Chemical composition of investigated alloys, %
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"451",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - The Most Promising Discipline of Dentistry",title:"Implant Dentistry",subtitle:"The Most Promising Discipline of Dentistry",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Since Dr. Branemark presented the osseointegration concept with dental implants, implant dentistry has changed and improved dramatically. The use of dental implants has skyrocketed in the past thirty years. As the benefits of therapy became apparent, implant treatment earned a widespread acceptance. The need for dental implants has resulted in a rapid expansion of the market worldwide. To date, general dentists and a variety of specialists offer implants as a solution to partial and complete edentulism. Implant dentistry continues to advance with the development of new surgical and prosthodontic techniques. \nThe purpose of Implant Dentistry - The Most Promising Discipline of Dentistry is to present a comtemporary resource for dentists who want to replace missing teeth with dental implants. It is a text that integrates common threads among basic science, clinical experience and future concepts. This book consists of twenty-one chapters divided into four sections.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-481-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6508-8",doi:"10.5772/964",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"implant-dentistry-the-most-promising-discipline-of-dentistry",numberOfPages:490,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"af264376cc47bfd447ff2a0c2cf1bdc7",bookSignature:"Ilser Turkyilmaz",publishedDate:"October 3rd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/451.jpg",numberOfDownloads:148230,numberOfWosCitations:42,numberOfCrossrefCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:65,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:138,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 12th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 9th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 16th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"26024",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilser",middleName:null,surname:"Turkyilmaz",slug:"ilser-turkyilmaz",fullName:"Ilser Turkyilmaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/26024/images/1852_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ilser Turkyilmaz obtained his dental degree from Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey in 1998. Immediately after graduation, he started his PhD program in the Department of Prosthodontics, Hacettepe University. He completed that program in 2004 and kept working as an instructor in the same department. Dr. Turkyilmaz then was invited by Goteborg University, Goteborg, Sweden for research collaborations. He worked in the Department of Biomaterials, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, Goteborg University, Goteborg, Sweden in 2005. He returned to Hacettepe University in the end of 2005 and then worked in private practice in Ankara from February 2006 to May 2007. He was accepted for an implant prosthodontic fellowship program in the Department of Restorative and Prosthetic Dentistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, and worked in that university as an implant prosthodontic fellow from June 2007 to October 2008. He took up a full-time position as an assistant professor in the Department of Prosthodontics at the University of Texas Health Science Center in San Antonio, Texas, USA on November 1, 2008. Dr. Turkyilmaz maintains a private practice in the school’s faculty practice. He treats patients with esthetic and reconstructive needs using implants, veneers, crowns, fixed partial dentures, complete dentures, and partial dentures. Dr. Turkyilmaz is particularly interested in dental implant studies regarding early/immediate loading protocols, implant stability measurements using resonance frequency analysis, bone density evaluations using computerized tomography (CT), flapless implant surgeries using CT-generated surgical guides, and the biomechanical aspects of implants. He has currently 50 scientific articles published in well-known international journals. He has also given lectures including dental implants at local, national and international meetings. He is currently serving as an editorial board member or reviewer for several international dental journals. Dr. Turkyilmaz earned Diplomate status within the International Congress of Oral Implantologists in 2011, which is the highest honor showing efforts in education, research and actual clinical experience with dental implants.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"998",title:"Oral Implantology",slug:"oral-implantology"}],chapters:[{id:"21543",title:"Various Ways to Enhance the Results of Maxillary Sinus Augmentation Procedures",doi:"10.5772/17264",slug:"various-ways-to-enhance-the-results-of-maxillary-sinus-augmentation-procedures",totalDownloads:5683,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jun-Beom Park",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/21543",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/21543",authors:[{id:"27806",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun-Beom",surname:"Park",slug:"jun-beom-park",fullName:"Jun-Beom Park"}],corrections:null},{id:"21544",title:"Biomaterials Applicable for Alveolar Sockets Preservation: In Vivo and In Vitro Studies",doi:"10.5772/18459",slug:"biomaterials-applicable-for-alveolar-sockets-preservation-in-vivo-and-in-vitro-studies",totalDownloads:6545,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Christiane Kunert-Keil, Tomasz Gredes and Tomasz Gedrange",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/21544",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/21544",authors:[{id:"31560",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Gedrange",slug:"tomasz-gedrange",fullName:"Tomasz Gedrange"},{id:"39526",title:"Dr.",name:"Christiane",surname:"Kunert-Keil",slug:"christiane-kunert-keil",fullName:"Christiane Kunert-Keil"},{id:"39527",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Gredes",slug:"tomasz-gredes",fullName:"Tomasz Gredes"}],corrections:null},{id:"21545",title:"New Bone Formation in the Maxillary Sinus With/Without Bone Graft",doi:"10.5772/16512",slug:"new-bone-formation-in-the-maxillary-sinus-with-without-bone-graft",totalDownloads:9767,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Dong-Seok Sohn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/21545",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/21545",authors:[{id:"25392",title:"Prof.",name:"Dong-Seok",surname:"Sohn",slug:"dong-seok-sohn",fullName:"Dong-Seok Sohn"}],corrections:null},{id:"21546",title:"Bone Substitutes",doi:"10.5772/17329",slug:"bone-substitutes",totalDownloads:4500,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jesus Torres, Faleh Tamimi, Mohammad Alkhraisat, Juan Carlos Prados-Frutos and Enrique Lopez-Cabarcos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/21546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/21546",authors:[{id:"28009",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",surname:"Torres",slug:"jesus-torres",fullName:"Jesus Torres"},{id:"32861",title:"Dr.",name:"Faleh",surname:"Tamimi",slug:"faleh-tamimi",fullName:"Faleh Tamimi"},{id:"32862",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Alkhraisat",slug:"mohammad-alkhraisat",fullName:"Mohammad Alkhraisat"},{id:"32863",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Prados-Frutos",slug:"juan-carlos-prados-frutos",fullName:"Juan Carlos Prados-Frutos"},{id:"32864",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Lopez - Cabarcos",slug:"enrique-lopez-cabarcos",fullName:"Enrique Lopez - Cabarcos"}],corrections:null},{id:"21547",title:"Dental Reconstruction Using Secondary Bone Graft Followed by Implant Placement in Alveolar Cleft of Patients with Cleft Lip and/or Palate",doi:"10.5772/17249",slug:"dental-reconstruction-using-secondary-bone-graft-followed-by-implant-placement-in-alveolar-cleft-of-",totalDownloads:5542,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Tetsu Takahashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/21547",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/21547",authors:[{id:"27757",title:"Prof.",name:"Tetsu",surname:"Takahashi",slug:"tetsu-takahashi",fullName:"Tetsu Takahashi"}],corrections:null},{id:"21548",title:"Bone Substitutes and Validation",doi:"10.5772/16956",slug:"bone-substitutes-and-validation",totalDownloads:6655,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Christopher Ogunsalu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/21548",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/21548",authors:[{id:"26785",title:"Dr.",name:"Christopher Olubode",surname:"Ogunsalu",slug:"christopher-olubode-ogunsalu",fullName:"Christopher Olubode Ogunsalu"}],corrections:null},{id:"21549",title:"Immediate Dental Implants and Bone Graft",doi:"10.5772/16522",slug:"immediate-dental-implants-and-bone-graft",totalDownloads:9512,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Khalid S. 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Poultry, as well as animal producers, use sub-therapeutic levels of antimicrobials in feed to get maximum production. Furthermore, in serval countries, non-judicial use of antimicrobials while using for therapeutic purposes is also been observed. However, research has evidence that the use of antibiotics in food animals has many deleterious effects on the animals, the environment, and human beings. One of the prime examples of antimicrobials' side-effects is the development of antimicrobial resistance that results in a reduction of treatment options in human and animal medicine. Nowadays, scientists are looking for viable alternatives to antibiotics including prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics. Probiotics are live microorganisms that are helpful for digestion and health. They are also capable to reduce harmful bacteria in the gut when supplemented in the diet. 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",isbn:"978-1-80356-588-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-587-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-589-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3731c009f474c6ed4293f348ca7b27ac",bookSignature:"Dr. Asghar Ali Kamboh",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",keywords:"Beneficial Microorganisms, Probiotic Role in Health and Immunity, Supplementation of Probiotics in Poultry, Dietary Supplementation of Yeast in Farm Animals, Gut Health, Probiotic and Mucosal Immunity, Probiotics and Intestinal Architecture, Probiotics and Nutrient Absorption, Ban of Antibiotics in Food Animals, Regulatory Issues of Antibiotic Use in Farm Animals, Alternatives to Antibiotic in Animal Production, Consequences of Antimicrobials Use in Animals",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 3rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 2nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A well-known researcher in the area of Veterinary Sciences with a key interest in Veterinary Microbiology and immunology. Dr. Asghar Ali Kamboh completed his Ph.D. in Veterinary Science from Nanjing Agricultural University, China. He has published more than 100 research and review articles in national and international peer-reviewed journals. He is an editor/editorial board member of many scholarly journals in the area of animal health and production.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"225390",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghar Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kamboh",slug:"asghar-ali-kamboh",fullName:"Asghar Ali Kamboh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225390/images/system/225390.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Asghar Ali Kamboh was born in Mehrabpur, Sindh, Pakistan. He completed his studies in Veterinary Medicine and Masters in Veterinary Microbiology in 2003 and 2007 respectively, with distinguished grades. 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To tackle this challenge, the European Commission has formulated the Europe 2020 strategy [1] andhas set up the Innovation Union [2]. It is estimated that the level of R&D and innovation investments until 2020 is to reach aggregately 3% of the EU’s GDP from public and private funds. In order to achieve satisfactory economic and social effects, the stream of investments should be channelled into those fields of science and industries bringing the highest added value, with special consideration given to the role of small and medium sized enterprises. The aim of foresight research conducted broadly in Europe and Poland, also in the field of material engineering, is a quest for innovative areas deserving financial support [3-7]. Technology foresight serving to identify the priority, innovative technologies and the directions of their strategic development was pursued for materials surface engineering, as well [8]. One of 14 thematic areas analysed under such foresight research are laser technologies in surface engineering. Laser remelting and alloying / cladding is one of the critical technologies having the best development prospects and/or being of key significance for the industry selected for the detailed research carried out with the Delphi method.
