspectives-in-agriculture",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman and Kamran Nahar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10795.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10557",title:"Elaeis guineensis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79500ab1930271876b4e0575e2ed3966",slug:"elaeis-guineensis",bookSignature:"Hesam Kamyab",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10557.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"225957",title:"Dr.",name:"Hesam",middleName:null,surname:"Kamyab",slug:"hesam-kamyab",fullName:"Hesam Kamyab"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10777",title:"Plant Reproductive Ecology",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3fbf391f2093649bcf3bd674f7e32189",slug:"plant-reproductive-ecology-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Anjana Rustagi and Bharti Chaudhry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10777.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"352604",title:null,name:"Anjana",middleName:null,surname:"Rustagi",slug:"anjana-rustagi",fullName:"Anjana Rustagi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9662",title:"Vegetation Index and Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0abf2a59ee63fc1ba4fb64d77c9b1be7",slug:"vegetation-index-and-dynamics",bookSignature:"Eusebio Cano Carmona, Ana Cano Ortiz, Riocardo Quinto Canas and Carmelo Maria Musarella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9662.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",middleName:null,surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10772",title:"Parasitic Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31abd439b5674c91d18ad77dbc52500f",slug:"parasitic-plants",bookSignature:"Ana Maria Gonzalez and Héctor Arnaldo Sato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10772.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"281854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"ana-maria-gonzalez",fullName:"Ana Maria Gonzalez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10985",title:"Agro-Economic Risks of Phytophthora and an Effective Biocontrol Approach",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ce2fdab78f95851db363572e8e44e36",slug:"agro-economic-risks-of-phytophthora-and-an-effective-biocontrol-approach",bookSignature:"Waleed Mohamed Hussain Abdulkhair",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10985.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175713",title:"Dr.",name:"Waleed Mohamed Hussain",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulkhair",slug:"waleed-mohamed-hussain-abdulkhair",fullName:"Waleed Mohamed Hussain Abdulkhair"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9715",title:"Botany",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3e59225e9e029129a60fe724004b8d24",slug:"botany-recent-advances-and-applications",bookSignature:"Bimal Kumar Ghimire",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9715.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94560",title:"Prof.",name:"Bimal Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Ghimire",slug:"bimal-kumar-ghimire",fullName:"Bimal Kumar Ghimire"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9716",title:"Plant Roots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88def4095af38c0aa341ee29946e589d",slug:"plant-roots",bookSignature:"Ertan Yildirim, Metin Turan and Melek Ekinci",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9716.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186639",title:"Prof.",name:"Ertan",middleName:null,surname:"Yildirim",slug:"ertan-yildirim",fullName:"Ertan Yildirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9704",title:"Cucumber Economic Values and Its Cultivation and Breeding",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"779dad6540f8023acf09657acf0b5da8",slug:"cucumber-economic-values-and-its-cultivation-and-breeding",bookSignature:"Haiping Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9704.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280406",title:"Dr.",name:"Haiping",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"haiping-wang",fullName:"Haiping Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9684",title:"Cassava",subtitle:"Biology, Production, and Use",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1dfb68fa31006e91fa3995d804e361c1",slug:"cassava-biology-production-and-use",bookSignature:"Andri Frediansyah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9684.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210767",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri",middleName:null,surname:"Frediansyah",slug:"andri-frediansyah",fullName:"Andri Frediansyah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:135,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"46083",doi:"10.5772/57399",title:"Pesticides: Environmental Impacts and Management Strategies",slug:"pesticides-environmental-impacts-and-management-strategies",totalDownloads:12539,totalCrossrefCites:55,totalDimensionsCites:177,abstract:null,book:{id:"3801",slug:"pesticides-toxic-aspects",title:"Pesticides",fullTitle:"Pesticides - Toxic Aspects"},signatures:"Harsimran Kaur Gill and Harsh Garg",authors:[{id:"169137",title:"Dr.",name:"Harsh",middleName:null,surname:"Garg",slug:"harsh-garg",fullName:"Harsh Garg"},{id:"169846",title:"Dr.",name:"Harsimran",middleName:null,surname:"Gill",slug:"harsimran-gill",fullName:"Harsimran Gill"}]},{id:"21989",doi:"10.5772/17184",title:"Bacillus-Based Biological Control of Plant Diseases",slug:"bacillus-based-biological-control-of-plant-diseases",totalDownloads:17379,totalCrossrefCites:64,totalDimensionsCites:150,abstract:null,book:{id:"432",slug:"pesticides-in-the-modern-world-pesticides-use-and-management",title:"Pesticides in the Modern World",fullTitle:"Pesticides in the Modern World - Pesticides Use and Management"},signatures:"Hélène Cawoy, Wagner Bettiol, Patrick Fickers and Marc Ongena",authors:[{id:"27515",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Fickers",slug:"patrick-fickers",fullName:"Patrick Fickers"},{id:"40395",title:"Dr.