Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7811",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Beauty - Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments",title:"Beauty",subtitle:"Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Beauty - Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues, and Creative Developments allows the reader to contemplate the many aspects of beauty. Within the book, there is a weaving together of external and internal beauty. Certainly, both influence each other. Some chapters focus on products that are used to care for oneself or work to enhance beauty. Other chapters look at media both commercial and social and the effects of those messages on one’s acceptance of beauty. There are chapters that take us into the wilderness to explore our souls and teach us how we can spark our own creativity. This volume soars to encompass the limitless nature of beauty and plunges deep into internal connections to help us understand how we experience our own beauty.",isbn:"978-1-83962-448-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-447-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-449-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77628",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"beauty-cosmetic-science-cultural-issues-and-creative-developments",numberOfPages:170,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5f6fd59694706550db8dd1082a8e457b",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine and Júlia Scherer Santos",publishedDate:"May 12th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7811.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8550,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186919/images/system/186919.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Martha Peaslee Levine is a psychiatrist who specializes in treating eating disorders and works with young adults as they tackle life’s challenges. She is Medical Director of the Eating Disorders Partial Hospitalization and Intensive Outpatient Programs at Penn State Health. In addition, she is Interim Director of the Office of Professional Mental Health at Penn State College of Medicine. Dr. Levine has spoken both nationally and internationally on many issues related to eating disorders and journaling. Much of her interest in the field of medical education relates to communication and professionalism. Dr. Levine has published several children’s books and believes in her roles as a psychiatrist, mother and friend, she demonstrates high emotional intelligence.",institutionString:"Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"72538",title:"Sense of Beauty and Creativity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92980",slug:"sense-of-beauty-and-creativity",totalDownloads:473,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter discusses the impact of natural beauty on the human consciousness and the ability to be creative. The stages of formation and the sequence of the abilities that allow for the emergence of a creative life path and the development of inventiveness are described. A vision of how the sense of beauty develops in the childhood period, as well as how this feeling affects the ability to be inventive in various ways, is discussed. The relationship between the sense of beauty and such human properties as contemplation, observation, and ingenuity is defined. An analysis is made of what impacts our ability to see beauty. Some ideas about how structural changes in technology influence a person’s technical environment and his ability to see natural beauty are provided as well.",signatures:"Levan Torosian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72538",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72538",authors:[{id:"317214",title:"Dr.",name:"Levan",surname:"Torosian",slug:"levan-torosian",fullName:"Levan Torosian"}],corrections:null},{id:"71597",title:"Environmental Art and Wilderness: The Stakes of Beauty",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91943",slug:"environmental-art-and-wilderness-the-stakes-of-beauty",totalDownloads:551,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the field of environmental art, the concept of beauty is linked to the history of wilderness and Romantism. The beautiful and the sublime arouse a debate that opposes the defenders of a pragmatic ecological commitment against the partisans of a subjective and sensitive creation. In reality, these debates are nothing but old quarrels over the engagement of art, the recognition or rejection of its autonomy towards other disciplines, especially regarding scientific expertise. Approaching creation from the angle of beauty is a way of updating our principles of taste, the ability to judge and also to raise once again what is considered a risk for the individual and for the collective, the exacerbation of the senses, the passions and seduction. Finally, it is about subjecting art to principle of utility that neglects all subjective creation when we are collectively and daily subjected to a regime of guilt and anxiety which orchestrates in turn a form of political and existential resignation. But what remains of aesthetic and artistic experience in such conditions? Does not the rationality of this approach confuse art and communication, denying the emotional connect of art and the fact that beauty is defined by emotional reactions?",signatures:"Pascale Weber",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71597",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71597",authors:[{id:"313788",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pascale",surname:"Weber",slug:"pascale-weber",fullName:"Pascale Weber"}],corrections:null},{id:"71915",title:"Identity, Self-Identity and Beauty in Chinese Female Worker",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92108",slug:"identity-self-identity-and-beauty-in-chinese-female-worker",totalDownloads:572,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we leave “the Cultural Study” in the contemporary researches on beauty, claiming economico-political matters in our self-acceptance and image projection. Rather than studying the standard set for the middle class, we examine the middle-class dream in the self-acceptance of contemporary Chinese female migrant workers. We take “The Sundress”, a poem written by Wuxia, a migrant worker in Shenzhen, as an example, arguing that it is mainly the political and economic ideologies that function in the overdetermination of the contemporary working class’ projection of beauty in China. In the poem, the “I” speaker, a steam press operator working late in the night, (mis)identifies herself with a middle-class girl who buys and puts on the dress that she irons. She takes great pleasure and tranquillity in picturing the beauty and the leisure time that the idealized “you-I” in the dress enjoys. What’s more, our linguistic study testifies that she, as the speaker in the poem, is subjectified by the (mis)identification. Her self-acceptance, activeness and sense of control arise when she overlaps herself with that idealized body image. A great loss, however, is engendered by her having to leave that body and the fantasy world.",signatures:"Li Yun and Rong Rong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71915",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71915",authors:[{id:"314896",title:"Prof.",name:"Li",surname:"Yun",slug:"li-yun",fullName:"Li Yun"},{id:"318324",title:"Dr.",name:"Rong",surname:"Rong",slug:"rong-rong",fullName:"Rong Rong"}],corrections:null},{id:"71789",title:"Beauty in Mathematics: Symmetry and Fractality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92082",slug:"beauty-in-mathematics-symmetry-and-fractality",totalDownloads:653,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The most important concepts underlying beauty are the concepts of symmetry and fractality, but the relationship of these concepts has not yet remained clear. For centuries, beauty was understood only as a stable order and symmetry. Synergetic worldview allows us to give a new assessment: beauty can be seen as an attractor, the result of self-organization of nature, or the flight of human thought. On the one hand, fractality can be considered one of the manifestations of symmetry in an expansive sense. On the other hand, symmetry can be considered a manifestation of fractality with a finite number of iterations. Thus, the concepts of symmetry and fractality are closely interrelated. Symmetry reveals in beauty a stable order, and fractality reflects in beauty the result of the self-organization of the chaos of nature or the freedom of human thought. Symmetry and fractality are two opposites, mutually complementing each other, aesthetically and mathematically mutually passing into each other. Thus, symmetry and fractals are the most important concepts for the disclosure of the beauty of the universe, which determine their importance for learning. The concept of self-similarity can serve as a basis for acquaintance with fractals.",signatures:"Vladimir A. Testov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71789",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71789",authors:[{id:"313159",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Testov",slug:"vladimir-testov",fullName:"Vladimir Testov"}],corrections:null},{id:"64942",title:"Cosmetovigilance in Hair Straighteners: Determination of Formaldehyde Content by Spectrophotometry and Label Evaluation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82842",slug:"cosmetovigilance-in-hair-straighteners-determination-of-formaldehyde-content-by-spectrophotometry-an",totalDownloads:755,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this work was to identify and quantify formaldehyde present in commercial hair straightening formulations, the application of cosmetovigilance from organoleptic/physicochemical tests and label analysis being approached. Samples A1, A3, A5, and A8 had a formaldehyde concentration ranging from 1.5 to 3.83% (w/v), corresponding to concentrations of 7.5, 16.45, 7.9, and 19.15 times higher than that allowed by the National Agency of Sanitary Monitoring (ANVISA), resulting in strong odor characteristic of this active substance. Of these samples, A3 and A5 did not indicate the presence of formaldehyde on the label besides ignoring the warning information and restrictions of use. The absence of the registration number granted by ANVISA for sample A5, which may be an indication of a clandestine product, was also verified. As to the organoleptic and physicochemical properties, only the A2 sample presented different viscosity and centrifugation results. In view of these results, it was concluded that 50% of the analyzed products were reproved because of the presence of formaldehyde out of the allowed concentration, being evident the importance of the implantation of cosmetovigilance system to guarantee the final quality of the cosmetic products, mainly in view of the safety and efficacy of these products.",signatures:"Valdicléia Massilon de Abreu, Maria da Glória Batista de Azevedo and Juliana de Souza Alencar Falcão",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64942",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64942",authors:[{id:"273353",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliana",surname:"De Souza Alencar Falcão",slug:"juliana-de-souza-alencar-falcao",fullName:"Juliana De Souza Alencar Falcão"},{id:"273363",title:"Mrs.",name:"Valdicléia",surname:"Massilon De Abreu",slug:"valdicleia-massilon-de-abreu",fullName:"Valdicléia Massilon De Abreu"},{id:"273365",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria Da Glória",surname:"Batista De Azevedo",slug:"maria-da-gloria-batista-de-azevedo",fullName:"Maria Da Glória Batista De Azevedo"}],corrections:null},{id:"73171",title:"Nanocosmetics: Production, Characterization, and Performance Improvement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93600",slug:"nanocosmetics-production-characterization-and-performance-improvement",totalDownloads:518,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanocosmetics are personal care products containing nanocarriers or nanoparticles. Nanocarriers have been used in sunscreens, moisturizers, perfumes, and anti-aging and hair products. These carriers increase formulation efficacy and promote controlled release of active ingredients. Polymeric nanocarriers or lipid nanocarriers containing sunscreens have enhanced ultraviolet protection. In addition, these nanocarriers protect unstable ingredients from degrading ultraviolet radiations. Furthermore, nanocarriers also impart moisturizing effect due to their reduced particle size. This chapter describes issues related to nanocarrier-based cosmetics production, characterization, and biological evaluation.",signatures:"Júlia Scherer Santos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73171",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73171",authors:[{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos"}],corrections:null},{id:"71036",title:"Chalcones in Dermatology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91145",slug:"chalcones-in-dermatology",totalDownloads:525,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The human skin is pivotal for protecting the body from various stresses and diseases, regulating several physiological aspects, and sensing any signal changes around the environment. To work and function optimally, the skin should be protected and cared regularly by using some treatments. Chalcone, as a privileged structure, exhibits wide and unique bioactivities related to several skin disorders such as in preventing and treating pigmentation disorders (melasma and vitiligo), cutaneous leishmaniasis, rashes (acne vulgaris, seborrheic dermatitis and dandruff, psoriasis and atopic dermatitis), and rosacea. In this chapter, the role of chalcone derivatives in treating several skin disorders as mentioned above is discussed to provide a brief and comprehensive perspective regarding the role of chalcone in dermatology including in vitro, preclinical, and clinical assays.",signatures:"Jumina, Harizal and Yehezkiel Steven Kurniawan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71036",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71036",authors:[{id:"295533",title:"Dr.",name:"Yehezkiel",surname:"Kurniawan",slug:"yehezkiel-kurniawan",fullName:"Yehezkiel Kurniawan"},{id:"307153",title:"Prof.",name:"Jumina",surname:null,slug:"jumina",fullName:"Jumina null"},{id:"307159",title:"MSc.",name:"Harizal",surname:null,slug:"harizal",fullName:"Harizal null"}],corrections:null},{id:"74978",title:"Maxillofacial Defects: Impact on Psychology and Esthetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95830",slug:"maxillofacial-defects-impact-on-psychology-and-esthetics",totalDownloads:262,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Maxillofacial defects arising due to developmental anomalies, trauma or ablative cancer surgeries pose a challenge to an individual due to alteration in form, function and esthetics. Face is considered to be a reflection of one’s personality and existence. Any alteration in facial structures or symmetry alters the esthetics of an individual. This may have a deep psychological impact on the patient affecting self-confidence, self-worth and ability to interact among peers. Maxillofacial Prosthodontics is a specialty that deals with rehabilitation of missing or deformed structures of orofacial region to achieve normalcy as much as practically feasible. A multidisciplinary approach is required to evaluate the psychological status, understand the impact of defect altering esthetics and mental make-up of the patient and follow an organized approach to alleviate the impact of maxillofacial defects in overall life of an individual. This chapter highlights the impact of maxillofacial defect on esthetics of an individual and psychological impact of the same.",signatures:"Poonam Prakash, Rahul Bahri and S.K. Bhandari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74978",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74978",authors:[{id:"327372",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Poonam",surname:"Prakash",slug:"poonam-prakash",fullName:"Poonam Prakash"},{id:"333874",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Bahri",slug:"rahul-bahri",fullName:"Rahul Bahri"},{id:"333875",title:"Dr.",name:"S.K .",surname:"Bhandari",slug:"s.k-.