Magnesium alloying with aluminium, manganese, metals of rare earths, thorium, zinc and zirconium enhances the strength in relation to the mass index, hence making them an important material where a decreased mass is important and where the forces of inertia must be reduced [9-11]. The advantages of the laser surface treatment processes, i.e.: short process time, flexibility, as well as operational precision, offer the upper hand of this method against the other methods employed in surface engineering. The primary aim of the laser remelting of material surface layers is to modify the structure and the associated properties [9-15]. Heightened resistance to, notably, wear and thermal fatigue is gained by creating a chemically homogenous, fine crystalline surface layer without changing the chemical composition of the material. Even more advantageous effects, such as improved functional properties, are feasible through alloying the material surface layer with the particles of the hard phases of carbides, oxides and nitrides. A need for magnesium alloys stems mainly from the development of the automotive and aviation industry. Rapid growth in the use of magnesium and magnesium alloys nearly in all the fields of the contemporary industry has been seen in the recent decades due to the numerous properties of this metal enabling to use it as a structural component as well as an additive to other chemical metal alloys. It is 35% lighter than aluminium (2.7g/cm3) and over four times lighter than steel (7.86g/cm3) [9-15,18]. Magnesium alloys, besides their low density (1.7 g/cm3), feature other advantages, as well, such as good ductility, the improved suppression of noise and vibrations as compared to aluminium as well as excellent castability, high size and shape stability, little shrinkage, low density combined with high strength and a low mass. They are also recyclable, thus processed alloys with their quality and properties very similar to the originally cast alloys can be obtained so that the materials can be used instead of the newly produced magnesium alloys for less important structures. A lower mass and very high strength allow for the production of parts made of this material by casting, by plastic deformation, mechanical treatment or welding. The advantages of casting magnesium alloys in conjunction with the promising outcomes of laser surface treatment investigations have set a basis for undertaking detailed scientific and research works to identify the influence of laser treatment on the structure and properties of the surface layer in casting magnesium alloys [12-15,18].
The purpose of this study is a comparative analysis of specific technologies of the laser remelting and cladding of casting magnesium alloys of MCMgAl12Zn1, MCMgAl9Zn1, MCMgAl6Zn1, MCMgAl3Zn1 using the carbide powders of TiC, WC, VC, SiC and Al2O3 oxide. The type of powder deposited onto the substrate was used as a criterion of technology classification, thus distinguishing between five specific technologies subjected to materials science foresight investigations. The subject of the comparative analysis are the outcomes of investigations into the structure and properties of the analysed materials, performed using specialised research apparatuses, as well as the value of the individual technologies, determined through expert studies according to the custom methodology [9], in relation to the environment as well as the longterm development prospects of the technologies together with the recommended actions strategies and with the forecast multivariant development tracks. The relevance and adequacy of the assessments performed is ensured by the synergic interaction and cross supplementation of the materials science research and foresight methods. The paper also presents the outcomes of foresight research, based on reference data, [8] pertaining to the position of laser technologies in surface engineering, including laser remelting and alloying/cladding. Technology roadmaps, being a comparative analysis tool especially helpful for the small and medium sized enterprises lacking funds for conducting own research in this domain, were established at the last stage of the efforts. The results of the foresight and materials science research presented in this article are part of a broader research project [8, 17] aimed at selecting the priority innovative technologies of materials surface engineering and setting their directions of strategic development, as discussed in a series of publications,
The research performed is of an interdisciplinary character. The research methodology applied concerns predominantly surface engineering, being part of widely understood material engineering and technology foresight. In turn, technology foresight lies within the domain of the field of science known as organisation and management. The subject of the comparative analysis performedincludes, on one hand, the results of investigations into the structure and properties of casting magnesium alloys treated using the high capacity diode laser, encompassing notably: light and scanning microscopy, X-ray phase quality analysis and an analysis of surface distribution of alloy elements as well as investigations into the properties of mechanical properties, including: hardness, microhardness and roughness. On the other hand,the long term development prospects of the individual technologies together with the recommended management strategies and the forecast multi variant development tracks are determined according to the results of the expert studies with roadmaps and the technology information sheets have been developed for them. The following five homogenous groups were distinguished between from among the technologies analysed for the purpose of experimental and comparative works by adopting, as a criterion of grouping, the type of powder deposited onto the substrate, encompassing respectively:
Scientific researchhave been carried out on test pieces of MCMgAl12Zn1, MCMgAl9Zn, MCMgAl6Zn1, MCMgAl3Zn magnesium alloys in as-cast, after heat and laser treatment states The chemical compositions of the investigated materials are given in Table 1.
The mass concentration of main elements, % | |||||||
No. | Al | Zn | Mn | Si | Fe | Mg | Rest |
1 | 12.1 | 0.62 | 0.17 | 0.047 | 0.013 | 86.96 | 0.0985 |
2 | 9.09 | 0.77 | 0.21 | 0.037 | 0.011 | 89.79 | 0.0915 |
3 | 5.92 | 0.49 | 0.15 | 0.037 | 0.007 | 93.33 | 0.0613 |
4 | 2.96 | 0.23 | 0.09 | 0.029 | 0.006 | 96.65 | 0.0361 |
Chemical composition of investigated alloys, %
A casting cycle of alloys has been carried out in an induction crucible furnace using a protective salt bath Flux 12 equipped with two ceramic filters at the melting temperature of 750±10ºC, suitable for the manufactured material. In order to maintain a metallurgical purity of the melting metal, a refining with a neutral gas with the industrial name of EmgesalemFlux 12 has been carried out. The material has been cast in dies with betonite binder because of its excellent sorption properties and shaped into plates of 250x150x25. The cast alloys have been heated in an electrical vacuum furnace Classic 0816 Vak in a protective argon atmosphere, next MCMgAl12Zn1, MCMgAl9Zn, MCMgAl6Zn1, MCMgAl3ZMCMgAl6Zn1 magnesium alloys were used as substrate materials to laser surface treatment using high power diode laser. Laser surface alloying was conducted by remelting MCMgAl12Zn1, MCMgAl9Zn, MCMgAl6Zn1, MCMgAl3Zn surface and feeding of hard carbide particles and oxide aluminium. The alloying materials were TiC, SiC, WC, VC, Al2O3 powders. The powders was supplied by side injection rate of 7±1 g/min (for WC, TiC, VC powders) and 8÷9 g/min for SiC particles, Al2O3-4÷5 g/min.
The laser alloying was performed by high power laser diode HPDL Rofin DL 020 under an argon shielding gas. Argon was used during laser remelting to prevent oxidation of the coating and the substrate. The parameters of laser are presented in Table 2. The process parameters during the present investigation were: laser power–1.2÷1.6 kW, scan rate-0.5÷1.0 m/min.
Parameter | Value |
Laser wave length, nm | 940±5 |
Focus length of the laser beam, mm | 82/32 |
Power density range of the laser beam in the focus plane [kW/cm2] | 0.8÷36.5 |
Dimensions of the laser beam focus, mm | 1.8x6.8 |
HPDL parameters
The observations of the investigated cast materials have been made on the light microscope LEICA MEF4A. Microstructure investigation was performed using scanning electron microscope (SEM) ZEISS Supra 25. For microstructure evaluation the Secondary Electrons (SE) detection was used, with the accelerating voltage of 5÷25 KV. Qualitative and quantitative chemical composition analysis in micro areas of the investigated coatings was performed using the X-Ray microanalysis (EDS) by mind of the spectrometer EDS LINK ISIS supplied by Oxrord.
Hardness tests were performed using Zwick ZHR 4150 TK hardness tester in the HRF scale. Tensile strength tests were made using Zwick Z100 testing machine.
In order to verify the correctness of the experimental values of hardness after laser cladding of Mg-Al-Zn casting magnesium alloys model uses a designed neural network, constructed on the basis of experimental data: the kind of used powder, the concentration of aluminium in the alloy, the laser power and speed of alloying – as the input variable – and HRF-hardness as the output variable, was used. The data set was divided into three subsets: learning (48 cases), validation (23 cases) and test (24 cases) ones. The fundamentals of the assessment of the network quality were the three characteristics of regression: average absolute error, the quotient of standard deviations, and Pearson\'s correlation coefficient. The quotient of the standard deviation is a gauge of the model quality used to solve regression problems. It is determined by dividing the standard deviation of prediction error and standard deviation of the output variable. A smaller value indicates a better gauge of the quality of prediction, because the smaller it is, the larger the variance explained by the model is. As a result of design and optimization of selected one way network MLP (multilayer perception) with 4 neurons in input layer – corresponding to the input variable: the nature of the powder (nominal variable), the concentration of aluminium in the alloy, the laser power and speed of alloying (numerical variables) and one numerical output variable (hardness HRF) were selected. For a nominal input variables conversion technique of one of Zn was used, while for numerical input variables and output variable the technique of conversion of variable minimax was used. The number of layers of the network was identified as three layers with two neurons in the hidden layer. The activation function in the input and output layers was defined as a linear with saturation, and in the hidden layer as the logistics, but for all the layers PSP linear functions were used. Networks were taught by methods of backpropagation of errors (50 epochs learners) and conjugate gradients (62 students ages). On the basis of achieved indicators to assess the quality of the neural network i.e., Pearson’s correlation coefficients for a set of test between the calculated and actual values of output: 0.90 in the training set, 0.90 in the validation set and 0.89 in the test set, and the quotient of standard deviations for the training and test sets: <0.47 one can be infer about the accuracy in predicting the value of the output network (HRF hardness).