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Ongena",slug:"marc-ongena",fullName:"Marc Ongena"},{id:"108031",title:"Ms.",name:"Hélène",middleName:null,surname:"Cawoy",slug:"helene-cawoy",fullName:"Hélène Cawoy"},{id:"108032",title:"Dr.",name:"Wagner",middleName:null,surname:"Bettiol",slug:"wagner-bettiol",fullName:"Wagner Bettiol"}]},{id:"32936",doi:"10.5772/26052",title:"Phytochemicals: Extraction Methods, Basic Structures and Mode of Action as Potential Chemotherapeutic Agents",slug:"phytochemicals-extraction-methods-basic-structures-and-mode-of-action-as-potential-chemotherapeutic-",totalDownloads:95158,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:113,abstract:null,book:{id:"878",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"James Hamuel Doughari",authors:[{id:"65370",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Hamuel Doughari",slug:"james-hamuel-doughari",fullName:"James Hamuel Doughari"}]},{id:"49274",doi:"10.5772/61368",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidant Enzymes Involved in Plant Tolerance to Stress",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-and-antioxidant-enzymes-involved-in-plant-tolerance-to-stress",totalDownloads:4920,totalCrossrefCites:47,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Plants are continuously exposed to several stress factors in field, which affect their production. These environmental adversities generally induce the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can cause severe oxidative damage to plants. ROS are toxic molecules found in various subcellular compartments. The equilibrium between the production and detoxification of ROS is sustained by enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants. Due to advances in molecular approaches during the last decades, nowadays it is possible to develop economically important transgenic crops that have increased tolerance to stresses. This chapter discusses the oxidative stress and damage to plants. In addition, it reports the involvement of antioxidant enzymes in the tolerance of plants to various stresses.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Andréia Caverzan, Alice Casassola and Sandra Patussi Brammer",authors:[{id:"176303",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Casassola",slug:"alice-casassola",fullName:"Alice Casassola"},{id:"176409",title:"Dr.",name:"Andréia",middleName:null,surname:"Caverzan",slug:"andreia-caverzan",fullName:"Andréia Caverzan"},{id:"176410",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Patussi Brammer",slug:"sandra-patussi-brammer",fullName:"Sandra Patussi Brammer"}]},{id:"49289",doi:"10.5772/61442",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Elicitors–Role in Secondary Metabolites Production through In Vitro Culture of Medicinal Plants",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-elicitors-role-in-secondary-metabolites-production-through-in-vitro-culture-of-me",totalDownloads:6998,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Plant secondary metabolites are having the great application in human health and nutritional aspect. Plant cell and organ culture systems are feasible option for the production of secondary metabolites that are of commercial importance in pharmaceuticals, food additives, flavors, and other industrial materials. The stress, including various elicitors or signal molecules, often induces the secondary metabolite production in the plant tissue culture system. The recent developments in elicitation of plant tissue culture have opened a new avenue for the production of secondary metabolite compounds. Secondary metabolite synthesis and accumulation in cell and organ cultures can be triggered by the application of elicitors to the culture medium. Elicitors are the chemical compounds from abiotic and biotic sources that can stimulate stress responses in plants, leading to the enhanced synthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites or the induction of novel secondary metabolites. Elicitor type, dose, and treatment schedule are major factors determining the effects on the secondary metabolite production. The number of parameters, such as elicitor concentrations, duration of exposure, cell line, nutrient composition, and age or stage of the culture, is also important factors influencing the successful production of biomass and secondary metabolite accumulation. This chapter reviews the various abiotic and biotic elicitors applied to cultural system and their stimulating effects on the accumulation of secondary metabolites.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Poornananda M. Naik and Jameel M. Al–Khayri",authors:[{id:"176282",title:"Prof.",name:"Jameel M.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Khayri",slug:"jameel-m.-al-khayri",fullName:"Jameel M. Al-Khayri"},{id:"176284",title:"Dr.",name:"Poornananda M.",middleName:null,surname:"Naik",slug:"poornananda-m.