-bhandari",fullName:"S.K . Bhandari"}],corrections:null},{id:"72702",title:"Decoding the Signals of Facial Attractiveness: A Communication Theory Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92343",slug:"decoding-the-signals-of-facial-attractiveness-a-communication-theory-perspective",totalDownloads:484,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The human face is an elaborate communication tool that transmits a large variety of signals such as: identity, gender, ethnicity, age, emotional state, health, and more. Of particular importance is the tendency of human observers to infer social traits (e.g., attractiveness, dominance or trustworthiness) rapidly from faces which, in turn, can lead to a specific action from a wide spectrum of possibilities ranging from mating to violent clashes. Among the social trait signals that are transmitted by the face, the attractiveness signal is outstanding in its robustness against manipulation initiated by the transmitter or interference caused by the physical environment’s many aspects. Among these aspects are the robustness of attractiveness to manipulations caused by the physical environment (e.g., viewing distance) or manipulations made by the signaler (e.g., facial movements). To understand what makes a face attractive and the unique role that attractiveness plays as a communication signal, this chapter will use the universal framework of communication systems. Every communication system consists of three key elements: a transmitter, a receiver, and a communication channel. All these three components affect the semantic meaning of every message transmitted in the system and thus shape the outcome following the message reception.",signatures:"Daniel Gill",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72702",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72702",authors:[{id:"313309",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Gill",slug:"daniel-gill",fullName:"Daniel Gill"}],corrections:null},{id:"73271",title:"Social Media and Its Effects on Beauty",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93322",slug:"social-media-and-its-effects-on-beauty",totalDownloads:2908,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Beauty is concerned with physical and mental health as both are intimately related. Short-term decisions to alter one’s body structure irrespective of genetic, environmental, occupational and nutritional needs can leave medium- and long-term effects. This chapter analyzes the role of social media and its effects on the standards of beauty. The researchers have summarized the literature on how social media plays a role in affecting beauty trends, body image and self-esteem concerns. There is support that social media affects individuals negatively, in pushing them to engage in life threatening beauty trends due to social compliance and acceptance in society. The aim was to review social networking sites’ impact on perception of standards of beauty and newer unrealistic trends gaining popularity that could alter opinions and also cause harm to individuals in the long run. This is an emerging area of research that is of high importance to the physical and mental health in the beauty, health and hospitality industry with the latter being manifested in depression, anxiety and fear of non-acceptability and being seen as a social gauche.",signatures:"Mavis Henriques and Debasis Patnaik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73271",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73271",authors:[{id:"320016",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mavis",surname:"Henriques",slug:"mavis-henriques",fullName:"Mavis Henriques"},{id:"320978",title:"Dr.",name:"Debasis",surname:"Patnaik",slug:"debasis-patnaik",fullName:"Debasis Patnaik"}],corrections:null},{id:"74321",title:"Blossoming for Whom? Social Approval and Body Image",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94503",slug:"blossoming-for-whom-social-approval-and-body-image",totalDownloads:615,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Body image is a multidimensional construct that reflects the way we perceive and feel about our physical appearance. This inside view of our body heavily influences our self-esteem, mental health, and overall well-being. Under the influence of mass media, peers and family, individuals, especially women, may feel pressured to conform to the societal standards of beauty, engage in upward social comparison, and consequently experience negative body image. While our sociocultural surroundings plays a role in the internalization process, other intrapersonal factors, such as appearance-based rejection sensitivity and lack of self-concept clarity, may heighten the risk for some individuals. Body image disturbances can be manifested in forms of avoidance behaviors, monitoring, eating restraints, and body modification. In order to promote body acceptance, we ought to gain insights into the formation of our body image and challenge the commonly held belief on who defines beauty.",signatures:"Wenting Mu and Fan Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74321",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74321",authors:[{id:"319731",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenting",surname:"Mu",slug:"wenting-mu",fullName:"Wenting Mu"},{id:"320069",title:"Ms.",name:"Fan",surname:"Wu",slug:"fan-wu",fullName:"Fan Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"76415",title:"Do Individuals with Eating Disorders See Their Own External and/or Internal Beauty?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97508",slug:"do-individuals-with-eating-disorders-see-their-own-external-and-or-internal-beauty-",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It has been well documented that individuals struggling with eating disorders don’t have clear perceptions of their own bodies. Yet they overly rely on their body image as their sense of self. Even the criteria of certain eating disorders recognize that individuals are strongly affected by their body weight and shape, which is often seen through a distorted lens. Individuals with eating disorders, particularly anorexia nervosa, struggle not only with recognizing their external beauty but also their internal positive qualities. Their perfectionism and critical sense of self leads them to have negative views of their beauty and self-worth. This chapter will look at some of the reasons individuals with eating disorders struggle to appreciate their own beauty, internally as well as externally, and will offer some tools to help with these struggles. Many individuals, even those without disordered eating, struggle with critical self-perception. Perhaps this chapter can help us all become more compassionate to ourselves as we consider our external and internal aspects of beauty.",signatures:"Martha Peaslee Levine",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76415",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76415",authors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5925",title:"Perception of Beauty",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11f483d631557ad26d48b577e23a724f",slug:"perception-of-beauty",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5925.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. 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1. Introduction
Accession to the European Union (EU) provided the Member States with new and extensive opportunities for policy development as well as changes in the management of their national, regional and local economies. The EU Member States had to implement standards of the European Union law, which included a broad spectrum of principles of sustainable development [1]. Specifically with regard to nature conservation, the European policy strengthened the implementation of a rational development strategy by influencing the Member States to adopt international commitments such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, and through the expansion of nature conservation areas. Among the EU directives promoting nature conservation, the most important provisions were the Birds Directive and the Habitats Directive. Implementation of these two directives subsequently gave rise to a new form of nature conservation — the Natura 2000 European Ecological Network.
At the regional level of the EU, the general principles and the implementation of the nature conservation policy are complex and governed in a top-down manner. Such approach is inherently at risk of being introduced locally with a low level of effectiveness and adaptability. Hence, current mechanisms of nature protection (mainly biodiversity) in the EU need to be complemented with effective bottom-up initiatives in addition to new means of top-down approaches. The latter appear to be essential, particularly in the new Member States where nature conservation is still affected by the post-socialistic governance and it operates in a rather ineffective way [2].
Recognizing the importance of and integrating the social dimension with the ecological needs, we observe a slow shift in the nature conservation paradigm toward increasing the participation of local stakeholders for more locally sustainable outcomes [3]. For locally sustainable environmental policy solutions, stakeholders’ participation in nature conservation is essential. One of the issues evident from the practice of countries that introduced the new nature conservation policy - the EU-25, seems to be the involvement of the possibly large group of stakeholders at all levels of decision-making (local governments, communities, business, non-governmental organizations etc.), but with special attention to local level processes related to the Natura 2000 Network [4]. Within the sustainable development paradigm, the EU public participation is both means to achieve sustainability and the leading principle of rural development.
The concept of nature conservation has changed from strictly traditional, biophysical perspective towards a more innovative approach that integrates the protection of flora and fauna, and habitats with social and economic activity [5-7]. However, natural resource conservation in Poland has been traditionally focused on the preservation of natural environment without deeper consideration of the interests of local stakeholders, who are an important component of those environments. Development of policies concerned with environmental protection adopted the top-down model of decision-making, which implies that stakeholders such as local authorities, environmental groups operating in rural localities as well as owners of the private land under protection have little impact on land designation and management. The authors seek to develop a report based on the available studies and the authors’ experience with the European Ecological Network - Natura 2000 that builds the discussion framework to examine problems emerging due to the designation of protected areas as well as implementation and management of the Natura 2000 in Poland.
2. The Ecological Network Natura 2000 in the European Union
The Ecological Network Natura 2000 is the most recent form of the nature conservation strategy implemented in the European Union Member States. It differs considerably from the previous traditional protection system in that it aims at halting the biodiversity loss and maintaining or reconstructing the favorable nature conservation status by protecting natural habitat types, besides protection of floral and faunal species that are unique in the European continent. The popularity of the European Ecological Network after this time period is still debatable [8, 9]. It includes sites designated according to two nature conservation directives of the European Union. Bird Directive (79/409/EGK) accepted in 1979 refers to specific birds’ habitat as Special Protection Areas (SPAs), while Habitat Directive (43/92/EGK) from 1992 led to designation of Special Areas for Conservation (SACs). As a form of area-focused environmental protection the Natura 2000 is the first international network at a continent scale that is managed independently at the national level. Currently it comprises over 26,106sites and covers 17.5%of the territory of EU Member States [10].
The beginnings of the Natura 2000 reflected the changing approach to the structure and functioning of especially valuable natural landscapes in European Membership Countries. At first the process of designating Natura 2000 sites was slow due to the lack of agreement on the methodology to evaluate site proposals. Many EU Member States were subjected to legal proceedings for their slow designation rates [11]. Scientific criterion for the selection of sites for Natura 2000 was agreed as the only criterion for choosing the Natura 2000 sites, and these criteria are listed in Annex III of the Habitats Directive. Moreover, even though sites for the Natura 2000 Network were selected on the basis of the same designation criteria, the share of land selected for protection within the Nature 2000 Program significantly varies among the EU Member States. For example, it includes 7.1% of the country’s area in the UK, 12.8% in Germany, 20.9% in Portugal to as much as 34.9% in Bulgaria and 35.5% in Slovenia [12].
The selection process reflects solely the ecological emphasis on maintenance of given species or habitat (these are for example: “size and density of the population of the species present on the site in relation to the populations present within national territory” and “degree of representativeness of the natural habitat”). Despite some consultations with the local governments and citizens about designating areas under the Habitat Directive, Natura 2000 has been viewed a top-down policy that is not considerate of the local communities’ needs. Such a situation has led to two types of conflicts: a) vertical conflicts (disagreements between national and local or regional authorities) and b) horizontal conflicts between stakeholders from public and private sectors. In the vertical conflict, local authorities disagree with the methodology adopted to designate sites for the Natura 2000 Network, while horizontal conflicts of interests occur between public administrations such as General and Regional Directorates for Environmental Protection (GDEP; RDEP), which are responsible for implementation of the national law, together with local governments that conform to RDEP’s instructions and entrepreneurs, land owners or other private sector stakeholders.
Several examples from across EU demonstrate man-nature conflicts during the planning and implementation of Natura 2000. Germany for instance, has had strong local opposition to the designation of Natura 2000 sites. Farmers depending on established systems for agri-environmental schemes feared that these would no longer apply or become more difficult to access [13]. This fear resulted from little or no communication, due to the Länder (provinces) governments having underestimated the need for adequate stakeholder information and the associated administrative commitment [14]. Similarly, in France, the implementation of the network was questioned by a number of stakeholder groups (including important representatives from the agricultural, forestry, game and fish-breeding sectors) and ultimately caused the national suspension of the directive. In 1996 protesting groups drafted a declaration taking up the claims. While reasserting the fact that they were not opposed to the principle of conservation, they objected to the methods used to compile the list of sites and the extent of surface areas involved. They demanded the surface areas of the Natura 2000 sites to be reduced and financial resources to be allocated so as to compensate for the loss of earnings due to the new management measures [15]. Other examples of disagreements due to Natura 2000 include Finland, where the network caused major conflicts between landowners mainly lumberjacks and environmental authorities, and ultimately affected countrywide attitudes towards biodiversity conservation [14-16].
Apart from the conflicts related to Natura 2000 within Europe, the El Teide Declaration from 2002 highlighted the key factors crucial for successful implementation of the program, which included: “the success of Natura 2000 will require the support of European citizens, especially of local people and landowners, and their participation in the decisions on the implementation of the conservation and management of the areas involved”. It also indicated that: “many of our valuable Habitats are the result of traditional land use and their conservation relies on traditional practices and skills”. Current Member States and then the Candidates to the EU (Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey)that signed the document committed to “promote awareness and understanding of Natura 2000” as well as: “promote the development of partnerships involving the broad range of stakeholders in the conservation and management of Natura 2000 sites”. Whereas in the “old” 15 EU Member States the conflicts between stakeholders in Natura 2000 have been mitigated, countries such as Poland continue to struggle with the program’s arrangements, while looking for the most suitable solutions.