The reference data gathered when implementing the FORSURF project [8] was used in order to determine the strategic position of laser technologies in relation to materials surface engineering as well as the position of laser remelting and alloying/cladding in relation to surface engineering laser technologies [8]. The investigations were carried out with the three iterations of the Delphi method according to the idea of e-foresight [25] using information technology including a virtual organisation, web platform and neural networks. The five specific technologies of the remelting and cladding of casting magnesium alloys using the carbide powders of TiC, WC, VC, SiC and Al2O3 oxide analysed in this article were evaluated based on the opinions of key experts using the custom foresight and materials science research methodology [16]. A universal scale of relative states, being a single pole positive scale without zero, where 1 is a minimum rate and 10 an extraordinarily high rate, was used in the research undertaken. A strategic position of the relevant technologies is presented graphically with a matrix of strategies for technologies consisting of sixteen fields into which strategic development tracks were entered presenting a vision, comprised of several variants, of the future events for a 20 year timeframe according to the time intervals of 2015, 2020, 2025 and 2030. The matrix of strategies for technologies presents graphically a position of each technology group according to its value and environment influence intensity and identifies a recommended action strategy. This matrix incorporates the results of expert research, transformed with software, visualised by means of two other matrices: dendrological and meteorological matrix. The methodological structure of the both matrices is referring to the portfolio methods commonly known in management sciences, and first of all to BCG [26] matrices enjoying their unparalleled popularity due to a reference to simple associations and intuitive reasoning, becoming an inspiration when elaborating methodological assumptions for the both matrices. A four field dendrological matrix of technology value includes the expert assessments for the relevant technologies according to the potential being the actual objective value of the specific technology group and attractiveness reflecting the subjective perception of the relevant technology group by its potential users. Depending on the potential value and attractiveness level determined in an expert assessment, each of the analysed technologies is placed into one of the matrix quarters. The wide stretching oak is the most promising quarter guaranteeing the future success in which technologies are placed characterised by a high potential and high attractiveness. The soaring cypress characterises the technologies with high attractiveness and a limited potential, and the rooted dwarf mountain pine the technologies with a large potential and limited attractiveness likely to ensure a robust position provided an appropriate strategy is applied. The least promising technologies are placed in the quarter called quaking aspen with their future success having small probability or being impossible. A four field matrix of environment influence presents, in a graphical manner, the results of how the external positive (opportunities) and negative (difficulties) factors impact the technologies analysed. Each of the technologies evaluated by the experts is placed into one of the following matrix quarters. Sunny spring illustrates the most advantageous external situation guaranteeing the future success. Rainy autumn, offering a chance for steady progress, corresponds to a neutral environment, and hot summer symbolises a stormy environment where the technology success is risky but feasible. Frosty winter informs that technology development is difficult or impossible.The results of the foresight materials science research were represented by reference data according to which a series of roadmaps for the analysed laser treatment technologies of casting magnesium alloys were established. The technology roadmaps developed with a custom concept are a convenient tool of a comparative analysis enabling to select the technologies or a group of technologies which is best in terms of the specified criterion and technology information sheets are supplementing them in technical terms.
The shape of the lase tray of the MCMgAl12Zn1, MCMgAl9Zn1, MCMgAl6Zn1, MCMgAl3Zn1 magnesium cast alloys after laser alloying with carbides and aluminium oxide using high power diode laser HPDL is presented on figures. It was found a clear influence of process parameters, in particular the laser power and the used ceramic powder on the laser tray shape and surface topography. The laser tray face after using TiC and WC powders with the feeding technique, has a regular, flat surface (Figure 1,2). In case of vanadium carbide the laser tray surface obtained after alloying is characterised by a flat shape of the remelting area, but with visible discontinuities occurred in the surface layer. Figures 3 and 4 show exemplary laser tray faces after applying the technique with putting on of the ceramic powder paste (two steps process: powder, which was mixed with a binder in form of soda glass or polyvinyl alcohol, placed on the sample surface, and following alloying with laser beam). This technique was not used in the further series of tests due to numerous discontinuities occurring on the remelted surface. The investigated laser treated materials using the powder feeding technique with SiC particles are characterised by a bulge sample surface reching above the substrate material, due to mixing of the alloyed ceramic powder with the substrate material (Fig. 5). The surface layer obtained after the process of aluminium oxide alloying is characterised by occurrence of a small caving in the middle of the laser tray surface for 2.0 kW laser power (Fig.6). Performed investigations show, that the increase of laser power at a constant laser scanning rate influences the size of the area, where structural changes in the surface layer of the Al-Mg-Zn alloys occurs. The laser power is also related to the formation of the remelting zone bottom as well the convexity of the laser tray face, which are strongly influenced by the movements of the liquid metal.
View of the MCMgAl9Zn1 casting magnesium alloy face of weld after laser treatment with TiC, scan rate: 0.75 m/min, laser power: 1.2 kW
View of the MCMgAl12Zn1 casting magnesium alloy face of weld after laser treatment with WC, scan rate: 0.75 m/min, laser power: 1.2 kW
View of the MCMgAl9Zn1 casting magnesium alloy face of weld after laser treatment with WC, scan rate: 1.0 m/min, laser power: 2.0 kW
View of the MCMgAl9Zn1 casting magnesium alloy face of weld after laser treatment with TiC, scan rate: 1.0 m/min, laser power: 2.0 kW
View of the MCMgAl9Zn1 casting magnesium alloy face of weld after laser treatment with SiC, scan rate: 0.75 m/min, laser power: 2.0 kW
View of the MCMgAl9Zn1 casting magnesium alloy face of weld after laser treatment with Al2O3, scan rate: 0.5 m/min, laser power: 2.0 kW
Metallographic investigations results indicate, that the structure of the solidifying material after laser remelting is characterised by occurrence of areas showing a different morphology related to the crystallisation of the investigated magnesium alloys (Fig. 7-14). As a result of laser alloying there is created a defect free structure with clear grain refinement. The structure of the laser modified layer consists mainly of dispersed particles of the TiC, WC, VC, SiC, Al2O3 powder placed in the Mg-Al-Zn alloy matrix. Morphology of the remelted zone after laser alloying consists mainly of dendrites with Mg17Al12 plate like eutectic and Mg occurred in the interdendritic areas, whose main axes are oriented along the heat transport directions. Moreover the morphology of the composite structure of the area after laser alloying results from the change of the hypo eutectic alloy to an hyper eutectic one, depending on the dissolution and distribution of the ceramic powder used and process parameters applied for the surface layer treatment.
Investigations carried out using the scanning electron microscope have confirmed the presence of zonal structure in the surface layer of the investigated magnesium cast alloys (Figure 7-12). In the remelted zone there occurs a dendritic structure, coming into existence according to the heat transport direction. The dendritic structure occurs together with not dissolved particles of the used carbide or aluminium oxide powder (Fig. 13,14). Morphology of the area after laser alloying, as well the amount and distribution of carbide particles depends on the applied laser parameters. As a result of metallographic investigations of the MCMgAl3Zn1, MCMgAl6Zn1, MCMgAl9Zn1 and MCMgAl12Zn1 alloy there was found evenly distributed particles over the remelting zone (Figure 7-12). In the upper area of the remelting zone in which vanadium carbide was alloyed some turbulences can be seen, which are caused by the convective movement of the melt and the ceramic powder during the remelting process.Chemical composition investigations using energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS), as well as investigation of surface distribution of the chemical elements carried out on a crosssection of the surface layer of the cast magnesium alloy Mg-Al-Zn using TiC, WC, VC, SiC, Al2O3 powders confirms the occurrence of magnesium, aluminium, zinc, manganese, coal, and also respectively titanium, tungsten, vanadium, silicon and oxygen in the laser modified layer, and indicate a lack of solubility of the alloyed particles(Fig. 11-14).
Scanning electron microscope micrograph of cross section laser modified surface of the MCMgAl9Zn1 alloy with TiC (laser power1.6 kW), scan rate: 0.75 [m/min]
Scanning electron microscope micrograph of cross section laser modified surface of the MCMgAl9Zn1 alloy with SiC (laser power 2.0 kW), scan rate: 0.75 [m/min]
Scanning electron microscope micrograph of laser modified surface of MCMgAl12Zn1 alloy with WC particles of the central modified zone, scan rate: 0.75 [m/min], laser power: 2.0 [kW]
Scanning electron microscope micrograph of laser modified surface of MCMgAl6Zn1 alloy with SiC particles of the central modified zone, scan rate: 0.75 [m/min], laser power: 2.0 [kW]
The area analysis of chemical elements alloy MCMgAl6Zn1 after laser treatment with TiC, scan rate: 0.75 [m/min], laser power: 1.6 [kW]: image of the secondary electrons (SE) and maps of elements’ distribution
The area analysis of chemical elements alloy MCMgAl6Zn1 after laser treatment with WC, scan rate: 0.75 [m/min], laser power: 2.0 [kW]: image of the secondary electrons (SE) and maps of elements’ distribution
Structure of the laser modified surface of MCMgAl9Zn1 alloy with Al2O3 particles of the central modified zone, scan rate: 0.5 [m/min], laser power: 2.0 [kW], a) SEM micrograph, b) EDS microanalysis of the Al2O3 particles with surface layer in point 1 marked on
Scanning electron microscopy micrograph of MCMgAl9Zn1 alloy after laser alloying with SiC particles, laser power: 2.0 kW, scan rate: 0.75 m/min, powder feed rate: 0.75 m/min, a) SEM micrograph, b) linear analysis of the chemical composition changesmarked on
Hardness measurements results of the Mg-Al-Zn cast magnesium alloy after remelting and alloying with WC, TiC, VC, NbC, SiC carbides and Al2O3 oxide (Figure 15) show, that in most cases laser treatment of the surface layer causes an hardness increase. The highest hardness increase of 56 HRF compared to the hardness results achieved for the material after standard heat treatment was obtained for the MCMgAl3Zn1 alloy alloyed with TiC powder with laser power of 1.2 kW and laser scanning rate of 1.0 m/min. For the MCMgAl6Zn1 alloy the highest hardness (93.4 HRF) after laser treatment was measured for the material alloyed with TiC powder with laser power of 1.2 kW and laser canning rate of 0.75 m / min.