-naik",fullName:"Poornananda M. Naik"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4059,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"63148",title:"Domestic Livestock and Its Alleged Role in Climate Change",slug:"domestic-livestock-and-its-alleged-role-in-climate-change",totalDownloads:15897,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is very old wisdom that climate dictates farm management strategies. In recent years, however, we are increasingly confronted with claims that agriculture, livestock husbandry, and even food consumption habits are forcing the climate to change. We subjected this worrisome concern expressed by public institutions, the media, policy makers, and even scientists to a rigorous review, cross-checking critical coherence and (in)compatibilities within and between published scientific papers. Our key conclusion is there is no need for anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and even less so for livestock-born emissions, to explain climate change. Climate has always been changing, and even the present warming is most likely driven by natural factors. The warming potential of anthropogenic GHG emissions has been exaggerated, and the beneficial impacts of manmade CO2 emissions for nature, agriculture, and global food security have been systematically suppressed, ignored, or at least downplayed by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and other UN (United Nations) agencies. Furthermore, we expose important methodological deficiencies in IPCC and FAO (Food Agriculture Organization) instructions and applications for the quantification of the manmade part of non-CO2-GHG emissions from agro-ecosystems. However, so far, these fatal errors inexorably propagated through scientific literature. Finally, we could not find a clear domestic livestock fingerprint, neither in the geographical methane distribution nor in the historical evolution of mean atmospheric methane concentration. In conclusion, everybody is free to choose a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle, but there is no scientific basis, whatsoever, for claiming this decision could contribute to save the planet’s climate.",book:{id:"7491",slug:"forage-groups",title:"Forage Groups",fullTitle:"Forage Groups"},signatures:"Albrecht Glatzle",authors:[{id:"252990",title:"Dr.",name:"Albrecht",middleName:null,surname:"Glatzle",slug:"albrecht-glatzle",fullName:"Albrecht Glatzle"}]},{id:"66714",title:"Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Plants",slug:"biotic-and-abiotic-stresses-in-plants",totalDownloads:5808,totalCrossrefCites:54,totalDimensionsCites:96,abstract:"Plants are subjected to a wide range of environmental stresses which reduces and limits the productivity of agricultural crops. Two types of environmental stresses are encountered to plants which can be categorized as (1) Abiotic stress and (2) Biotic stress. The abiotic stress causes the loss of major crop plants worldwide and includes radiation, salinity, floods, drought, extremes in temperature, heavy metals, etc. On the other hand, attacks by various pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, oomycetes, nematodes and herbivores are included in biotic stresses. As plants are sessile in nature, they have no choice to escape from these environmental cues. Plants have developed various mechanisms in order to overcome these threats of biotic and abiotic stresses. They sense the external stress environment, get stimulated and then generate appropriate cellular responses. They do this by stimuli received from the sensors located on the cell surface or cytoplasm and transferred to the transcriptional machinery situated in the nucleus, with the help of various signal transduction pathways. This leads to differential transcriptional changes making the plant tolerant against the stress. The signaling pathways act as a connecting link and play an important role between sensing the stress environment and generating an appropriate biochemical and physiological response.",book:{id:"8015",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants"},signatures:"Audil Gull, Ajaz Ahmad Lone and Noor Ul Islam Wani",authors:null},{id:"62573",title:"Introductory Chapter: Terpenes and Terpenoids",slug:"introductory-chapter-terpenes-and-terpenoids",totalDownloads:7556,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:51,abstract:null,book:{id:"6530",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids"},signatures:"Shagufta Perveen",authors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen"},{id:"192994",title:"Dr.",name:"Areej",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Taweel",slug:"areej-al-taweel",fullName:"Areej Al-Taweel"}]},{id:"62876",title:"Introduction to Phytochemicals: Secondary Metabolites from Plants with Active Principles for Pharmacological Importance",slug:"introduction-to-phytochemicals-secondary-metabolites-from-plants-with-active-principles-for-pharmaco",totalDownloads:5802,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Phytochemicals are substances produced mainly by plants, and these substances have biological activity. In the pharmaceutical industry, plants represent the main source to obtain various active ingredients. They exhibit pharmacological effects applicable to the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and also chronic-degenerative diseases such as diabetes and cancer. However, the next step in science is to find new ways to obtain it. In this chapter, we discuss about the main groups of phytochemicals, in addition to presenting two case studies. One of the most important secondary metabolites is currently Taxol, which is a natural compound of the taxoid family and is also known for its antitumor activity against cancer located in breasts, lungs, and prostate and is also effective with Kaposi’s sarcoma. Our case studies will be about Taxol, extracted from an unexplored plant species, and the production of Taxol by its endophytic fungi.",book:{id:"6794",slug:"phytochemicals-source-of-antioxidants-and-role-in-disease-prevention",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - Source of Antioxidants and Role in Disease Prevention"},signatures:"Nadia Mendoza and Eleazar M. Escamilla Silva",authors:[{id:"51406",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleazar",middleName:"Máximo",surname:"Escamilla Silva",slug:"eleazar-escamilla-silva",fullName:"Eleazar Escamilla Silva"},{id:"243304",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",slug:"nadia-mendoza",fullName:"Nadia Mendoza"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"41",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"