3. Natura 2000 network in Poland – A success story?
The problem of nature conservation in Poland is not new, but following the EU accession, the public participatory approach to biodiversity management has become a legislative requirement (Environmental Law - article 158; Act 2000 on Access to Information on the Environment and Its Protection and on Environmental Impact Assessment – article 4, 13, Law on Public Information). In this light, Natura 2000 Network has become a controversial issue in a number of rural areas. This situation usually happens when the principles of implementation of the European Ecological Network are considerably different from traditional forms of environmental protection [17,18]. Currently Poland, similarly to other Central Eastern European countries, is challenged by rapid social and institutional change, conflicts between traditions of centralized decision-making and new public values and concerns [2,19].
From the very beginning, Natura 2000 Network in Poland caused problems with its’ acceptance mainly due to the significant difference from a considerably well-established conservation system over the country and due to the ownership structure of the land covered by the new protected areas. In fact, only biological scientists placed much hope in the program, expecting it to make the protection of native species and habitats more effective on the strength of national legislation, if they are also protected outside Poland. Others, such as local governments of municipalities with areas covered by Natura 2000 Network and local stakeholders perceived it as a threat to local and regional socio-economic development. From their perspective, the program would introduce restrictions on developments in municipalities by creating barriers to usage of one’s land and curtailing production and investments. A general negative attitude to the program has not changed much till now [17,18].
The initial step to implement Natura 2000 Ecological Network already begun during late 90s, and the first stage was the preliminary analysis of habitats and species that would require protection. Poland was also negotiating for filling the gap in the EU policy about protected habitats and species that do not occur in any of the “old” Member States of EU and that had not been included in the contemporary nature protection systems. After the initial site identification process, the first phase of the Natura 2000 implementation in Poland focussed on designation and monitoring of the Natura 2000 sites. The boundaries of the sites included in Natura 2000 Network were primarily defined based on biological criteria, without seeking input from local societies or local governments [20-22]. The process was completed mainly by representatives of a few national research institutions and ecological non-governmental organizations (ECO-NGOs). In principle, protection objectives and methods should have been to some extent adapted to local social, economic and cultural conditions [23], however, the process did not considerthe existing physical development plans. Moreover, the program’s implementation plan did not take into account the possibility of social conflicts and consequently it did not provide for means of prevention [24]. Conflicts started to develop during designation of the sites boundaries and continued during the creation of individual areas’ protection and management plans [25].
The Natura 2000 Network implementation procedures and timeline have been in force in Poland since the country’s 2004 accession to EU, just as they had been in force in other EU Member States.The Polish Ministry of the Environment requested the local authorities to evaluate the boundaries of Natura 2000 sites within their territories. Majority of boroughs expressed a negative opinion of the designation process and its outcomes. They believed that the sites’ designation methodology applied rather old-fashioned and un-professional consultation strategies in the form of one-way written opinion letters delivered to the Ministry by the municipal authorities. Neither did direct consultation with municipal governments take place, nor were they provided with any response regarding proposed changes [26]. Disregarding objections, in May 2004 the Polish national government forwarded the proposal of Natura 2000 Network to the European Commission. The updated version of the document led to strong opposition from experts involved in the creation of its first version. In response, several ECO-NGOs (Klub Przyrodników; PTOP Salamandra), prepared another proposal popularly referred to as the “Shadow List 2010” during the Bilateral Bio-geography Seminar in Warsaw, and independently sent it to the European Committee and the institution responsible for Natura 2000 operation in Poland: General Directorate for Environmental Protection - GDEP. Their list comprised of additional 33 sites Natura 2000 and modified boundaries of 22 areas. It consisted of land that needed to be added to the Natura 2000 Ecological Network according to conclusions from the seminar and findings from a number of projects funded by EU. The European Committee acknowledged both lists and a combination of both proposals (a preliminary and Shadow) was approved. The proposal of the Shadow List provoked further tensions between the ministerial authorities and the experts - mainly NGOs representatives, which one more time delayed the designation of the boundaries of protected areas.
The list was finally delivered to the EU Commission for approval in late 2009, after the Commission issued warning to the Polish government over its insufficient progress in implementation of Natura 2000 as well as a notice about violation of Birds Directive due to insufficient designation of Special Protection Areas (SPAs) [27]. Faced with a lack of response from the Polish authorities to these warnings, the EU Commission went to the Court of Justice of the European Union in Luxemburg. Determination of the European Committee intensified work on completion of the list of protected areas during the following years and Poland completed the list of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) in 2010. Currently Natura 2000 Ecological Network covers 19.8% of the country. It includes 823 SACs and144 SPAsfor special birds’ protection. The Natura 2000 forced some administrative changes in General Directorate for Environmental Protection. However, these changes in the management structure of the GDEP has had limited impact on management practices in Poland. Despite the fact that new governmental bodies are now responsible for the management of Natura 2000 areas (the General Directorate for Environmental Protection and its representatives in each province: Regional Directorates for Environmental Protection, directors of national parks, directors of marine administration as well as the Forest District), there is a gap in innovative strategies to decrease the friction between local institutions and agencies in implementation, management and monitoring of Natura 2000 sites. Although the agencies play an important role in the management process, the management efforts are still ineffective and it remains unclear what can be done to improve it. The authors seek to explain the most prevailing causes of the controversial nature of Natura 2000.
4. Designation of Natura 2000 network in Poland - Conflicts and misunderstandings
The tasks of the Natura 2000 Network are implemented jointly with provincial and local governments. Local authorities (Regional Directorates for Environmental Protection) are responsible for creation and administration of protected sites at the provincial level as well as monitoring and protection of floral and faunal species. So far, in Poland, protected sites have been established and supervised independently of local authorities. Although, the recently gained experiences have revealed many advantages of delegating some environmental protection responsibilities to local governments, officials have insufficient skills and limited budgets [28]. Natura 2000 Network was designated in 966 boroughs (out of total 2479 municipalities in Poland), and in some cases Natura 2000 sites cover surface of an entire borough. Thus, the engagement of different groups of stakeholders in nature conservation management should be one of the national priorities. So far there have been only a few promising initiatives from organizations such as Sendzimir Foundation [29] or ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability (http://www.iclei-europe.org) that supported the implementation of sustainable development principles in Poland by adapting a bottom-up approach or community-driven development. Unfortunately, there aren’t any bottom-up initiatives addressed in communities within the Natura 2000 sites as well as the areas that border with Natura 2000 Network.
Taking under consideration the limited time to oppose designated boundaries for land protection, it is reasonable to state that the designation of protected sites occurred without prior consideration of the local views and stakeholders’ needs. In fact, no public consultation or other form of participation in decision-making took place [17]. Only in few regions (mainly southern parts of the country), selection of Natura 2000 sites was conducted via opened public consultation aimed at incorporating a broad spectrum of actors (local stakeholders, private landowners, NGOs). In these cases, borders of sites proposed by the nature experts were negotiated and finally changed according to the locals’ suggestions [30].
Currently, Poland is in the second phase of the Natura 2000 Network - characterized by development of management plans for designated protected sites. These plans seem to be especially controversial as they have direct effect on boroughs’ local economies. Residents as well as other stakeholders were forced to maintain the habitats requiring active protection in their proper condition due to the Natura 2000 Network requirements (e.g. intensive or extensive agriculture activities). However, due to a top-down approach their interests in collaborating on development of area management plans had been neglected. Active protection on private lands is impossible without prior agreement and support of landowners[26,30,31]. As much as public consultations are anticipated before development of protection plans in Poland, it is still confusing which tools will be used. Also, the effectiveness of such consultations as a form of stakeholders’ participation in environmental decision-making is questionable.
5. Compensating boroughs’ economic loss due to Natura 2000 network
Long-term sustainable development has not been and will never be easy for peripheral areas due to low quality infrastructure, low levels of entrepreneurship, as well as residents’ mobilization and no motivation for joint actions [32]. To date only few studies have shown evidence of Natura 2000 having negative impacts on boroughs financial condition. However, it is clear by now that formal limitations due to the Ecological Network impact rural economies, including a borough’s income. More and more local leaders demand reimbursement for costs of protection of habitats and species [33].
Local governments associated in Rural Communes of the Republic of Poland[42], proposed the introduction of ecological fiscal transfer. The essence of this financial tool is the redistribution of funding from national to local authorities to compensate for income loss for some local governments due to the large share of protected land. Such a financial tool has been successfully introduced in Portugal, Germany and Brazil [34-36]. Other countries that have not introduced reimbursement programs, attempt to deal with ownership conflicts within the protected areas (the most commonly in newly established or enlarged national parks and Natura 2000 areas) by employing tools such as negotiations, mediations or financial compensation. These solutions are most common in Great Britain, France and Finland [8,15,37,38,39]. Yet, none of the European countries has created a solution that would satisfy all stakeholders. Ecological fiscal transfer in Poland would let the municipalities manage their Natura 2000 sites in an effective way [34,40-41]. Also, similar initiatives could be the first step in undertaking a participatory approach to biodiversity conservation in Poland, while responding to much needed change in environmental management.
The Rural Communes of the Republic of Polandwhose municipalities are included into Natura 2000 Network raised an official objection, protesting against short notice to formulate opinions, use of pure scientific criteria (marginalizing economic and social aspects) while selecting the protected areas, and the system of financing Natura 2000 (no economic schemes to encourage local authorities and private owners to support nature protection or to compensate lost profits) [26,30,42]. Due to ineffective top-down distribution of funding resources for completion of the Natura 2000 tasks no resources reached the localities [40]. The opinion of the Supreme Control Chamber is that the funds management has been insufficient, and the current spending on Natura 2000 is underestimated as the expenses of a variety of institutions (e.g. local governments, NGOs, national parks and National Fund of Environment Protection and Water Management) were excluded [41].
Dissatisfaction with the implementation of Natura 2000 Network led to consolidation of local governments and taking an initiative on the above mentioned ecological fiscal transfer proposal. In Poland, presence of protected areas decreases gross boroughs income and stakeholders’ annual income from the protected areas compared to the Special Economic Zones (SEZ) municipalities. Designation of the protected areas has not been backed by any appropriate national financial policy while local governments are expected to complete various tasks towards nature conservations on their land while the SEZ boroughs attract potential investors by an economically profitable tax allowance system.
The Council of the Rural Communes of the Republic of Polandrepresenting municipalities situated in the regions with protected areas developed a proposal for a fiscal transfer mechanism - Ecological Subvention Act - a tool of sustainable development policy. The Act proposes ecological subventions – a type of financial compensation for municipalities whose protected parts of the territory are excluded from a business activity. Ecological subventions are to be spent without any limitations on a variety of local governmental needs, and to support a range of local investments. Invested resources would be reimbursed into the national budget in the form of 23% VAT tax and personal tax to subcontractors. Calculation of ecological subventions would be based on algorithms proposed by the Ministry of Finance, en vertu on a proposed act. It is assumed that completion of the Ecological Subvention Act will result either in extra expenditures or shifting resources within the current national budget. It does not, however, cause, additional expense to local authorities. A total expenditure of national budget for ecological subvention initiative is approximated to be ca. 200 mln EURO. The ecological subvention proposal was widely consulted with General Directorate for Environmental Protection, members of the Polish Parliament, representatives of national and regional governments and lawyers. This bottom-up initiative was also highly regarded by the President of Republic of Poland [42].
Currently the process of designing compensation for designated sites Nature 2000 in Poland, including the Ecological Subvention Act, is focused on municipalities and local governments. However, another contentious issue in the country with regards to Natura 2000 sites is its occurrence on private lands. While defining the potential of conflict over private land involved in conservation in Poland, the following section looks into the existing instruments being explored to deal with private land conservation in other countries.
6. Conflicts over conservation on private lands
From the global perspective, the success of nature protection and in-situ biodiversity conservation relies heavily on protected areas. Since most of these areas are under government authorities and agencies, it has led to the common belief amongst stakeholders that the responsibility of maintaining the functional elements promoting nature conservation lie on the government. However, protected areas in in-situ conservation are limited by the fact that they occupy only 12.5% of the global land cover [43], often fragmented and isolated from one another, and they support only a fraction of the biodiversity and ecosystem services. In Poland, 32.4% of the total land area is under some form of legal protection for nature conservation. However, the ownership structure diverges from the conventional assumption that protected areas in the country are usually state owned. For example, 15.9% of the national parks’ land area is under private ownership [44]. It is expected that significant portion of the Natura 2000 areas lie on private land as well [12,44]. Hence, the final issue linked to the designation of Natura 2000 areas is the protest of private land owners against rules enforced by the Network that affect their economic wellbeing.