Change in the average hardness of the surface layer of casting magnesium alloys after laser treatment: A – MCMgAl3Zn1, B – MCMgAl6Zn, C – MCMgAl9Zn1, D – MCMgAl12Zn1
Furthermore, on the basis of the outworked neural network model diagrams of the impact of laser power, concentration of aluminium, and also the type of powder on the hardness of the analyzed casting magnesium alloys after laser treatment of the surface layer (Figs. 16) were made. The diagrams in most cases concern the remelting speed of 0.75 m/min, corresponding to the optimum geometry of the path of the laser. The obtained results clearly show that MCMgAl12Zn1 casting magnesium alloys alloyed by TiC and WC powders with a laser power of 2.0 kW and a speed of 0.75 m/min. are characterised by the highest hardness.
Simulation of the laser power and aluminium concentration (wt. %) influence on hardness of casting magnesium alloys after laser alloyed with: a) TiC, b) VC, c) WC, d) SiC, e) Al203particles, scan rate 0.75 m/min (a-d), scan rate 0. 5 m/min (e)
The reference data gathered when implementing the FORSURF project for surface properties formation leading technologies of engineering materials and biomaterials was used in order to determine the strategic position of laser technologies in relation to materials surface engineering as well as the position of laser remelting and alloying/cladding in relation to surface engineering laser technologies [8]. Over 300 independent experts from many countries representing scientific, business and public administration circles have taken part in the FORSURF technology foresight. The experts have completed approx. 650 multiquestion surveys and held thematic discussions during 10 Workshops. A collection of 140 critical technologies, 10 for each thematic group, was selected for the above 14 thematic groups from the initially inventoried approx. 500 specific technology groups. The scientific and research methods of evaluating the state of the art for a particular concept, technology review and a strategic analysis with integrated methods were used for this purpose, including: extrapolation of trends, environment scanning, STEEP analysis, SWOT analysis, expert panels, brainstorming, benchmarking, multicriteria analysis, computer simulations and modelling, econometric and static analysis. Next, the technologies were thoroughly analysed with three iterations of the Delphi method carried out in consistency with the idea of e-foresight using information technology encompassing a virtual organisation, web platform and neural networks, with a universal scale of relative states being a singlepole positive scale without zero, where 1 is a minimum rate and 10 an extraordinarily high rate.
Foresight investigations with the sample size of 198 have revealed a very robust strategic position of laser technologies among other materials surface engineering technologies. The experts found that that laser technologies have the best industrial application prospects in the group of all the analysed materials surface engineering technologies in the nearest 20 years. 78% of the surveyed held such a view. Nearly a three fourth of the respondents (73%) maintain that numerous scientific and research studies will be devoted to such technologies in the analysed time horizon.70% of the persons surveyed claim that the thematic area of “Laser technologies in surface engineering” is crucial and its importance should be absolutely rising so that an optimistic scenario can come true of the country’s/Europe/World development, i.e. “Race won” assuming that the potential available is adequately utilised to fulfil the strategic objectives of development and so that people, statistically, are better off, social attitudes are optimistic and the prospects for the coming years bright. 81% of the surveyed persons argue that the significance of laser technologies in relation to other materials surface engineering technologies will be growing, whereas 18% maintain it will remain on the same level with only 3 individuals asserting that the role will diminish over the next 20 years. The excellent results of technology foresight elaborated based on the reference data point to, therefore, the anticipated key role of laser technologies for the advancement of the overall materials surface engineering (mezo scale) and for the development of the entire domestic/European/global economy (macro scale) [23]. The results of the foresight research discussed, presenting the position of laser technologies against materials surface engineering as a whole, are provided on Fig.17.
The position of laser technologies against materials surface engineering as a whole [
The position of laser remelting and alloying/cladding vis-à-vis other laser technologies in surface engineering has undergone a thorough foresight study made by the selected key experts, specialists in the field of laser technologies. The two technology groups analysed are characterised by stable, predictable development prospects. 40 % of the experts surveyed maintain that the technology group of laser alloying/cladding, characterised by its late maturity, falls within the group of critical technologies and its importance should be absolutely rising so that an optimistic scenario of the country’s/Europe/World development, i.e. “Race Won” comes true in the nearest 20 years. 20% of the experts attending the study held a similar view for the base technology of laser remelting.
The long run development prospects were identified based on the materials science experiments and expert studies performed by means of the custom methodology [9] for the individual groups of specific technologies, including the laser treatment of casting magnesium alloys, i.e. respectively: (A) titanium carbide TiC, (B) tungsten carbide WC, (C) vanadium carbide VC, (D) silicon carbide SiC and (E) aluminium oxide Al2O3. The recommended action strategies and the predicted multivariant development tracks and technology roadmaps were also developed and information sheets were prepared.
As part of the research conducted, the key experts in the first place assessed the analysed technology groups with a universal scale of relatives states consisting of ten points (max: 10, min: 1) for their attractiveness and potential and the result obtained was entered into the dendrological matrix of technology value [18]. The analysis made has shown that all the groups of technologies were classified to the most promising quarter called widestretching oak, encompassing the technologies with a high potential and attractiveness. The best score of A(9,65; 9,75) was attained for casting magnesium alloys undergoing laser treatment with titanium carbide, and the lowest score of D (7,55; 8,45) was seen for those where silicon carbides were used for laser treatment. Positive and negative environment influence on the relevant technology groups was evaluated with a meteorological matrix of environment influence. The results of a multicriteria analysis of the experts’ scores acquired in the surveytaking process were entered into the matrix [18]. The results of the studies made reveal that the environment for all the technology groups subjected to the studies is unusually favourable, bringing multiple opportunities and few difficulties. Hence, all the analysed technology groups were found in the quarter corresponding to sunny spring, boding very well for their development. Again, the technology group referred to as A (4,04; 7,36) scored highest, and the lowest score was given to the technology group called E (3,77;6,02). The results of the studies presented graphically with the dendrological and meteorological matrix were at the next stage of the scientific pursuits entered into the matrix of strategies for technologiesby means of the softwaredeveloped for this purpose (Fig.18). The matrix presents, in a graphical manner, a position of the relevant technology groups of the laser treatment of casting magnesium alloys with carbides and aluminium oxide according to its value and environment influence intensity and identifies an appropriate action strategy. The oak in spring strategy is recommended for all those analysed technology groups that are boding well. The strategy consistsin developing, strengthening and implementing an attractive technology with a large potential in the industrial practise to achieve a spectacular success.
The next stage of the research consists of identifying the strategic development tracks for the individual technologies/technology groups according to the experts’ opinions, representing a forecast of their development for the years of: 2015, 2020, 2025 and 2030 according to the three variants: optimistic, pessimistic and the most probable one. They are next visualised against the technology strategy matrix. The numerical values, being an outcome of all the investigations performed for the three analysed groups of technologies, are listed in Table 3. Due to relatively small differences between the individual analysed groups of technologies at a macro scale, the strategic development tracks established for them have a similar direction, showing minor differences and are discussed further on with a representative example of the laser treatment of casting magnesium alloys with titanium carbide TiC.
The most probable strategic development track of the leaser treatment of casting magnesium alloys with titanium carbide TiC assumes that the environment conditions shift from friendly spring to risky summer while maintaining a high potential and attractiveness characteristic for widestretching oak. The environment will become more stable in the subsequent years transiting into the autumn phase. It is anticipated that an attractive, stable technology will become successful at the predicted market with other markets being sought for along with the new groups of potential clients and new products manufacturable with the specific technology. An optimistic laser treatment development track for casting alloys with titanium carbide TiC assumes that althougha number of temporary (2015-2020) difficulties occur in the environment, the opportunities emerging at the same time can be exploited with those opportunities defining the development of this technology group in the further years ensuring their return to the friendly area of sunny spring. This, combined with the maintaining high attractiveness and technology potential, will ensure a spectacular success. A pessimistic variant defined by the third strategic development track for the technology group envisages that the global downturn would become even harsher due to the unfolding disadvantageous political and economic situation. This will cause more and more difficulties in the environment (year of 2015) and fewer and fewer opportunities making it necessary to operate in 2020 in the unfavourable conditions of frosty winter. The economic circumstances will be unfriendly, making the potential users less interested in the technology group. In 2025 the analysed technology group, being rooted dwarf mountain pine, by using a large potential representing an objectively high value of the technology, will make attempts to withstand the difficulties while regularly weakening, so that it transits to the field of quaking aspen in winter in 2030 with withdrawal from the market being then advisable.
The matrix of strategies for technology called the laser cladding and remelting of casting magnesium alloys using TiC (A), WC (B), VC (C), SiC (D) carbide and Al2O3 oxide (E) powders [
Technology | Steady state 2010-11 | Type of strategic development tracks | Years | ||||
Symbol | Name | 2015 | 2020 | 2025 | 2030 | ||
(A) | The laser treatment of TiC in the Mg-Al-Zn surface | Strategy of an oak in spring A (9.8, 8.4) | (O) | (9.8, 6.5) | (9.9, 7.0) | (9.9, 8.0) | (9.9, 9.0) |
(P) | (9.8, 6.0) | (9.8, 2.0) | (6.0, 2.0) | (3.0, 1.8) | |||
(MP) | (9.7, 6.0) | (9.8, 7.0) | (9.8, 4.5) | (9.9, 4.8) | |||
(B) | The laser treatment of WC in the Mg-Al-Zn surface | Strategy of an oak in spring B (9.2, 8.3) | (O) | (9.2, 5.6) | (9.3, 6.2) | (9.4, 7.0) | (9.4, 8.0) |
(P) | (9.2, 5.3) | (9.2, 1.6) | (5.7, 1.6) | (3.0, 1.4) | |||
(MP) | (9.2, 5.6) | (9.2, 6.0) | (9.3, 3.9) | (9.3, 4.2) | |||
(C) | The laser treatment of VC in the Mg-Al-Zn surface | Strategy of an oak in spring C (9.7, 8.4) | (O) | (9.7, 6.2) | (9.8, 6.5) | (9.8, 7.5) | (9.8, 8.5) |
(P) | (9.7, 5.7) | (9.7, 1.8) | (5.9, 1.8) | (3.0, 1.5) | |||
(MP) | (9.6, 5.7) | (9.7, 6.5) | (9.7, 4.0) | (9.8, 4.3) | |||
(D) | The laser treatment of SiC in the Mg-Al-Zn surface | Strategy of an oak in spring D (8.8, 8.4) | (O) | (8.8, 5.6) | (8.8, 6.0) | (8.9, 7.0) | (9.0, 8.2) |
(P) | (8.8, 5.7) | (8.7, 1.7) | (5.9, 1.7) | (3.0, 1.4) | |||
(MP) | (8.8, 5.6) | (8.8, 5.4) | (8.8, 4.0) | (8.9, 4.3) | |||
(E) | The laser treatment of Al2O3 in the Mg-Al-Zn surface | Strategy of an oak in spring E (9.2, 8.2) | (O) | (9.2, 5.6) | (9.4, 6.0) | (9.4, 7.1) | (9.4, 8.1) |
(P) | (9.2, 5.2) | (9.2, 1.5) | (5.6, 1.5) | (3.0, 1.4) | |||
(MP) | (9.2, 5.6) | (9.3, 6.0) | (9.3, 4.0) | (9.3, 4.1) |
Strategic development tracks of laser treatment of Mg-Al-Zn castingmagnesium alloys using carbide and oxide powders. Types of strategic development tracks: (O) -optimistic, (P) - pessimistic; (MP) - the most probable [18]
A series of roadmaps of the technology groups analysed was created on the basis of the results of experimental and comparative studies. The roadmaps serve as a comparative analysis tool permitting to select the technologies or technology groups best in terms of the criterion defined [27-29]. The roadmaps, prepared with a custom concept, have their set up corresponding to the first quarter of the Cartesian system of coordinates. The following time intervals, respectively: current situation (2010-11), goals fulfilment methods (2020) and longterm objectives (2030) are provided on the axis of abscissa, i.e. time layer, concept layer, product layer, technology layer, spatial layer, staff layer and quantitative layer, made up of more detailed sublayers. The uppermost layers of the technology roadmap are most general and determine the allsocial and economic reasons and causes of the actions taken. The middle layers are characterising a product and its manufacturing technology. The bottom layers are determining organisational and technical matters concerning the place, contractor and costs. Cause and effect relationships, capital ties, time correlations and twodirectional data and/or resources flow take place between the individual layers and sublayers as signified graphically with the different types of arrows. Fig.19 presents a representative technology roadmap drafted for the laser cladding of vanadium carbide VC particles into the surface of casting magnesium alloys Mg-Al-Zn. Table 4 presents an aggregate list containing the selected data being an extract from all the technology roadmaps developed for the analysed casting magnesium alloys subjected to laser treatment. The technology information sheetsare detailing out andsupplementing the technology roadmaps. They containtechnical information very helpful in implementing a specific technology in the industrial practice, especially in SMEs lacking the capital allowing to conduct own research in this field.
Demonstrating technology roadmap for laser cladding of TiC in the substrate of Mg-Al-Zn casting magnesium alloys
Technology symbol | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | ||||||||||||||||||
Time horizon | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
a | b | c | a | b | c | a | b | c | a | b | c | a | b | c | a | b | c | a | b | c | a | b | c | ||
(A) | 8 | 7 | 3 | 10 | 8 | 5 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 8 | 6 | 10 | 8 | 5 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 3 | 5 | 8 | |
(B) | 8 | 7 | 5 | 10 | 8 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 5 | 5 | 9 | 9 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 7 | |
(C) | 8 | 7 | 5 | 10 | 8 | 5 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 9 | 2 | 4 | 6 | |
(D) | 8 | 7 | 5 | 8 | 8 | 5 | 6 | 8 | 9 | 8 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 5 | 5 | 9 | 7 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 3 | 6 | 9 | |
(E) | 8 | 7 | 3 | 8 | 8 | 6 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 7 | 7 | 9 | 9 | 5 | 5 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 7 | |
Technology symbol (A) The laser treatment of TiC in the Mg-Al-Zn surface (B) The laser treatment of WC in the Mg-Al-Zn surface (C) The laser treatment of VC in the Mg-Al-Zn surface (D) The laser treatment of SiC in the Mg-Al-Zn surface (E) The laser treatment of Al2O3 in the Mg-Al-Zn surface | Analysed factors (1) Live cycle period (2) Machine park modernity (3) Quality and reliability (4) Proecology (5) Staff education level (6) Capital requirements (7) Production size determining profitability in enterprise (8) Production size in the country | Time horizon a: 2010-11 years b: 2020 year c: 2030 year | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Selected source data used for preparation of technology roadmaps for investigated laser treated casting magnesium alloys
This chapter of the book presents the results of interdisciplinary foresightsmaterials science research pertaining to five groups of specific technologies including the highcapacity diode laser treatment of casting magnesium alloys with, respectively: (A) titanium carbide TiC, (B) tungsten carbide WC, (C) vanadium carbide VC, (D) silicon carbide SiC and (E) aluminium oxide Al2O3. Materials science investigations were carried out in particular including light and scanning microscopy, X-ray phase qualitative analysis and surface distribution analysis of alloy elements. Investigations into mechanical properties were also held including hardness, microhardness and roughness as well as expert studies. The longterm development prospects of casting magnesium alloys subjected to laser treatment were identified using a custom methodology, along with the recommended action strategies and the forecast multi variant development tracks. The results of the foresight research [8] based on reference data [8] for the position of laser technologies were also presented, including remelting and laser alloying/cladding against materials surface engineering in general.
The results presented for the materials science research reveal a promising improvement in the mechanical properties of the material investigated. Laser cladding and remelting with all the carbide and oxide powders referred to above influences the refinement of structure within the entire investigated scope of laser power and also influences the varied grain size in the individual zones of the surface layer of the alloys investigated. Two zones occur in the surface layers: remelting zone (RZ) and heataffected zone (HAZ) with their characteristic values (layer thickness) depending on the laser power used and the alloying material used. The structure of the material solidifying after laser remelting is characterised by a varied morphology and consists of dispersive particles of the TiC, WC, VC, SiC carbide or Al2O3 oxide applied, of dendrites with the lamellar eutectic of Mg17Al12 and Mg in interdendritic areas, with their main axes being oriented towards the directions of heat evacuation and also of precipitates containing Mg and Si, as well as of phases with a high concentration of Mn and Al. In addition, a morphology of the composite structure of an alloyed area was obtained by changing a hypoeutectic to hypereutectic alloy, depending on the arrangement of the alloyed elements and by changing the surface laser treatment process parameters. In the Mg-Al-Zn casting magnesium alloys subjected to remelting and alloying with carbides and oxide, the maximum hardness of approx. 103 HRF was achieved for the MCMgAl12Zn1 alloy alloyed with titanium carbide at the laser power of 1.2 kW and at the alloying rate of 0.5 m per min., as a result of grain refinement and the occurrence of hard particles of the powders applied.
One should conclude while analysing the results obtained for the research that it is feasible to use the investigated Mg-Al-Zn alloys and their treatment technologies also in an alternative fashion for the surface layers ensuring possibly the most favourable “quasigradient” properties on the section of the products in the industrial practise. Widespreadpotential applications are identified especially for the aviation and automotive industry where the following properties are required: a small mass density of products, higher wear resistance, improved strength parameters of elements as well as repairing the ready elements. The best developmental and applicational prospects stemming from an analysis of mechanical properties of the casting magnesium alloys subjected to laser treatment are exhibited by those materials into which the particles of titanium carbide TiC (technology A) and vanadium carbides VC (technology C) were cladded. An analytical tool likely to facilitate the future implementation of the technologies analysed, in particular in small and mediumsized enterprises, are the roadmaps and technology information sheets, prepared at the last stage of the research works, containing concise knowledge and the results of the experimental and expert works were used for this purpose.
Research were financed partially within the framework of the structural project POIG.01.01.01-00-023/08-03 FORSURF, headed by Prof. L.A. Dobrzański.
Unlike animals, plants do not have the ability to move, making them vulnerable to attack by pests and sometimes animals. To overcome this problem, plant tissues synthesize enormous compounds, such as terpenes, polyphenols, cardenolides, steroids, alkaloids, and glycosides, and use them as defense strategies [1]. These defense compounds are called secondary metabolites and are not necessary for essential plant functions, such as growth, photosynthesis, and reproduction. These compounds are accumulated in the plant body to use by man as pharmaceutical, agrochemicals, aromatics, and food additives [1, 2]. Despite the progress in synthetic chemistry, plants are considered the most successful sources of drugs due to their bioactive compounds produced through secondary metabolism pathways [2].
In industrialized and developing countries, raw plant materials and plant-derived pharmaceuticals have naturally an essential component of present-day human healthcare systems. A known fact is that over 80% of the human beans use herbal medicines for healthy living [3]. In this respect, at present, more than 40% of the used pharmaceuticals by Western countries are derivatives of natural resources [4]. Worldwide, man uses about 35000–70000 plant species to prevent and cure diseases, most of them are reported in China (10,000–11,250), India (7500), Mexico (2237), and others [5]. Quality assurance and standardization of herbal medicines during the collection, handling, processing, and production of herbal medicine are essential prerequisites to ensure safety for the global herbal market. Wild plant materials are collected from gardens, open pasture, or forest land. In some cases, medicinal plants grow like weeds on agricultural land. While the bulk of the medicinal plant materials is still wild-harvested, a very small number of plant species are cultivated commercially [6]. However, increase populations and urban growth were associated with an over-exploitation of natural resources. Unfortunately, several medicinal plant species are disappeared due to the expansion of land for the purpose of growing crops, urban expansion, uncontrolled deforestation, and intensive collection [7]. Now, the increase in demand for these compounds encouraged the cultivation of large areas of medicinal plants and the application of new technologies, such as plant tissue culture (PTC) to preserve them from extinction and improve their productivity in quality and quantity.
Manufacturing of medicinal products from soil-grown plants faces some challenges, such as: (1) The wild-targeted plant does not exist in sufficient abundance in the local environment or is rare in general, (2) Cultivation of the target plant may need certain conditions, (3) Production of the target substance may require to grow plants for a long time, (4) The target substance may present at low concentration in cultivated or harvested plants, (5) Variations in environmental conditions may result in the production of bioactive compounds at a non-homogeneous quantity or quality, (6) Collection of plants for pharmaceuticals may be unsafe, (7) Harvest of propagated medicinal plants for drug industries is time- and money-consuming [8]. To overcome all the obstacles, PTC techniques express the great potential for bioproduction of phytoconstituents of high therapeutic value. By application of artificial techniques, regulation of the biosynthetic pathway of the certain plant to enhance the production of valuable compounds or avoidance of production of an unwanted substance become possible.