Typically, any planning strategy focuses only on the ecological system and not the broader socio-ecological systems, which is where conservation in reality occurs. Hence, without involving all stakeholders in the decision making process, what needs to be conserved against what can be conserved becomes a debatable issue. Private lands with their larger land coverage, have a strong potential in promoting biodiversity conservation and maintaining habitats and their connectivity [45]. They can make substantial contributions to biodiversity conservation needs and therefore, need to be integrated into the conservation strategies [46]. On the other hand, private land could also be a serious threat to biodiversity due to the deforestation and other land-use changes and more actions need to be directed towards encouraging preservation of nature [47]. In these circumstances, integrating stakeholder participation in planning and decision-making becomes crucial for effective conservation actions. This requires looking towards a more comprehensive bioregional model that conserves landscapes, irrespective of the nature of ownership [48]. However, integrating private land into conservation planning and management is complicated by the nature of ownership of the land and the complex social and economic traits that are inter-related with its current use [49-51]. The land use structure in the Natura 2000 areas lying on private land, for instance, are managed by their owners, chiefly farmers [52]. The issue of private land conservation has been explored through a diverse spectrum of mechanisms such as regulatory prohibitions and requirements including use of legal instruments, government acquisition of land or right over resource use leading to relocation and rehabilitation of previous residents (as observed during the establishment of the first national parks in the USA and still practiced in developing countries such as in Central Africa and South Asia), direct incentives for private conservation action [53-56] or educational programs and public consultations.
Globally, conservation on private land has been one of the main reasons for conflict, as it raises the issue of development and property rights versus the restrictive approach to conservation and to address this, both involuntary and voluntary tools have been used. Involuntary actions include relocation of people from private land with conservation value through direct purchase of the land by the government. This is usually accompanied by rehabilitation negotiations between landowners and authorities [55,57]. Another popular tool is regulations or restrictions directed towards landowners on the usage of their land. This top-down approach appears less intrusive, but it is nevertheless an issue of contention over property rights and right of use of the land. Government usually have limited budgets to acquire the land and so they prefer a mixed model of private and public protected areas, where private lands included in protected area are subjected to the same restrictions as public lands [58]. Involuntary acquisition and imposed regulations have been the primary strategies for conservation of nature in Poland. In Natura 2000, the sites have been designated based on their ecological significance and scientific opinion leading to considerable proportion lying on private lands in several EU countries and Poland is no exception [17,54]. Usually, the regulations and restrictions imposed over the public land within the park also become applicable to a large extent on the private land situated within the strict protected area [54,58] and subsequently, it has met with strong resistance from private landowners who see no direct benefit from their land being included in protected areas [17,59].
Voluntary tools include new strategies that provide an incentive to landowners to involve them in the process such ilegally establishing private reserves, use of conservation easements, forest certification for forest products and conservation contracts, to name a few [46,54,56,60-66]. The success of these tools in addressing the conflict of development versus conservation has met with a varying degree of success in different regions. While private reserves, including game ranches, are very popular in Africa and in some Central American countries owing to the presence of mega-fauna [64-65,67], the use of conservation easements on the other hand, has been more popularized in developed nations such as USA, Australia and to some extent in the UK [46,56,63,68]. The use of such tools has not been documented in Poland or other Central and Eastern Europe countries. One reason could be that use of tools such as conservation easements requires financial support from national or regional authorities in order to compensate for the deficit incurred by local administration in the form of lower tax collection due to tax reliefs that these easements typically offer. This would require their respective governments to direct more financial resources towards nature conservation, and often these nations are limited in their budget. Forest certifications as an incentive based tool also has a global appeal with FAO reporting 7% of the world’s private forests being certified by 2006. International certification agencies such as The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have a presence in several countries, including Poland. However, the cost certification and lack of consumer awareness about certified products have been the primary challenges in promoting this tool more efficiently.
Perhaps the most common conservation tool being used in Europe has been the conservation contracts. These binding voluntary agreements are signed between a landowner and a government agency/authority to conserve the natural features on the land, or encourage activities with a conservation core on private land in return for incentives such as technical help, finances for weeding etc. Besides national level contracts such as Austria’s Natural Forests Reserve Program and Sweden’s Nature Conservation Agreements, the largest of tools in terms of its scale is the Agri-Environmental Scheme (AES) under the Common Agricultural Plan (CAP) of the EU. It has been implemented in almost all the EU countries. Since the impetus behind this scheme was to promote improved and environmentally sound agricultural practices, AES specifically targets farmers. France, for instance, developed special compensation measures to make conservation on farmlands more attractive after it received strong opposition from farmers over the designation and implementation of Natura 2000 sites, significant proportion of which lay on farmlands. This change in approach towards implementation of Natura 2000 generated more support and acceptance towards the Natura 2000 network from this particular stakeholder group.
The role of agriculture in employment in Poland has shrunk from 26.4% in 1984 to 16.2% in 2005 with a decrease of 5% in agricultural production; however the trend has begun to stabilise and even increase in case of animal husbandry after the shift from centralised economy in the 1980s to the present market-based economy [69]. Contrary to many other centrally planned economies, Poland’s farmlands remained mostly under individual ownership leading to more number of small subsistence farmers. The support from CAP in Poland started in 2004 under the Rural Development Plan (RDP), which included aids in inputs and outputs that minimised intensive agricultural practices considered to be harmful to the environment, and instead it encouraged agricultural activities that were believed beneficial to the environment or had a conservation core.
The National Agri-Environmental Programme (NAEP) under the RDP states protection of environment and landscapes, and conservation of biodiversity as two of its main objectives. To achieve these objectives, direct involvement of farmers and increasing their knowledge about the AES and its principles become crucial (OECD, 2008). NAEP has had positive impacts on stabilizing the country’s agricultural production along with environmental benefits. In its new phase, it has undergone major changes (2007-2013) to reach a larger community of farmers and target Natura 2000 sites and non-Natura 2000 sites separately with different benefits [70-71].
NAEP faces two major challenges while promoting conservation on farmlands. Firstly, general lack of awareness among farmers on detrimental environmental impacts of agricultural practices (with only 30% of farmers being aware of it) [69] and their subsequent impact on biodiversity has been observed as a hindrance in wider coverage of such a scheme. Without being aware of the effects of their practices, farmers are less likely to modify their existing practices. Secondly, most of Poland’s farmers are with small land holdings, which makes it difficult for the AES to reach majority of the farmers in Poland: most compensation programs under the AES was available to only 5% of farmers in its first phase [72] and therefore has not been able to reach a significant proportion of private lands that could have an important role in conservation. This challenge in particular highlights the importance of context specific policies to be able to address the situation on ground.
Different tools to promote private land conservation has met with varying degree of success in different countries or region and this fact only emphasises that these tools are context dependent, including the regional context (the country, political history, economic status) and the type of stakeholders involved. While it is generally accepted that defining areas of conservation priority depends on the level of ecological awareness along with political will, the success of conservation initiatives on such areas is a function of the human and social dimensions, such as stakeholders’ willingness and capacity to participate [50,73]. It is therefore imperative to differentiate between areas of conservation priority and that of conservation opportunity. Conservation areas with high ecological value as well as high social value require minimal intervention through external aids or tools; however, areas with high ecological value and low social value will require some incentives to make conservation more attractive and plausible [50,74].
In Poland, especially in the case designation of Natura 2000 sites, biological significance has been the criterion for designating areas for conservation. However, the real potential of what can be conserved remains questionable. With 19.26% of the total Natura 2000 area lying on agricultural land [75], imposing restrictions on land use cannot be the solution. Already, there have been several instances of protest and hostility towards the Natura 2000 network, and this can be attributed to the fact that the process of site designation did not allow for stakeholder participation [17]. Lack of awareness about the Natura 2000 Network adds further to this hostility since landowners now understand the program only as an intrusion into their private space and a violation of their property rights [59]. Although drafting the management plans for these sites through a consultation process is now a legal requirement, thereby allowing for stakeholder participation, successful outcome of such an initiative is often hindered by the fact that the most consultation processes are not handled properly, coupled with the preconceived notion among stakeholders about such protected areas being a hindrance to livelihoods and property rights, which makes the process difficult.
The overall land use structure in Europe has been changing to accommodate for the economic development, and although forest land cover has increased, only 1.6% of the continent’s natural forests are protected legally [76- 77]. Poland is no exception to this developmental trend and with its accession to the EU, intensification of certain practices such as those in agriculture is expected. In such a situation, involvement of people in conservation will play an important role in furthering conservation goals [51]. Besides political support at a national level, and financial support at a regional level, it is necessary to find stakeholders supporting long-term sustainable implementation of management plans for protected areas located on private lands.
The authors pose that policy-makers need to identify the factors that increase stakeholders’ acceptance of conservation practices on their private land. This will require the research into socio-demographic and economic features of landowners as well as land characteristics (type of land use, type of protected area) [50]. The challenge in private land conservation is to promote conservation values on a land without compromising its capability to meet the requirements of the owners from it. Tools and mechanisms that compensate for the conservation opportunity and that increase social acceptance of the ‘protected areas on private land’ model are necessary under circumstances where ecologically significant private land in Poland generates direct or indirect economic benefits to its owners.
7. Conclusions
The new environmental policy can only be successful in the Central and Eastern European countries if it is legitimate. Therefore, Poland as well as other post-communist democracies need to re-focus its environmental policy practices toward community empowerment in environmental decision-making which is conceptualized as a process in which community members, who share physical spaces, experiences and concerns, gain influence over conditions that matter to them [78]. Good policy-making requires, among others, up-to-date knowledge or assessment of the "winners" and "losers". Furthermore, its implementation at the local level requires local skills and local resources. The authors propose that legitimate policy must empower communities through participation in environmental management decision-making.
Community used to be defined as a geographic concept or a form of a collective interest revealed in common views on some issues [79]. The authors understand a community as: “the process of interactions through time with direction toward some more or less distinctive outcomes and with constantly changing elements and structure” [80]. By definition, a community is a process in which community participants focus on the betterment of local stakeholders in the context of the Natura 2000 program.
Scholars suggest that direct participation in decision-making is a condition for individual empowerment [81-82]. Others add that non-direct forms of participation in decision-making can also empower stakeholders [82-83]. Local participation has been a concept of increasing importance since the Brundtland Report in 1987 defined it as an indispensable ingredient of sustainable development. Public participation is consistent with the three-dimensional concept of sustainable development as it allows natural capital to be traded off for economic and social capital. It allows residents to observe more closely and evaluate the current governance system in a better way [84-85]. Such distribution of the decision-making power towards local stakeholders integrates democratic elements into sustainable development of the rural post-communist areas in Poland [86].
Participatory decision-making is a key element of the local democratic practice. As much as literature in recent years emphasizes the need for inclusion of stakeholders in decision-making, it also indicates the importance of fundamental arrangements for this community based management and development. Shared control through the inclusion of community members in decision-making is a key element of empowerment [87]. Authorities that attempt to involve community in decision-making in natural resources management must be able and willing to learn from the community members and to apply instruments that empower residents [88-89]. In Poland, the practice of empowering Natura 2000 stakeholders is still in its infancy. Also scholars from social disciplines rarely mention the idea of empowering stakeholders in the context of changing social and political environment of rural Poland.
Discussed difficulties that the majority of the EU Members have experienced in regards to Natura 2000 Network implicate the more global issues associated with the implementation of sustainable development principles and the practice of empowering stakeholders. The core problem of the current approach to Natura 2000 Network as well as other initiatives toward more sustainable Europe is the decentralization of responsibilities for protection of local nature and simultaneous top-down environmental decision-making that facilitates policy creation at the national-level. Hence, EU must focus on legitimate environmental protection policies by distributing rights over environmental decisions to local authorities and other local stakeholders. Also, the efficiency of existing decision-making tools to mitigate and prevent current or future conflicts regarding Natura 2000 Network needs to be re-examined in the context of transitioning economies of the Central and Eastern European Members of the EU such as Poland. The authors propose empowering stakeholders for Natura 2000 through participation in decision-making processes as a locally implemented solution to this global problem.