With the aid of gene technology and molecular techniques,
Application of PTC technologies in the medicinal plant does not free from problems but avoiding their problems can be precisely controlled, which makes
Through PTC techniques, a whole plant can be regenerated from an organ, small tissue, or a plant cell but it should carry out on a suitable culture medium and under a controlled environment [15]. Under these conditions, the obtained plantlets are true to type and show characteristics identical to the mother plant. On the other hand, the culture conditions can be controlled to stimulate genetic variation for plant improvement, but it requires the construction of a selection procedure to select an elite mutant. For several decades,
The application of PTC techniques in the medicinal and other plant species becomes an essential prerequisite for plant propagation and improvement [15, 17]. The application of plant tissue culture has several advantages: (1) It results in the production of thousands of plantlets in a short period from a small segment of the tested plant. (2) It is a main procedure to obtain pathogen-free plants. (3) It can be used to culture plants round the year, irrespective of weather or season. (4) It needs little space for the propagation of the southlands of plants. (5) It can be used as the main procedure to produce a new cultivar of a certain plant. (6) It can be used to understand the effect of a specific biotic or abiotic factor on a tested plant beyond the interaction of other factors. (7) It helps to understand the molecular biology of plant differentiation. (8) It is an essential prerequisite during the production of genetically engineered plants. (9) It is an effective procedure for the production of pharmaceutical compounds. (10) It is an essential procedure for the preservation of endangered plant species, genetic assets, and gene banks.
Phytotherapy becomes a complementary and important part of pharmacotherapy and modern medicine. It is a type of treatment based on natural medicinal resources (drugs) and herbal remedies for the purposes of prevention and treatment of illness. Herbal drugs mean using the whole plant or part of it, fresh or dry, to treat or prevent human disease. Any plant part (flower, leaf, root, bark, fruit, and seed), resins, balsams, rubber, plant exudates, algae, fungi, or lichen can be used as herbal drugs for its medicinal properties. Herbal drugs or herbal remedies contain active ingredients of herbal medicinal products. The aerial plant parts, such as leaves, seeds, and flowers, are often able to synthesize and accumulate secondary metabolites more than those obtained by underground parts, such as roots or rhizomes [19]. For example, in
Based on their biosynthetic origins, reports classify the bioactive secondary metabolites of the plant into major groups, including phenolic compounds, terpenoids, nitrogen-containing alkaloids, and sulfur-containing compounds [21]. Phenolic compounds were the most important group where they are largely used to enhance human health and they naturally occur in fruits, vegetables, cereals, and beverages. Phenols are classified into different groups, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, and lignans, and they include apigenin, diosmin, quercetin, kaempferol, eriodictyol, naringenin, hesperetin, baicalein, chrysin, catechin, morin, genistein, curcumin, colchicine, resveratrol, and emodin. For the production and extraction of hundreds of these secondary products, plant cell, tissue, or organ cultures were used [21].
As a part of complementary and alternative medicine, medicinal plant extracts are widely used in chronic diseases like diabetes, hypertension, cancer, etc. Melatonin and serotonin, as antioxidants, were detected in the field and greenhouse-grown
Screening of 346 methanol extracts of 281 native and cultivated plant species in Egypt indicated that
Plant tissue culture is the most promising savior of medicinal plants that face problems of low yield and susceptibility to biotic or abiotic stress. Also, PTC can be used for
High multiplication using seedling tissues or shoot meristems was achieved in several plant species, such as
For long-term storage of medicinal plant materials, cryopreservation is recommended where it is carried out in liquid nitrogen (−196°C). Different plant organs or parts, including seeds, corms, bulbs, rhizomes, roots, tubers, buds, and cuttings, can be stored for conservation purposes [11], especially in medicinal plants with recalcitrant seeds. The main applied techniques of cryopreservation of medicinal plants are vitrification, desiccation, and encapsulation–dehydration. Vitrification-cryopreservation of shoot tips of
PTC is more efficient than naturally grown plant materials to assess the effect of different experimental conditions on the production of secondary metabolites of medicinal plants [55]. PTC opens the way for the production of engineered molecules and produces new forms of plant secondary metabolites [56]. These new forms of compounds may have a valuable effect on biological control, food, pharmaceutical, and other strategies. Transformation techniques are widely dependent on PTC for enhancing the
Different types of PTC techniques are successfully exploited for
The synthetic capacity of secondary metabolites of the dedifferentiated tissue often differs substantially from that of differentiated one, both quantitatively and qualitatively. The differences in synthetic capacities are a direct response to differences in enzyme patterns between differentiated and undifferentiated tissues, they are mirrors for gene expression of these tissues. The culture of differentiated plant materials often shows biochemical and genetic stability, it offers a high-productivity system that does not need wide-ranging optimization. For example, the major alkaloid (vindoline) is scarcely produced by
Generally,
Under aseptic conditions, cultured plant materials can be used to generate bioactive or secondary metabolites, including flavonoids, alkaloids and other phenolics, terpenoids, saponins, steroids, tannins, glycosides, colorants, fragrances, and volatile oils [14]. Production of high-value active secondary metabolites at industrial levels, such as shikonin, berberine, and sanguinarine, was fulfilled from cell cultures of
Pharmaceutical compounds that are obtained from
The biosynthesis of secondary metabolites using unorganized cultured cells or organized organs, such as roots, can be enhanced by altering the environmental conditions or selecting an elite variant clone [66]. There are many procedures that can be controlled to increase the productivity of
To understand factors that control the biosynthesis of pharmaceutical compounds by cultured plant materials, studies on gene expression, enzyme activity, and signal transductions were carried out [12, 14]. The establishment of desired productivity of the PTC needs optimization of overall culture conditions to enhance both culture biomass and metabolites productivity. For example, while sulfate and ammonium nitrate ions increased the colchicine content of
When nodal segments of
The effect of carbon source concentration and type on culture biomass and metabolites productivity should be investigated. To enhance the biomass and biosynthesize of secondary metabolites, sucrose is widely used as a carbon source and it was better than maltose, glucose, and others [77]. During
Physical culture conditions can also affect the ability of
In a scale-up production system, modulation the composition of the culture media is an essential prerequisite to enhance the production efficiency of a selected cell line, but long-term cultivation may lead to the reduction of the yield [64] due to an increase in somaclonal variation [84]. Consequently, genetic stability of the cultured plant materials should be established using determined indicators, such as molecular markers, stability of growth parameter index over extended subculture cycles, and metabolite production.
Callus culture is an undifferentiated-unorganized mass obtained by cell division on cultured plant material on an agar medium. Then, calli are subcultured either for
Callus culture itself is exploited to produce and study secondary compounds in many medicinal plant species [66]. For induction of callus formation, specific culture conditions should be established, which means that cultured cells divide and proliferate rapidly as long as the cultural environment has sufficient nutrients and suitable growth regulators. Conditions for callus induction and proliferation are not favorable for the production of secondary metabolites. For induction of secondary metabolites, calli culture conditions should be changed or transferred to a new medium with a different composition [11]. High yields of proteolytic enzymes from the callus tissue culture of
The advantages of the application of suspension-cell cultures are obvious including: (1) The biomass production is usually more rapid than that of other
Application of specific cell lines and selective culture of that cell lines lead to the production of secondary compounds more than those obtained from original tissues and normal culture conditions [87]. The addition of plant growth regulators enhances the production of target secondary metabolites in several medicinal plant species [88]. Cell immobilization [89] and genetic makeup [90] can be optimized to enhance the synthesis of secondary compounds under
Two-phase cell suspension cultures establish a growth medium for maximizing cell biomass and production of naphthoquinone pigment in the first phase, but the second phase was established at the dark condition and room temperature with alkaline pH. These two phases system enhanced biomass production six-fold and optimized metabolite production in
Most of the used biotic elicitors are either exogenous or endogenous microbial agents but abiotic is a wide range of materials, mainly heavy metals [14, 99]. Methyl jasmonate, salicylic acid, yeast extract, chitosan, inorganic salts, UV radiation, or others can be used as elicitors to improve secondary metabolites production of the cultured plant materials [97, 100]. Citric acid, L-ascorbic acid, and casein hydrolysate were also used as elicitors to enhance the total phenolic content in the callus of
In the suspension culture of
Abiotic stresses for a given period can be used as an elicitor. Temperature, light parameters (intensity, photoperiod, and wavelength), and water potential of the medium influence the fresh and dry biomass [15] as well as the concentration of active metabolites [107]. Any factor that affects the water stress of the media should affect growth and bioactive compound synthesis. The profound change in the culture water potential due to the addition of NaCl, mannitol, or polyethylene glycol can elicit the production of secondary metabolites [107]. The relationship between abiotic-nutritional deficiency stress and enhancement of the production of secondary metabolites was reported [108]. Deficiencies of nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, sulfur, or magnesium increase the production of phenolic compound accumulation in different plant species [109], which may be due to oxidative stress and modulation of the expression of some genes [110]. The combination between target gene overexpression and elicitors increased the yield of secondary metabolites. Across studied plant species, elicitors promoted the yield of secondary metabolites from 1.0 to a maximum of 2230-fold [100]. Abiotic elicitors were applied to enhance growth and ginseng saponin biosynthesis in
Specific microorganisms can be used for elicitor purposes [112]. It takes place through the co-cultivation of plant cells with microorganisms. Compared to non-elicited control tissues, coculture of
Under perfect and controlled conditions,
Feeding the culture medium with organic compounds, such as vitamins or amino acids enhanced
The yield of salidroside was improved by feeding Rhodiola genus plants with an appropriate concentration of precursors and elicitors such as precursors, phenylalanine, tyrosol, and tyrosine [123]. Tyrosol feeding (0.5 mM) expressed the most obvious effect on salidroside content in the cell suspension cultures of
Genetic diversity within medicinal plants has great importance and can be used for plant improvement and the selection of an elite line. The selection of high biomass and metabolite(s) producing cell lines plays an important role in optimizing the productivity of
To get a high yield of metabolites, Briskin [127] described the biotechnological methods for the selection of high-yielding cell lines in medicinal plants by addressing several topics, including media components, elicitation, immobilization, physical stress, and transformation. This means that the identification and establishment of high producing and fast-growing
Qualitative and quantitative estimation of active metabolites may show variability depending on the spatial and temporal changes that may happen during the process. Variation in secondary metabolites yield may be due to their repression or losses before or during the extraction processes. Consequently, the determined secondary metabolite value may not exactly indicate the actual content of secondary metabolite in a given tissue or plant species. Nevertheless, quantitative and qualitative methods can be applied to select high-yielding cell lines [14]. Selection of the high-yielding lines can be established by exposing the population of plant materials to toxic inhibitors, biosynthetic precursors, or stressful environments and followed by selecting cells that show higher production of targeted components [2]. Selection can be carried out using callus, cell suspension, or through any other
The production of secondary metabolites is a metabolic process that is influenced by several physicochemical factors. These factors can be controlled and optimized in large-scale production. Traditional mutagenesis programs have been used by the pharmaceutical industry for yield improvement of medicinal plants. Recently, the development of recombinant DNA technology has provided new and effective tools to obtain elite strains with high content of secondary metabolites through overexpression of specific enzymes involved in their biosynthetic pathways aiming to increase the production levels and speed the metabolic processes [67, 96]. Consequently, plant genetics, recombinant DNA technologies, and PTC have developed to improve the ability of several medicinal plants to biosynthesize secondary metabolites efficiently.
To control the synthesis of certain natural products, the enzymes involved in the synthesis of these reactions and how they are influenced by
Using PTC, key gene overexpression that involved in the biosynthetic of valuable biologically active compounds can be controlled leading to produce compounds in high quantity and quantity. For example, the overexpression of geranyl diphosphate synthase and geraniol synthase genes in
Bioactive secondary metabolites are under coordinated control of the biosynthetic genes, and transcription factors (TFs) play an important role in this regulation [135]. Transcriptional regulation means the change in gene expression levels by modulation of transcription rates. Studies on the regulation of the production of secondary metabolite pathways are focused on the regulation of structural genes through TFs [135]. For example, the expression of genes involved in TIAs (terpenoid indole alkaloids, such as vincristine and vinblastine) metabolic pathway is elicited by jasmonates, it is regulated biosynthesis of terpenoid indole alkaloid (TIAs) and artemisinin [135]. Jasmonate was demonstrated as a regulator of deacetylvindoline 4-O-acetyltransferase (DAT) expression [136]. Expressed DAT is involved in the biosynthesis of TIAs member-vindoline through transferring an acetyl group to deacetylvindoline for vindoline production. It was clear that most of the genes codded for TIA pathway enzymes are tightly regulated by specific TFs under the regulation of JAs but it is carried out in coordination with developmental growth stage and environmental factors [135].
TFs of TIA genes respond to JAs and/or other elicitors. In
The genetic transformation was used as a powerful tool to improve the productivity of secondary metabolites. In general,
Gene transfer using
The application of PTC in medicinal plants can be scaled up using “bioreactors,” which allow atomization and production of a high yield of medicinal secondary products [154]. Therefore, scale-up production is a bioreactor application for the cultivation of plant cells on large-scale aiming for the mass production of valuable bioactive compounds. Also, bioreactor-based micropropagation was found to increase shoot multiplication for the commercial propagation of
Cell suspension offers the wright combination of physical and chemical environments that must be used in the large-scale production of secondary metabolites in the bioreactor process [156]. Consequently, scale-up production in the bioreactor was used to expand the production of secondary metabolites from research to the industrial level. Systems of various sizes and features of bioreactors were created and applied for the mass production of secondary metabolites [157]. The application of plant tissue culture techniques in bioreactors for scale-up production facilitates obtaining some expensive pharmaceuticals that are synthesized in low quantity during
Bioreactor operating system should provide efficient oxygen and nutrient supply, homogenous distribution of cultivated plant materials, and other factors that ensure optimal biomass and metabolite production [161]. While most of these bioreactors rely on cell suspension cultures, few of which are rely on differentiated tissues such as somatic embryos and hairy roots [162]. Application of suspension culture facilitates metabolites isolation [157].
For scale-up production, automation becomes an essential prerequisite, where it controls the pH of the culture area, culture viscosity, osmolarity, temperature, redox potential, oxygen supply, production of carbon dioxide, nutrients, weight, and liquid levels, and follows the rate of cell density. This automation needs sensors and monitoring systems that ensure mass production of pharmaceuticals and monitoring of physical, chemical, and biological parameters [163].
Perfusion cultivation is a system where continuous feeding of fresh media into a bioreactor system and removal of cells-free media were carried out in a modified bioreactor. The aim of this type of bioreactor and perfusion cultivation is to scaling-up the production of pharmaceutical compounds using plant cell, tissue, and organ cultures. The perfusion system offers a great advantage where it overcomes nutrient depletion and accumulation of growth inhibitors within the cultivated system, and it resulted in the promotion of biomass and pharmaceutical compounds. Semi-continuous perfusion was established in
Advances in immobilization and scale-up production techniques increase the applications of plant cell cultures for the purpose of producing high added value secondary compounds such as compounds with chemotherapeutic or antioxidant properties. For example, cell cultures of
In general, there are many factors that may hinder the application of PTC for various purposes in the field of medicinal and other plant species. The production of medicinal compounds using PTC has two important aspects—the amount of plant materials should be sufficient for the production of the target substance, as well as the quantity and quality of the produced substance. Hence, it is necessary to identify and avoid the conditions and phenomena that may negatively affect the growth efficiency of the
Obstacles facing the production of medicinal compounds from wild or cultivated plants can be avoided by using cell and tissue cultures, but these compounds may be toxic to the
Long-term culture can be used for the accumulation of desirable metabolite(s), but it can be a problematic and limiting factor that should be avoided by the application of certain techniques, such as medium enrichment or substitution in bioreactors [167]. These strategies include accumulation of metabolites in vacuoles, and other subcellular compartments or the exudation of metabolites into the culture medium [168]. The last strategy needs the application of additional techniques to decrease the concentration of the accumulated metabolite leading to further biosynthesis. It is accomplished by changing the medium of the culture manually or mechanically. In this regard, hairy roots were recommended, but not all secondary compounds are synthesized and accumulated in the roots [66].
While successful production of a wide range of valuable secondary metabolites can be obtained using unorganized callus or suspension cultures, the differentiated organ can be used but each of them may face some problems. The most important problems are the slow growth rate and somaclonal variation [84]. Consequently, the production of secondary compounds through the application of PTC techniques becomes unstable at a specific period. Generally, the problems facing the production of secondary metabolites using PTC can be easily solved by changing the culture conditions to avoid growth retardation and somaclonal variation [11]. Also, the application of PTC techniques in combination with other approaches could be used to avoid growth retardation and genetic variation [11].
The appropriate conditions for increasing the growth of the cultured plant materials may be different from the conditions for increasing the concentration of the active substance. To overcome these dilemmas, a two-step protocol is used, one of which provides optimal conditions for growth and the other provides optimal conditions to produce the active substance [12]. For example, while growth stimulators should be used during the growth phase, elicitors should be used to stimulate the biosynthesis of active compounds [169].
Accumulation of secondary metabolites is obtained under the influence of biotic or abiotic stress, but it retards the biological mass. To ensure a high yield of secondary metabolites, producers hope to conserve conditions to stimulate high biomass and biosynthesis of the targeted metabolite. Consequently, optimization of culture conditions to increase growth parameters or application of elicitors become an essential prerequisite [169].
Despite
Production of the secondary metabolites using the cell culture technique is low during the early stage of growth where high carbon utilization exists and is associated with enhancement of primary metabolism. On the other hand, the production of secondary metabolites is high at the late stage when carbon is less needed for the production of primary metabolism [14]. Prolonged the age of the cultured plant materials is necessary but it may be associated with genetic variation [47, 84]. Therefore, the enhancement of growth criteria of the cultured plant materials is not sufficient to confirm the optimization of
Somaclonal variation results from chromosomal changes in number or structure, transposable elements, or possibly pre-existing genetic changes in the donor plant. To detect somaclonal variation, several molecular techniques such as Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD), Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR), and Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) were recommended [18, 47].
Sometimes, the production of secondary metabolites through some techniques such as cell suspension is not always an adequate procedure. Then, other techniques such as organ culture can be used as a supernumerary method for the production of secondary metabolites [85]. Shoot cultures as same as hairy root cultures are recommended for production of pharmaceuticals where they are genetically stable [179]. Shooty teratomas were produced for the production of secondary metabolites, such as vincristine in
Generally, tissue culture plant materials were incubated in vessels to prevent microbial contamination and retard culture desiccation but these conditions may cause restriction of gases exchange between cultures and their surrounds. Under insufficient ventilation stress, the growth of the cultured plant materials was retarded due to retardation of photosynthesis, transpiration, and uptake of water and nutrients leading to the accumulation of ethylene and the appearance of vitrification or hyperhydricity [182]. The symptoms of vitrification are slowing growth rate, necrosis of shoot tips, loss of apical dominance, disorganized cell wall, fragile leaves, reduction of shoot multiplication, poor acclimatization, impaired stomatal function, reduction of some metabolites, alteration of ion composition, inhibition of H2O2 detoxification enzymes [183, 184].