In addition to increasing legitimization new environmental policies that follow Natura 2000 itself, public participation leads to the development of multilevel governance in the broader and more interdisciplinary context, the introduction of new institutional structures and financial resources to the civil society [90-91]. The non-homogenous character of a community is the main identified barrier to its successful participation in decision-making [92-93]. To date debates, information sharing and creating space for public opinion are the main instruments of participatory approaches [94]. Collaboration and dialogue with governmental representatives create conditions for equity and thereby space for community feedback and community input in decision making that flows upward toward officials [84,85]. Jointly derived decisions contribute to trust building within community [95-96].
Solving problems at the central level proved so far ineffective, and currently documents such as Strategy for Sustainable Development of Poland till 2025 more explicitly articulate that local leadership institutions need to engage stakeholders in the development in order to achieve local sustainability. The Habitat Directive and the Convention of Aarhus [97-98] notes that public participation should manifest itself in society’s access to information about the natural environment and its involvement in successive stages of the implementation of protective measures: from planning to making decisions in management. Moreover, bottom-up approaches to biodiversity management will increase stakeholders’ perceived control over the local natural environment and increase felt responsibility for its quality.
Acknowledgement
The following manuscript was developed as part of the research project “Information, education and communication for the natural environment” sponsored by the Jagiellonian University (grant no. WRBW/DS/INoŚ/760).
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The Ecological Network Natura 2000 in the European Union",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Natura 2000 network in Poland – A success story?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Designation of Natura 2000 network in Poland - Conflicts and misunderstandings ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Compensating boroughs’ economic loss due to Natura 2000 network",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conflicts over conservation on private lands ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusions ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgement",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'MDarobinaA.reporton.PolandEuropeanunion.accessionMultinational Business Review (0000-0333X) 200192816\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'Kluvánková-OravskáT.ChobotováV.BanaszekI.From Government to Governance for Biodiversity: The Perspective of Central and Eastern European Transition Countries. 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Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
College of Merchandising, Hospitality and Tourism, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
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1. Introduction
A signal is a function that conveys information about the behavior or attributes of some phenomenon [1]. On the other hand, information can be anything. A waveform can have multiple overlapping information in the same space–time. The signal in a waveform is subjective, it can be color for one and shape for the other. In electrophysiology, waveform under inspection can be separated into two as the signal of interest and noise. The signal can be electrocardiography (ECG), Electroencephalogram (EEG), or any other physiological signal, noise is any unwanted wave source ınterfering with the signal. If we consider EEG as the signal, it is recorded from the scalp by electrodes and consists of the overall electrical activities of neural populations and a contribution of glial cells [2]. EEG has a wide range of use in both clinical practice and engineering applications in medicine, particularly neurology, sleep, and epilepsy research.
2. Background
The EEG recording environment and subject related electrical activities during recording deteriorate the signal quality. Artifacts are undesired signals that may introduce changes in the measurements and affect the signal of interest [3]. EEG can be contaminated in frequency or time domain by artifacts that are resulted from internal sources of physiologic activities and movement of the subject and/or external sources of environmental interferences, equipment, movement of electrodes and cables [4]. Artifact types and sources are listed in the Table 1. External artifacts can be prevented by proper shielding, grounding cables, isolating and moving cables away from recording sites since they act as antennas during operation. On the other hand, internal or physiological artifacts are challenging for researchers because of their inclusion of signal or resemblance to the signals. The most important artifacts in a typical EEG recording are ocular electro-oculogram (EOG) artifacts and muscular (EMG) artifacts.
Artifact
Type
Source
Eye blink
Ocular
Internal/Physiological
Eye movement
Ocular
Internal/Physiological
REM Sleep
Ocular
Internal/Physiological
Scalp contractions
Muscle
Internal/Physiological
Glossokinetic artifact
Muscle
Internal/Physiological
Chewing
Muscle
Internal/Physiological
Talking
Muscle
Internal/Physiological
EKG
Cardiac
Internal/Physiological
Swallowing
Muscle
Internal/Physiological
Respiration
Respiratory
Internal/Physiological
Galvanic Skin Response
Skin
Internal/Physiological
Sweating
Skin
Internal/Physiological
Electrode movement
Instrumental
External/Extra-physiological
Electrode Impedence Imbalance
Instrumental
External/Extra-physiological
Cable movement
Instrumental
External/Extra-physiological
Electromagnetic coupling
Electromagnetic
External/Extra-physiological
Powerline
Electrical
External/Extra-physiological
Head movement
Movement
External/Extra-physiological
Body movement
Movement
External/Extra-physiological
Limbs movement
Movement
External/Extra-physiological
Table 1.
EEG artifact types and sources. Adapted from [4, 5].
2.1 Ocular artifacts
Electrical potentials due to eye opening/closure, blinks, eyelid flutter and eye movements propagate over the scalp and produce hostile EOG artifacts in the recorded EEG. Eye movements are major sources of contamination of EEG. The origin of this contamination is disputable. Cornea-retinal dipole movement, retinal dipole movement and eyelid movement are the three main proposed causes of the eye movement related voltage potential [6]. The direction of eye movements affects the shape of the EOG waveform while a square-like EOG wave is produced by vertical eye movements and blinks which leads to a spike-shaped waveform [7]. Blinks which are attributable to the eyelid moving over the cornea, occurring at intervals of 1-10s, generate a characteristic brief potential of between 0.2 s and 0.4 s duration due to eyelid movement over cornea [8, 9]. The blinking artifact generally has an amplitude much larger than that of the background EEG [6]. It is advantageous to have a reference EOG channel during EEG recording for the cancellation of ocular artifact from EEG activity [3].
2.2 Muscular artifacts
Electrical activity on the body surface due to the contracting muscles are recorded via Electromyogram (EMG) [3]. Since independent myogenic activities of head, face and neck muscles are conducted through the entire scalp, it can be monitored in the EEG [10, 11]. The amplitude of this type of artifact is dependent on the type of muscle and the degree of tension [3, 12]. The frequency range of EMG activity is wide, being maximal at frequencies higher than 30 Hz [13, 14].
2.3 Cardiac artifacts
The electrical potential due to cardiac activity can exhibit itself in the EEG as ECG artifacts. Typical high frequency waveforms similar to EKG P-QRS-T shape are characteristics of EKG artifacts in EEG [15].
2.4 Other artifacts
Head, body and limb movements cause irregular high voltage artifacts. Artifacts can be produced by tremors in patients such as Parkinson disease and movement disorders. Changing patient position into a calm comfortable stable position helps reducing artifacts. Another prevention for respiratory related movement artifacts is to use a towel or a firm material support for the neck. The changes in the impedance or electrical potential between scalp and electrode may cause electrode artifacts. These can result from poor electrode contact, broken lead, electrolyte gel insufficiency. This type of artifact usually exhibits itself in sudden electrode pops. These electrode artifacts can be eliminated by using proper electrolyte gel, checking electrode impedance, changing the broken electrodes, and shifting the electrode position slightly.
3. Artifact handling methods
A typical EEG recording system is shown in Figure 1. At the heart of a recording setup is the biopotential amplifier. It should have high common mode rejection ratios, however it should not have high gains, this can saturate the signal due to large half-cell potentials at the electrodes. Unequal electrode impedances are major sources of common mode artifacts such as powerline.
Figure 1.
EEG recording system and experiment setup.
Environmental artifacts can be eliminated by bringing the electrodes leads closer together, moving the electrodes and subject away from the noise sources, using single isolated earth for the whole setup, and shielding the cables, machines and artifact sources with a metal tape connected to the common earth. Moreover, the environmental conditions should satisfy the following requirements for proper recordings. These can be listed as, quiet atmosphere, comfortable temperature and humidity, controlled proper lighting, using a comfortable bed or chair, and separating the powerline of the EEG system from the other machines in the lab.
3.1 Averaging methods to suppress ERP artifacts
Event Related Potentials (ERP) are electrical signals generated in response to internal or external events and they are recorded by EEG [16]. In evoked potentials, each stimulus produces an evoked potential embedded in EEG. However, since the ERP or evoked potential signals are generally subtle in EEG, averaging of many epochs are needed to make them distinguishable. An ensemble averaging method to enhance the ERPs was defined by [17]. This relies on the assumption that by synchronous averaging of each epoch, signal ERP amplitude adds constructively and EEG background noise diminishes destructively.
In ERP and evoked potential research, artifacts contaminate the final ensemble average signal of interest. One method to overcome this adverse effect is to benefit from a weighted averaging [18]. In weighted averaging technique each epoch is weighted inversely with the non-stationary noise maximum amplitude in the epoch. In [19], each trial’s contribution to ensemble average is multiplied by a weight according to its correlation with the rest of the data. This factor is inversely related to its probability of being an artifact. For example, a large amplitude EEG is likely to be an artifact and the contribution factor for the trial involving large amplitudes will be low whereas the factor for a small amplitude EEG is high (Figure 2). Davila and Mobin [20] showed that weighted averaging of auditory EP has higher SNR than conventional ensemble averaging. John et al. [21] studied the effects of such techniques as sample-weighted averaging, noise-weighted averaging, amplitude based artifact rejection, percentage based artifact rejection, and normal averaging on the steady state auditory evoked potentials. It concluded in favor of weighted averaging for better SNR of steady state responses. On the other hand, according to [22], weighted averaging underestimates the ERP signal amplitude. Determination of the optimal weighting factor is not straightforward and this limits the performance of the weighting averaging method. Mühler and Specht [23] developed a method called ‘sorted averaging’. In sorted averaging, epochs are sorted with RMS values from small to large, since noisy artifactual epochs have large RMS values compared to low noise signals. The signal averaging is performed by addition of epochs from the low noise RMS to large RMS sorted order until a maximum peak of SNR2 is obtained [24]. This eliminates the high RMS noisy epochs and yields a better ERP waveform. Compared to weighted averaging, sorted averaging had significantly higher SNR2 [23].
Figure 2.
Various EEG artifacts are shown.
Median averaging is another approach to ERP artifact handling and it is based on taking the median points of all the epochs and adding them to form a median average instead of classic mean average [25]. Some advantages of the median averaging are that; it elicits hidden signals more clearly and it is not affected by infrequent large artifacts that much compared to mean averaging [25]. Özdamar and Kalayci [26] supported the advantages of median averaging over the conventional mean averaging in a study on the ABR signals. Median averaging is an efficient way to remove adverse effects of the outliers on the final averaged signal, yet it also removes the valuable data in the outliers causing significant loss of information [27, 28].
3.2 Artifact handling methods for EEG
Artifact avoidance, artifact rejection, manual rejection, automatic rejection, and artifact removal are the common methods to deal with artifacts [29]. Although it seems a simple solution to cancel EOG and EMG artifacts by instructing subject to avoid blinking or movement, it can result in change of amplitudes in evoked potentials as well as the additional cognitive load [29, 30, 31]. On the other hand, artifact rejection or manual rejection may require a person dedicated to this purpose of eliminating artifacts visually one by one in an EEG. Moreover, the artifact detection by an expert may be subjective, tedious, and time consuming. In addition, it can not be applicable to online removal [3]. However, automatic rejection can automate this artifact rejection procedure but it can eliminate non-artifact signals if not properly tuned. The automatic rejection of artifact containing EEG can depend on artifact amplitude based or EEG segment RMS based artifact detection and rejection. An example of a simple blink artifact removal is depicted in Figure 3. Since blinks have low frequency content compared to EEG, by low pass filtering, EEG can be reduced while blink artifact still remains at a high voltage level. Thus, an amplitude threshold based artifact rejection can be applied. As seen from Figure 3, red traces are the EEG and blue are the low pass filtered EEG signal. While a simple artifact rejection (without low pass filtering) using a threshold of 20 μV will produce false positives (red traces over 20 μV), in the low pass filtered EEG these false positives are prevented.
Figure 3.
Low pass filtering based EEG blink rejection. Red is raw EEG, blue is low pass filered EEG with 6th order Butteworth low pass filter at 8 Hz cut off. The detected artifact containing EEG epochs are shown in dashed rectangles.