Vitrification in medicinal and other plant species can be avoided by reducing the relative humidity and improving the aeration within culture vessels [183, 184], decreasing the concentration of free water by increasing the concentration of agar [185], and using anti-ethylene compounds including CoCl2, AgNO3 or salicylic acid [47, 183]. To confirm which anti-ethylene compounds can be used to conserve the genetic fidelity of
An increase in the world’s population imposed an important matter, which is the inevitability of leaving arable land for food production. Where modern agricultural techniques can be used to produce secondary metabolites and preserve the genetic assets of these plants, the most notable technique is PTC. In addition, different PTC techniques are used to propagate rare and endangered plant species. Changes in the physical and chemical conditions of
The use of plant tissue techniques has become dependent on it to produce pharmaceutical materials after laboratory and applied experiments have proven that
The use of PTC techniques to produce pharmaceutical compounds depends on the availability of production of sufficient-viable plant biomass to produce pharmaceutical substances with the requested quality and quantity. Therefore, it is necessary to understand all the factors that limit the production of targeted mass to avoid them such as the toxicity of secondary metabolites, low growth rate of cultured plant materials, and problems that constrain the application of transformation on a wide spectrum of plant species, somaclonal variation during cell or tissue cloning and verification of the cultured plant organs.
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\\n\\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\\n\\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\\n\\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\\n\\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\\n\\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\\n\\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\\n\\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\\n\\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\\n\\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\\n\\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\\n\\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\\n\\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\\n\\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\\n\\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
\n\nWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website www.intechopen.com, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.
\n\nIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.
\n\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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Therefore, more studies are needed to assess the benefit of antibiotic prescription and whether it is safe to refrain from its use.",book:{id:"5185",slug:"dental-implantology-and-biomaterial",title:"Dental Implantology and Biomaterial",fullTitle:"Dental Implantology and Biomaterial"},signatures:"Dalia Khalil, Bodil Lund and Margareta Hultin",authors:[{id:"179031",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Khalil",slug:"dalia-khalil",fullName:"Dalia Khalil"},{id:"185113",title:"Dr.",name:"Bodil",middleName:null,surname:"Lund",slug:"bodil-lund",fullName:"Bodil Lund"},{id:"185114",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareta",middleName:null,surname:"Hultin",slug:"margareta-hultin",fullName:"Margareta Hultin"}]},{id:"47915",title:"Rationale for Dental Implants",slug:"rationale-for-dental-implants",totalDownloads:3076,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"4548",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Ilser Turkyilmaz and Gokce Soganci",authors:[{id:"171984",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ilser",middleName:null,surname:"Turkyilmaz",slug:"ilser-turkyilmaz",fullName:"Ilser Turkyilmaz"}]},{id:"18430",title:"An Important Dilemma in Treatment Planning: Implant or Endodontic Therapy?",slug:"an-important-dilemma-in-treatment-planning-implant-or-endodontic-therapy-",totalDownloads:6264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Funda Kont Cobankara and Sema Belli",authors:[{id:"28846",title:"Dr.",name:"Funda",middleName:null,surname:"Kont Çobankara",slug:"funda-kont-cobankara",fullName:"Funda Kont Çobankara"},{id:"75862",title:"Prof.",name:"Sema",middleName:null,surname:"Belli",slug:"sema-belli",fullName:"Sema Belli"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"998",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",abstract:"This chapter will address evidence-based prosthetic concepts in dental implantology as well as clinical evidence with focus on appropriate logic and technical skills. Those prosthetic factors are as just important as surgical factors, and long-term success can only be achieved if both of those factors are considered, respected, and strictly followed from planning to prosthetic phase of treatment. This chapter will deal with materials selection for prosthetic part, shape, size, and design of supracrestal parts of abutments and their influence on soft tissue and bone stability around dental implants. Furthermore, one of most important decisions is about choosing the proper way of retention: screw- vs. cement-retained restorations, and it will be discussed in detail. Additionally, emergence profile and its function in soft tissues adaptation and adhesion to different prosthetic materials also have important role in long-term success of dental implant restorations.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Ivica Pelivan"},{id:"80500",title:"Novel Dental Implants with Herbal Composites: A Review",slug:"novel-dental-implants-with-herbal-composites-a-review",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101489",abstract:"Missing a permanent tooth is a miserable condition faced by a common man. A tooth decay, periodontitis, mechanical trauma, or any systemic complications lead to such a complication. These bone defects when left untreated lead to severe resorption of the alveolar bone. A proper dental filling with an appropriate bone substitute material could prevent such resorption and paves a way for subsequent implant placement. Dental implants are considered as the prime option by dentists to replace a single tooth or prevent bone resorption. A variety of bone substitutes are available differ in origin, consistency, particle size, porosity, and resorption characteristics. Herbal composites in dentistry fabricated using biphospho-calcium phosphate, casein, chitosan, and certain herbal extracts of Cassia occidentalis, Terminalia arjuna bark, Myristica fragans also were reported to possess a higher ossification property, osteogenic property and were able to repair bone defects. C. occidentalis was reported to stimulate mineralization of the bone and osteoblastic differentiation through the activation of the PI3K-Akt/MAPKs pathway in MC3T3-E1 cells of mice. This implant proved better osteoconductivity and bioactivity compared to pure HAP and other BCP ratios. Terminalia Arjuna was also worked in the incorporation in the graft to enhance the osteogenic property of the implant and gave good results. Another implant bone graft was synthesized containing BCP, biocompatible casein, and the extracts of Myristica fragans and subjected to in vitro investigations and the results revealed the deposition of apatite on the graft after immersing in SBF and also the ALP activity was high when treated with MG-63 cells, NIH-3 T3, and Saos 2 cell lines. This study indicates that the inclusion of plant extract enhances the osteogenic property of the graft. Thus, these novel dental implants incorporated with herbal composites evaluated by researchers revealed an enhanced bone healing, accelerates osseointegration, inhibits osteopenia, and inhibits inflammation. This application of herbal composite inclusion in dentistry and its applications has a greater potential to improve the success rate of dental implants and allows the implications of biotechnology in implant dentistry.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gopathy Sridevi and Seshadri Srividya"},{id:"78320",title:"Implant-Retained Maxillary and Mandibular Overdentures - A Solution for Completely Edentulous Patients",slug:"implant-retained-maxillary-and-mandibular-overdentures-a-solution-for-completely-edentulous-patients",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99575",abstract:"The main goal of modern removable prosthodontics is to restore the normal appearance, function, esthetics and speech in each completely edentulous patient. However, if all teeth are missing in a patient, it becomes very complicated to achieve it using traditional protocols. Therefore, implants were introduced into removable prosthodontics to ensure better retention and stability of the conventional dentures. In case of a large amount of bone missing in the jaw it is necessary to ensure the functioning of the dentures constructing various additional stabilizing and retentive prosthodontic solutions on the osseointegrated implants. Numerous types of attachment systems have been used recently for relating implant-retained overdentures to underlying implants: basically splinting (various bar shape designs) and non-splinting attachments (various ball type attachment, magnet attachment, telescopic coping systems). Indications for their use depend on the surgical and prosthodontic factors such as the number and position of the implants, the amount of free intermaxillary space and the type and size of the overdentures. Different indications, types of the overdentures and the attachment systems will be discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Dubravka Knezović Zlatarić, Robert Ćelić and Hrvoje Pezo"},{id:"79724",title:"Implant Stability Quotient (ISQ): A Reliable Guide for Implant Treatment",slug:"implant-stability-quotient-isq-a-reliable-guide-for-implant-treatment",totalDownloads:60,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101359",abstract:"Implant stability is a prerequisite for successful dental implants and osseointegration. To determine the status of implant stability, continuous monitoring in an objective and qualitative manner is important. To measure implant stability two different stages are there: Primary and secondary. Primary implant stability at placement is a mechanical phenomenon that is related to the local bone quality and quantity, the type of implant and placement technique used. Primary stability is checked from mechanical engagement with cortical bone. Secondary stability is developed from regeneration and remodeling of the bone and tissue around the implant after insertion and affected by the primary stability, bone formation and remodeling. Implant stability is essential for the time of functional loading. Classical benchmark methods to measure implant stability were radiographs or microscopic analysis, removal torque, push-through and pull-through but due to lack of feasibility, time consumption and ethical reasons other methods have been propounded over period of time like measurement of implant torque, model analysis and most important ISQ which has the ability to monitor osseointegration and the life expectancy of an implant. ISQ is a valuable diagnostic and clinical tool that has far-reaching consequences on implant dentistry and this article throws light on advanced and reliable methods of assessing ISQ.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gaurav Gupta"},{id:"79817",title:"Peri-Implant Soft Tissue Augmentation",slug:"peri-implant-soft-tissue-augmentation",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101336",abstract:"The peri-implant soft tissue (PIS) augmentation procedure has become an integral part of implant-prosthetic rehabilitation. Minimal width of keratinized mucosa (KM) of 2 mm is deemed necessary to facilitate oral hygiene maintenance around the implant and provide hard and soft peri-implant tissue stability. PIS thickness of at least 2 mm is recommended to achieve the esthetic appearance and prevent recessions around implant prosthetic rehabilitation. The autogenous soft tissue grafts can be divided into two groups based on their histological composition—free gingival graft (FGG) and connective tissue graft (CTG). FGG graft is used mainly to increase the width of keratinized mucosa while CTG augment the thickness of PIS. Both grafts are harvested from the same anatomical region—the palate. Alternatively, they can be harvested from the maxillary tuberosity. Soft tissue grafts can be also harvested as pedicle grafts, in case when the soft tissue graft remains attached to the donor site by one side preserving the blood supply from the donor region. Clinically this will result in less shrinkage of the graft postoperatively, improving the outcome of the augmentation procedure. To bypass the drawback connected with FGG or CTG harvesting, substitutional soft tissue grafts have been developed.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Marko Blašković and Dorotea Blašković"},{id:"79611",title:"Growth Factors and Dental Implantology",slug:"growth-factors-and-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:103,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101082",abstract:"Normal healing procedure of bone involves various sequential events to develop bone and bridge the bone -to- bone gap. When this healing occurs with a metal (titanium) fixture on one side, it is called as osseointegration. After extensive studies on this topic, it is found that this procedure occurs in presence of various biologic constituents that are spontaneously released at the site. Thus, to accelerate normal healing after implant placement and make results more predictable, it has been proposed to use these autologous factors in the osteotomy site. Since it is the beginning of a new revolution in dental implantology, right now it is essential to analyze all possible combinations of host conditions, bone quality and quantity and bio factors being used. This can definitely be a boon for the patients with compromised systemic or local conditions.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Deeksha Gupta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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Banigo, Chigozie A. Nnadiekwe and Emmanuel M. 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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