Usually one or two channels are dedicated to detect EOG artifacts. There are two widely used procedures for EOG artifacts, first EOG rejection where EEG trials with EOG artifacts having VEOG greater than a preset threshold are omitted, and second EOG correction where the effect of eye movement is tried to be removed from EEG [6].
Artifacts can distort the EEG in a way that the electrophysiologists or physicians can be misled in their clinical interpretation [32]. This makes artifact removal critical in the pre-processing phase prior to analysis. There are many methods to remove artifacts such as Artifactual Segment Rejection, Filtering, Wiener filtering, Adaptive Filtering, Time-Frequency Representation, Wavelet Transform, Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), Adaptive Noise Cancelation (ANC), Wavelet Packet Transform (WPT), Kalman Filtering, Linear Regression, Blind Source Separation (Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Independent Component Analysis (ICA), Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA), Minor Components Analysis (MCA)), Source Decomposition, Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and hybrid methods [3, 4, 29, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. A functional dedicated artifact channel which provides complementary aid to identify ECG/EOG is required to remove ocular or cardiac artifacts in the most of the available methods [4].
Regression is a common and well established technique in artifact removal, yet it cannot be used to remove muscle noise or line noise, since these type of artifacts have no reference channels [39]. Having a good regressor (e.g., an EOG) is critical in both time and frequency domain regression methods. It is an inherent weakness that eye movements and EEG signals are bidirectional. When unacceptable amount of data are lost in artifact rejection, delicate artifact removal methods which will preserve the essential EEG signals while removing artifacts are necessary [39]. One of the most important artifacts is EOG. EEG regions infected with EOG can be rejected from overall EEG signal with simplest artifact rejection where these portions are detected by EOG channels, however these regions still carry brain signals in addition to ocular artifacts and total rejection or subtraction of EOG from them results in loss of brain data [40, 41, 42].
Blind Source Separation (BSS) algorithms utilize multiple channels in an unsupervised learning algorithm to extract brain related activity from the ensemble EEG signal which can be assumed a linear superposition of brain signals, noise and artifacts [38]. Three common BSS algorithms are Independent Component Analysis (ICA), Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA).
ICA, a BSS method, is often used to remove EEG artifacts based on statistical approach of spatial filtering and separation of multiple channel EEG data into spatially fixed and temporally independent components [39, 43, 44]. Since the EEG sources and artifacts are usually of different origins, they can be assumed to be linear summation of each independent components. ICA method finds these statistically independent components and enable us to eliminate artifactual ones from the desired EEG [45]. On the other hand, ICA provides extraction of the eye related signals present in the EOG, and removal of this information or artifact, rather than the complete EOG which still has some brain activity [40], is possible. However, detection and removal of transient artifacts such as head and neck muscle contractions and movement are difficult with ICA [46]. Moreover, adapting ICA as an online method requires high computational power [46]. On the other hand, an advantage of ICA is that it does not rely on a reference channel [39]. However, many artifact removal algorithms are compared in [3], and Revised Aligned-Artifact Average (RAAA) and Second Order Blind Identification (SOBI) and Adaptive Mixture of Independent Component Analyzers (AMICA) are the preferred artifact removal methods for EOG, EMG and ECG artifacts.
PCA uses orthogonal transform of correlated time domain signal into linearly uncorrelated principal components (PCs) [47]. These principal components possess as much as variance of the EEG as possible. Artifact containing PCs can be eliminated if they are uncorrelated with the brain EEG. Application of PCA into ocular artifacts was provided in [48].
CCA is also another method utilized in removing artifacts. In CCA second order statistics are employed, correlation between two multivariate datasets are maximized by canonical variables. CCA offers shorter computational time compared to ICA [38].
Another method is filtering in frequency domain. Usually a high-pass filter starting from 0.5-1 Hz is applied for baseline drift removal. Notch filters are used to remove powerline-noise. Another one, EMG activity of contracting scalp sites can hinder the signals of interest in the EEG recordings during an epileptic seizure [49]. It was possible to remove this high frequency content EMG activity from EEG spectra by filtering out signals over 25 Hz. Adaptive Filters, Wiener Filtering and Bayesian Filters are three filtering methods applied in EEG signal preprocessing. Adaptive Filters are the most commonly used for artifact removal [47]. In Adaptive Filtering a reference channel for artifacts is subtracted from the EEG recursively. This reference is multiplied by a weight factor obtained from the output of the filter by a learning algorithm and this weighted reference is subtracted from the recorded EEG yielding output artifact free EEG changing adaptively [50].
In wavelet transform, many scaled and time shifted wavelets are used to produce coefficients for the particular signal and wavelet type by convolution of the signal and wavelets. These coefficients indicate similarity between the corresponding wavelet and the signal. In artifact removal via wavelet transform, the main idea is that the signal which can be highly correlated with a basis mother wavelet and can be separated from artifacts which might have no correlation to the principal mother wavelet [50]. Some examples of Wavelet Transform in artifact removal are for ocular artifact removal as in [51, 52].
3.3 EEG pre-processing pipelines available
Recently many preprocessing pipelines have been introduced in order to reduce the burden of artifact handling by an expert one by one visual inspection. This laborious task can be fastened by using existing automatized preprocessing methods in order. An efficient pre-processing pipeline not only helps the artifact management time but also provides objective evaluation with predefined criteria compared to highly subjective artifact handling by a human expert. The preprocessing pipelines usually consist of the combination of the following stages; filtering, re-referencing, bad channel identification (and interpolation), bad channel and epoch removal, artifact detection using ICA, artifact correction and removal [53], see Figure 4.
Figure 4.
APP artifact management flow diagram from [53].
Fully Automated Statistical Thresholding for EEG artifact Rejection (FASTER) [54] algorithm is a state of the art method which is available in EEGLAB toolbox [55]. FASTER has filtering, line noise removal, bad channel detection and interpolation, segmentation, and artifact rejection on segments by identifying bad channels, blinks, eye movements and muscular artifacts using combination of statistical thresholding and ICA [56]. It requires an extra EOG channel. The Automatic Pre-processing Pipeline (APP) removes powerline noise, bad channels, eye movements, blinks and muscular artifacts using ICA to identify artifactual components [53], see Figure 4. However, it also requires extra EOG channels. Da Cruz et al. [53] has found that APP performs better than FASTER yielding higher amplitude in ERP study. Another pipeline is Tool for Automated Processing of EEG data (TAPEEG) [57]. It uses automated routines of FASTER and Fieldtrip for artifact identification and performed similar to visually analysis by an expert [58]. TAPEEG handles the resting state EEG data as well. Both FASTER and TAPEEG are based on z- scores and have difficulty in handling outliers, this leads to loss of signal content due to false positive artifact detection and rejections [53]. Another standardized preprocessing method for large EEG datasets, PREP pipeline, handles line noise removal, bad channel detection, and referencing to standardize and normalize the data before processing [58]. It is also available as plug-in in EEGLAB toolbox.
Automagic is a toolbox developed for standardized handling of large growing EEG/ERP datasets by time [56]. The power of Automagic comes from the fact that it exploits many existing pipelines and methods, such as PREP pipeline for bad channel identification and for average referencing, Cleanline [59] to remove power line noise, EOG regression [60], Multiple Artifact Rejection Algorithm (MARA), ICA or robust PCA for artifact correction [61]. MARA is a plug-in available in EEGLAB which automatically identifies artifacts not only ocular or muscular but also any general artifactual source component in ICA [61]. Pedroni et al. [59] showed that combination of a preprocessing pipeline to identify bad channels and MARA method is efficient to remove most of the artifacts.
None of the methods offers a perfect robust and high accurate management of all types of artifacts. In general, they are all limited with the training dataset and fail to achieve high success with new type of artifactual data.
3.4 Simultaneous EEG and f-MRI artifact handling
Since EEG is widely used as a clinical tool to monitor or diagnose patients, doctors can be misguided in case of artifacts and EEG can be misinterpreted. For this reason, artifact removal becomes a crucial point for some cases such as epilepsy monitoring in an EEG/fMRI recording room. Today EEG and fMRI are two distinct but closely related and complementary methods. While fMRI provides high spatial resolution for localization of phenomena in the brain, EEG on the other hand results in better temporal resolution [62, 63, 64, 65]. One should be careful about the experiments involving both fMRI and EEG because there are many unwanted electromagnetic sources interfering with EEG. For example, the false identification of spikes are highly possible since residuals of Ballistocardiogram (BCG) artifacts have similar shapes as epileptic spikes [66]. The factors that can lead to differences in the artifact are linked to the subject and experimental setup, [67]. There are imaging artifacts, cardiac related Ballistocardiogram artifacts (BCG), EOG and EMG artifacts in an EEG inside MRI [44]. Static field (B0) and the time-varying fields of radio-frequency excitations and of imaging gradients, generate artifacts in the EEG known as Ballistocardiogram (BCG) and imaging artifacts [44, 68, 69, 70]. The pulse artifact which can be observed in EEGs recorded inside MR scanners easily, is due to a fundamental cause that any movement of electrically conductive muscles in a static magnetic field generates electromagnetic induction and it is proportional to the static field, generally larger at higher field strengths [67, 71]. Pulsations of the scalp arteries are the main cause of this type of BCG artifact [72, 73]. The study of Grouiller et al. [44] compared different imaging artifact removal techniques and various cardiac artifact correction techniques in both simulated EEG data and in real experimental data. They concluded that there is no key for every door, some algorithms work well for some case and others might work well for other cases. Certain algorithms may be preferred depending on the type of data and analysis method [44]. Another algorithm, adaptive Optimal Basis Set (aOBS), automatically eliminates BCG artifacts yet preserving the neural origin signals in EEG [74]. It can be used efficiently for simultaneous fMRI and EEG recordings.
3.5 Sleep stage classification artifact handling
Manual artifact detection is still the most common method for artifact handling for sleep stage classification, however, the long time required and the difficulty to apply it to large datasets poses the main disadvantages [75]. Malafeev et al. [75] compared 12 simple algorithms that are applicable with a single EEG channel for ease of use. It was found that automatic artifact detection in EEG during sleep within large datasets is possible with simple algorithms. Among these, Power thresholding 25–90 Hz (PT25), Power thresholding 45–90 Hz (PT45) and Autoregressive (AR) models had Reciever Operating Characteristic (ROC) areas above 0.95. In addition, online detection is also possible with the majority of these simple algorithms.
3.6 BCI Artifact handling
Artifact removal in BCI applications are getting more attention. By studies it was shown that artifacts generated by EOG and EMG activities affect the neurological signals utilized in a BCI system [10, 76]. Although there are extensive researches into artifact removal for BCIs and developed efficient methods such as Fully Online and Automated Artifact Removal (FORCe), Lagged Auto-Manual Information Clustering (LAMIC), Fully Automated Statistical Thresholding for EEG artifact Rejection (FASTER) and K-Singular Value Decomposition (K-SVD), the field lacks an effective artifact removal [12, 54, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82]. The surrogate-based artifact removal (SuBAR) technique proposed by Chavez et al. [33] effectively cancels EOG and EMG artifacts from single-channel EEG. Chang et al. [83] proposed a method for detection of eye artifact from single prefrontal channel which is useful for headband-type wearable EEG devices with a few frontal EEG channels. Compared to conventional methods the accuracy of detecting ocular artifact contaminated epochs was significantly better. Daily-life EEG-BCIs are getting popular and artifact removal techniques for these BCIs must have some critical features such as; must be performed outdoor, with portable wearable wireless device, with real EEG signals, compatible with daily life tasks, must have simple electrical montage, must use dry electrodes, must remove complex artifacts, must work only EEG without reference, must work online and must work with single electrode channel. More research into artifact removal other than ocular and cardiac artifacts is necessary especially for those daily-life EEG BCIs [36].
While ICA and PCA are common artifact removal methods, Artifact Subspace Reconstruction (ASR), which is a powerful automated artifact removal method available for both online real-time and offline, can be applied to prevent transient and large artifact [46, 84]. It also does not require additional channel and cleans the data from artifacts.
4. Conclusion
The number of artifact handling techniques and algorithms are increasing drastically, however the artifact problem is still challenging for many applications. Particularly, the internal or physiologic artifacts are difficult to distinguish and remove. While simple measures such as artifact avoidance and artifact rejection can be utilized in some applications, most of the cases require special methods dedicated to handle artifacts in order to significantly reduce their harmful effects on signal of interest. Due to the varying nature of artifacts a generic method for all sorts of artifacts is still missing. However preprocessing pipelines provides some efficient approaches to this challenge. In future, the progress in machine learning and deep learning based approaches may yield more efficient, accurate and robust artifact removal options. Online artifact removal methods such as ASR must be developed to overcome various artifacts in daily life to be efficient for BCIs.
\n',keywords:"Artifact, Artifact removal methods, EEG, EEG preprocessing, Muscular artifacts, Ocular artifacts, Preprocessing pipelines",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77731.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77731.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77731",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77731",totalDownloads:254,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"June 28th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 29th 2021",datePublished:"May 18th 2022",dateFinished:"July 29th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"There are various obstacles in the way of use of EEG. Among these, the major obstacles are the artifacts. While some artifacts are avoidable, due to the nature of the EEG techniques there are inevitable artifacts as well. Artifacts can be categorized as internal/physiological or external/non-physiological. The most common internal artifacts are ocular or muscular origins. Internal artifacts are difficult to detect and remove, because they contain signal information as well. For both resting state EEG and ERP studies, artifact handling needs to be carefully carried out in order to retain the maximal signal. Therefore, an effective management of these inevitable artifacts is critical for the EEG based researches. Many researchers from various fields studied this challenging phenomenon and came up with some solutions. However, the developed methods are not well known by the real practitioners of EEG as a tool because of their limited knowledge about these engineering approaches. They still use the traditional visual inspection of the EEG. This work aims to inform the researchers working in the field of EEG about the artifacts and artifact management options available in order to increase the awareness of the available tools such as EEG preprocessing pipelines.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77731",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77731",signatures:"İbrahim Kaya",book:{id:"10654",type:"book",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Brain-Computer Interface",slug:"brain-computer-interface",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-529-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-522-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-530-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",email:"ibrahimkaya21@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Ocular artifacts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Muscular artifacts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Cardiac artifacts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Other artifacts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Artifact handling methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Averaging methods to suppress ERP artifacts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Artifact handling methods for EEG",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3 EEG pre-processing pipelines available",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.4 Simultaneous EEG and f-MRI artifact handling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.5 Sleep stage classification artifact handling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.6 BCI Artifact handling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Priemer R. Introductory signal processing. Vol. 6. World Scientific; 1991'},{id:"B2",body:'Da Silva FL. 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Springer, Singapore'},{id:"B51",body:'Krishnaveni V, Jayaraman S, Anitha L, Ramadoss K. Removal of ocular artifacts from EEG using adaptive thresholding of wavelet coefficients. Journal of neural engineering. 2006 Nov 23;3(4):338'},{id:"B52",body:'Zikov T, Bibian S, Dumont GA, Huzmezan M, Ries CR. A wavelet based de-noising technique for ocular artifact correction of the electroencephalogram. InProceedings of the Second Joint 24th Annual Conference and the Annual Fall Meeting of the Biomedical Engineering Society][Engineering in Medicine and Biology 2002 Oct 23 (Vol. 1, pp. 98-105). IEEE'},{id:"B53",body:'da Cruz JR, Chicherov V, Herzog MH, Figueiredo P. An automatic pre-processing pipeline for EEG analysis (APP) based on robust statistics. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2018 Jul 1;129(7):1427-37'},{id:"B54",body:'Nolan H, Whelan R, Reilly RB. FASTER: fully automated statistical thresholding for EEG artifact rejection. Journal of neuroscience methods. 2010 Sep 30;192(1):152-62'},{id:"B55",body:'Delorme A, Makeig S. EEGLAB: an open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis. Journal of neuroscience methods. 2004 Mar 15;134(1):9-21'},{id:"B56",body:'Pedroni A, Bahreini A, Langer N. Automagic: Standardized preprocessing of big EEG data. NeuroImage. 2019 Oct 15;200:460-73'},{id:"B57",body:'Hatz F, Hardmeier M, Bousleiman H, Rüegg S, Schindler C, Fuhr P. Reliability of fully automated versus visually controlled pre-and post-processing of resting-state EEG. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2015 Feb 1;126(2):268-74'},{id:"B58",body:'Bigdely-Shamlo N, Mullen T, Kothe C, Su KM, Robbins KA. The PREP pipeline: standardized preprocessing for large-scale EEG analysis. Frontiers in neuroinformatics. 2015 Jun 18;9:16'},{id:"B59",body:'Mullen T. CleanLine EEGLAB plugin. San Diego, CA: Neuroimaging Informatics Toolsand Resources Clearinghouse (NITRC). 2012'},{id:"B60",body:'Parra LC, Spence CD, Gerson AD, Sajda P. Recipes for the linear analysis of EEG. Neuroimage. 2005 Nov 1;28(2):326-41'},{id:"B61",body:'Winkler I, Haufe S, Tangermann M. Automatic classification of artifactual ICA-components for artifact removal in EEG signals. Behavioral and Brain Functions. 2011 Dec;7(1):1-5'},{id:"B62",body:'Huster RJ, Debener S, Eichele T, Herrmann CS. Methods for simultaneous EEG-fMRI: an introductory review. Journal of Neuroscience. 2012 May 2;32(18):6053-60'},{id:"B63",body:'Vanni S, Warnking J, Dojat M, Delon-Martin C, Bullier J, Segebarth C. Sequence of pattern onset responses in the human visual areas: an fMRI constrained VEP source analysis. Neuroimage. 2004 Mar 1;21(3):801-17'},{id:"B64",body:'Wibral M, Bledowski C, Kohler A, Singer W, Muckli L. The timing of feedback to early visual cortex in the perception of long-range apparent motion. Cerebral cortex. 2009 Jul 1;19(7):1567-82'},{id:"B65",body:'Wibral M, Bledowski C, Turi G. Integration of separately recorded EEG/MEG and fMRI data. Simultaneous EEG and fMRI: recording, analysis, and application (Ullsperger M, Debener S, eds). 2010 May 28:209-34'},{id:"B66",body:'de Munck JC, van Houdt PJ, Gonçalves SI, van Wegen E, Ossenblok PP. Novel artefact removal algorithms for co-registered EEG/fMRI based on selective averaging and subtraction. Neuroimage. 2013 Jan 1;64:407-15'},{id:"B67",body:'Debener S, Kranczioch C, Gutberlet I. EEG quality: origin and reduction of the EEG cardiac-related artefact. InEEG-fMRI 2009 (pp. 135-151). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg'},{id:"B68",body:'Bonmassar G, Purdon PL, Jääskeläinen IP, Chiappa K, Solo V, Brown EN, Belliveau JW. Motion and ballistocardiogram artifact removal for interleaved recording of EEG and EPs during MRI. Neuroimage. 2002 Aug 1;16(4):1127-41'},{id:"B69",body:'Allen PJ, Josephs O, Turner R. A method for removing imaging artifact from continuous EEG recorded during functional MRI. Neuroimage. 2000 Aug 1;12(2):230-9'},{id:"B70",body:'Felblinger J, Slotboom J, Kreis R, Jung B, Boesch C. Restoration of electrophysiological signals distorted by inductive effects of magnetic field gradients during MR sequences. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine: An Official Journal of the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 1999 Apr;41(4):715-21'},{id:"B71",body:'Debener S, Mullinger KJ, Niazy RK, Bowtell RW. Properties of the ballistocardiogram artefact as revealed by EEG recordings at 1.5, 3 and 7 T static magnetic field strength. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 2008 Mar 1;67(3):189-99'},{id:"B72",body:'Allen PJ, Polizzi G, Krakow K, Fish DR, Lemieux L. Identification of EEG events in the MR scanner: the problem of pulse artifact and a method for its subtraction. Neuroimage. 1998 Oct 1;8(3):229-39'},{id:"B73",body:'Ives JR, Warach S, Schmitt F, Edelman RR, Schomer DL. Monitoring the patient\'s EEG during echo planar MRI. Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology. 1993 Dec 1;87(6):417-20'},{id:"B74",body:'Marino M, Liu Q, Koudelka V, Porcaro C, Hlinka J, Wenderoth N, Mantini D. Adaptive optimal basis set for BCG artifact removal in simultaneous EEG-fMRI. Scientific reports. 2018 Jun 11;8(1):1-1'},{id:"B75",body:'Malafeev A, Omlin X, Wierzbicka A, Wichniak A, Jernajczyk W, Riener R, Achermann P. Automatic artefact detection in single-channel sleep EEG recordings. Journal of sleep research. 2019 Apr;28(2):e12679'},{id:"B76",body:'McFarland DJ, Sarnacki WA, Vaughan TM, Wolpaw JR. Brain-computer interface (BCI) operation: signal and noise during early training sessions. Clinical Neurophysiology. 2005 Jan 1;116(1):56-62'},{id:"B77",body:'Chen X, Liu A, Peng H, Ward RK. A preliminary study of muscular artifact cancellation in single-channel EEG. Sensors. 2014 Oct;14(10):18370-89'},{id:"B78",body:'Chen X, Liu A, Chiang J, Wang ZJ, McKeown MJ, Ward RK. Removing muscle artifacts from EEG data: Multichannel or single-channel techniques?. IEEE Sensors Journal. 2015 Dec 8;16(7):1986-97'},{id:"B79",body:'Daly I, Nicolaou N, Nasuto SJ, Warwick K. Automated artifact removal from the electroencephalogram: a comparative study. Clinical EEG and neuroscience. 2013 Oct;44(4):291-306'},{id:"B80",body:'Daly I, Scherer R, Billinger M, Müller-Putz G. FORCe: Fully online and automated artifact removal for brain-computer interfacing. IEEE transactions on neural systems and rehabilitation engineering. 2014 Aug 13;23(5):725-36'},{id:"B81",body:'Khatun S, Mahajan R, Morshed BI. Comparative study of wavelet-based unsupervised ocular artifact removal techniques for single-channel EEG data. IEEE journal of translational engineering in health and medicine. 2016 Mar 22;4:1-8'},{id:"B82",body:'Sreeja SR, Sahay RR, Samanta D, Mitra P. Removal of eye blink artifacts from EEG signals using sparsity. IEEE journal of biomedical and health informatics. 2017 Nov 13;22(5):1362-72'},{id:"B83",body:'Chang WD, Lim JH, Im CH. An unsupervised eye blink artifact detection method for real-time electroencephalogram processing. Physiological measurement. 2016 Feb 19;37(3):401'},{id:"B84",body:'Kothe CA, Jung TP, inventors. Artifact removal techniques with signal reconstruction. United States patent application US 14/895,440. 2016 Apr 28'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"İbrahim Kaya",address:"ibrahimkaya21@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir, Turkey
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Our journals are currently in their launching issue. They will be applied to all relevant indexes as soon as they are eligible. These include (but are not limited to): Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, MEDLINE, Database of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Google Scholar and Inspec.
\n\n
IntechOpen books are indexed by the following abstracting and indexing services:
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BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Since 2002, Research4Life has provided researchers at more than 10,500 institutions in over 125 lower and middle-income countries with free or low-cost online access to up 151,000 leading journals and books in the fields of health, agriculture, environment, applied sciences and legal information. There are five programs through which users can access content: Research for Health (Hinari), Research in Agriculture (AGORA), Research in the Environment (OARE), Research for Development and Innovation (ARDI) and Research for Global Justice (GOALI).
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
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Promising WBG materials are silicon carbide (SiC), gallium nitride (GaN), diamond (C), gallium oxide (Ga2O3) and aluminum nitride (AlN). They can operate at higher voltages, temperatures, and switching frequencies with greater efficiencies compared to existing Si, in power electronics. These characteristics can reduce energy consumption, which is critical for national economic, health, and security interests. However, increased voltage blocking capability and trend toward more compact packaging technology for high-power density WBG devices can enhance the local electric field that may become large enough to raise partial discharges (PDs) within the module. High activity of PDs damages the insulating silicone gel, lead to electrical insulation failure and reduce the reliability of the module. Among WBG devices, electrical insulation weaknesses in WBG-based Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) have been more investigated. 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It has good reliability and flexibility. However, GIS may have internal defects and partial discharge (PD) is then induced. PD will cause great harm to GIS and power system. Therefore, it is of great importance to study the intrinsic characteristics and detection of PD for online monitoring. In this chapter, typical internal defects of GIS and the PD characteristics are discussed. Several detection methods are also presented in this chapter including electromagnetic method, chemical method, and optical method.",book:{id:"6749",slug:"simulation-and-modelling-of-electrical-insulation-weaknesses-in-electrical-equipment",title:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment",fullTitle:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment"},signatures:"Fuping Zeng, Ju Tang, Xiaoxing Zhang, Siyuan Zhou and Cheng Pan",authors:[{id:"197319",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoxing",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"xiaoxing-zhang",fullName:"Xiaoxing Zhang"},{id:"205017",title:"Prof.",name:"Ju",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"ju-tang",fullName:"Ju Tang"},{id:"210705",title:"Dr.",name:"Fuping",middleName:null,surname:"Zeng",slug:"fuping-zeng",fullName:"Fuping Zeng"},{id:"210707",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"cheng-pan",fullName:"Cheng Pan"},{id:"279579",title:"Dr.",name:"Siyuan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"siyuan-zhou",fullName:"Siyuan Zhou"}]},{id:"13842",doi:"10.5772/14688",title:"Evolvable Metaheuristics on Circuit Design",slug:"evolvable-metaheuristics-on-circuit-design",totalDownloads:2218,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"75",slug:"advances-in-analog-circuits",title:"Advances in Analog Circuits",fullTitle:"Advances in Analog Circuits"},signatures:"Felipe Padilla, Aurora Torres, Julio Ponce, María Dolores Torres, Sylvie Ratté and Eunice Ponce-de-León",authors:[{id:"18530",title:"Dr.",name:"Felipe",middleName:null,surname:"Padilla",slug:"felipe-padilla",fullName:"Felipe Padilla"},{id:"18533",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurora",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",slug:"aurora-torres",fullName:"Aurora Torres"},{id:"18534",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce",slug:"julio-ponce",fullName:"Julio Ponce"},{id:"18535",title:"Dr.",name:"María Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",slug:"maria-dolores-torres",fullName:"María Dolores Torres"},{id:"23502",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Ratté",slug:"sylvie-ratte",fullName:"Sylvie Ratté"},{id:"24175",title:"Dr.",name:"Eunice",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce De Leon",slug:"eunice-ponce-de-leon",fullName:"Eunice Ponce De Leon"}]},{id:"13832",doi:"10.5772/14322",title:"Lifetime Yield Optimization of Analog Circuits Considering Process Variations and Parameter Degradations",slug:"lifetime-yield-optimization-of-analog-circuits-considering-process-variations-and-parameter-degradat",totalDownloads:2838,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"75",slug:"advances-in-analog-circuits",title:"Advances in Analog Circuits",fullTitle:"Advances in Analog Circuits"},signatures:"Xin Pan and Helmut Graeb",authors:[{id:"17136",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"xin-pan",fullName:"Xin Pan"},{id:"17473",title:"Dr.",name:"Helmut",middleName:null,surname:"Graeb",slug:"helmut-graeb",fullName:"Helmut Graeb"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"76266",title:"Network-on-Chip Topologies: Potentials, Technical Challenges, Recent Advances and Research Direction",slug:"network-on-chip-topologies-potentials-technical-challenges-recent-advances-and-research-direction",totalDownloads:445,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Integration technology advancement has impacted the System-on-Chip (SoC) in which heterogeneous cores are supported on a single chip. Based on the huge amount of supported heterogeneous cores, efficient communication between the associated processors has to be considered at all levels of the system design to ensure global interconnection. This can be achieved through a design-friendly, flexible, scalable, and high-performance interconnection architecture. It is noteworthy that the interconnections between multiple cores on a chip present a considerable influence on the performance and communication of the chip design regarding the throughput, end-to-end delay, and packets loss ratio. Although hierarchical architectures have addressed the majority of the associated challenges of the traditional interconnection techniques, the main limiting factor is scalability. Network-on-Chip (NoC) has been presented as a scalable and well-structured alternative solution that is capable of addressing communication issues in the on-chip systems. In this context, several NoC topologies have been presented to support various routing techniques and attend to different chip architectural requirements. This book chapter reviews some of the existing NoC topologies and their associated characteristics. Also, application mapping algorithms and some key challenges of NoC are considered.",book:{id:"10269",slug:"network-on-chip-architecture-optimization-and-design-explorations",title:"Network-on-Chip",fullTitle:"Network-on-Chip - Architecture, Optimization, and Design Explorations"},signatures:"Isiaka A. Alimi, Romil K. Patel, Oluyomi Aboderin, Abdelgader M. Abdalla, Ramoni A. Gbadamosi, Nelson J. Muga, Armando N. Pinto and António L. Teixeira",authors:[{id:"208236",title:"Dr.",name:"Isiaka",middleName:"Ajewale",surname:"Alimi",slug:"isiaka-alimi",fullName:"Isiaka Alimi"},{id:"208242",title:"Dr.",name:"António L.",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira",slug:"antonio-l.-teixeira",fullName:"António L. 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Gbadamosi"}]},{id:"62153",title:"Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Wide Bandgap Devices",slug:"electrical-insulation-weaknesses-in-wide-bandgap-devices",totalDownloads:1245,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The power electronics research community is balancing on the edge of a game-changing technological innovation: as traditionally silicon (Si) based power semiconductors approach their material limitations, next-generation wide bandgap (WBG) power semiconductors are poised to overtake them. Promising WBG materials are silicon carbide (SiC), gallium nitride (GaN), diamond (C), gallium oxide (Ga2O3) and aluminum nitride (AlN). They can operate at higher voltages, temperatures, and switching frequencies with greater efficiencies compared to existing Si, in power electronics. These characteristics can reduce energy consumption, which is critical for national economic, health, and security interests. However, increased voltage blocking capability and trend toward more compact packaging technology for high-power density WBG devices can enhance the local electric field that may become large enough to raise partial discharges (PDs) within the module. High activity of PDs damages the insulating silicone gel, lead to electrical insulation failure and reduce the reliability of the module. Among WBG devices, electrical insulation weaknesses in WBG-based Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) have been more investigated. The chapter deals with (a) current standards for evaluation of the insulation systems of power electronics modules, (b) simulation and modeling of the electric field stress inside modules, (c) diagnostic tests on modules, and (d) PD control methods in modules.",book:{id:"6749",slug:"simulation-and-modelling-of-electrical-insulation-weaknesses-in-electrical-equipment",title:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment",fullTitle:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment"},signatures:"Mona Ghassemi",authors:[{id:"235732",title:"Dr.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassemi",slug:"mona-ghassemi",fullName:"Mona Ghassemi"}]},{id:"61792",title:"Thermal Modelling of Electrical Insulation System in Power Transformers",slug:"thermal-modelling-of-electrical-insulation-system-in-power-transformers",totalDownloads:1319,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Temperature is one of the limiting factors in the application of power transformers. According to IEC 60076-7 standard, a temperature increase of 6°C doubles the insulation ageing rate, reducing the expected lifetime of the device. Power losses of the transformer behave as a heating source, and the insulating liquids act as a coolant circulating through the windings and dissipating heat. For these reasons, thermal modelling becomes an important fact of transformer design, and both manufacturers and utilities consider it. Different techniques for thermal modelling have been developed and used for determining the hot-spot temperature, which is the highest temperature in the winding, and it is related with the degradation rate of the solid insulation. First models were developed as a first estimation for modelling the hot-spot temperature and the top-oil temperature. These models were based on thermal-electric analogy and are known as dynamic models. Other two different kinds of models are widely used for thermal modelling, known as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Thermal Hydraulic Network Models (THNMs). These two techniques determine the temperature and velocity fields in the winding and in the insulating fluid. In this chapter, the different techniques for transformer thermal modelling will be introduced and described.",book:{id:"6749",slug:"simulation-and-modelling-of-electrical-insulation-weaknesses-in-electrical-equipment",title:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment",fullTitle:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment"},signatures:"Agustín Santisteban, Fernando Delgado, Alfredo Ortiz, Carlos J.\nRenedo and Felix Ortiz",authors:[{id:"24550",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"J",surname:"Renedo",slug:"carlos-renedo",fullName:"Carlos Renedo"},{id:"26667",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"alfredo-ortiz",fullName:"Alfredo Ortiz"},{id:"239344",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Agustín",middleName:null,surname:"Santisteban",slug:"agustin-santisteban",fullName:"Agustín Santisteban"},{id:"245139",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Delgado",slug:"fernando-delgado",fullName:"Fernando Delgado"},{id:"245141",title:"Dr.",name:"Félix",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"felix-ortiz",fullName:"Félix Ortiz"}]},{id:"63042",title:"Typical Internal Defects of Gas-Insulated Switchgear and Partial Discharge Characteristics",slug:"typical-internal-defects-of-gas-insulated-switchgear-and-partial-discharge-characteristics",totalDownloads:1691,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) is a common electrical equipment, which uses sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) as insulating medium instead of traditional air. It has good reliability and flexibility. However, GIS may have internal defects and partial discharge (PD) is then induced. PD will cause great harm to GIS and power system. Therefore, it is of great importance to study the intrinsic characteristics and detection of PD for online monitoring. In this chapter, typical internal defects of GIS and the PD characteristics are discussed. Several detection methods are also presented in this chapter including electromagnetic method, chemical method, and optical method.",book:{id:"6749",slug:"simulation-and-modelling-of-electrical-insulation-weaknesses-in-electrical-equipment",title:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment",fullTitle:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment"},signatures:"Fuping Zeng, Ju Tang, Xiaoxing Zhang, Siyuan Zhou and Cheng Pan",authors:[{id:"197319",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoxing",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"xiaoxing-zhang",fullName:"Xiaoxing Zhang"},{id:"205017",title:"Prof.",name:"Ju",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"ju-tang",fullName:"Ju Tang"},{id:"210705",title:"Dr.",name:"Fuping",middleName:null,surname:"Zeng",slug:"fuping-zeng",fullName:"Fuping Zeng"},{id:"210707",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"cheng-pan",fullName:"Cheng Pan"},{id:"279579",title:"Dr.",name:"Siyuan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"siyuan-zhou",fullName:"Siyuan Zhou"}]},{id:"61773",title:"Modeling and Simulation of Rotating Machine Windings Fed by High-Power Frequency Converters for Insulation Design",slug:"modeling-and-simulation-of-rotating-machine-windings-fed-by-high-power-frequency-converters-for-insu",totalDownloads:1591,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Modern power systems include a considerable amount of power electronic converters related to the introduction of renewable energy sources, high-voltage direct current (HVDC) systems, adjustable speed drives, and so on. These components introduce repetitive pulses generated by the commutation of semiconductor switches, resulting in overvoltages with very steep fronts and high dielectric stresses. This phenomenon is one of the main causes of accelerated insulation aging of motors in power electronic-based systems. This chapter presents state-of-the-art computational tools for the analysis of motor windings excited by fast-front pulses related to the use of frequency converters based on pulse-width modulation (PWM). These tools can be applied for the accurate prediction of overvoltages and dielectric stresses required to propose insulation design improvements. In the case of the stress-grading system used in medium-voltage (MV) motors, transient finite-element method (FEM) is used to study the effect of fast pulses. It is shown how, by controlling the material properties and the design of the stress-grading systems, solutions to reduce the adverse effects of fast pulses from PWM-type inverters can be proposed.",book:{id:"6749",slug:"simulation-and-modelling-of-electrical-insulation-weaknesses-in-electrical-equipment",title:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment",fullTitle:"Simulation and Modelling of Electrical Insulation Weaknesses in Electrical Equipment"},signatures:"Fermin P. Espino Cortes, Pablo Gomez and Mohammed Khalil\nHussain",authors:[{id:"238065",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez",slug:"pablo-gomez",fullName:"Pablo Gomez"},{id:"238796",title:"Dr.",name:"Fermin P.",middleName:null,surname:"Espino-Cortés",slug:"fermin-p.-espino-cortes",fullName:"Fermin P. Espino-Cortés"},{id:"245189",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Khalil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"mohammed-khalil-hussain",fullName:"Mohammed Khalil Hussain"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"735",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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