Proportion of declining and threatened species per taxa according to IUCN criteria.
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This is because biodiversity provides many important ecosystem services due their abundance and diversity [1, 2, 3]. Much of the decline has been blamed on human activities such as hunting, habitat loss through deforestation, agricultural expansion and intensification, industrialization and urbanization [4, 5], which together accounted for 30–50% encroachment on natural ecosystems at the end of the twentieth century [6]. Agricultural intensification is considered the key driver of this biodiversity loss in many taxa including birds, insectivorous mammals and insects. The removal of natural habitat elements such as hedgerows, trees and other landscape features together with the recurrent use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural intensification systems negatively affect overall biodiversity of insects [7]. Extensive use of pesticides is reported as the primary factor responsible for the decline of birds in grasslands [8] and aquatic organisms in streams [9], with probably other factors contributing to or amplifying their effects.
Long-term population monitoring study at several protected areas of Germany revealed a 76% decline in flying insect biomass with an annual loss of 2.8% [10]. Similarly, a study in the rainforests of Puerto Rico showed biomass losses between 98 and 78% for ground-foraging and canopy-dwelling arthropods over a 36-year period, with annual losses between 2.7 and 2.2%, respectively [11]. The authors showed parallel declines in birds, frogs and lizards at the same areas, which they attributed to invertebrate food shortages. The studies above (10–11) confirm the declining trend in flying insects (mainly Diptera) reported earlier for parts of Southern Britain [12]. While climate change may be a contributory factor to arthropod declines, intensification practices including deforestation were reported to be responsible for the annual loss of insect biomass in the tropical rainforest of Germany [10]. The authors also pointed to the effect of synthetic pesticides as a likely driver of the losses in insect biomass.
The above studies demonstrate general knowledge about biodiversity decline in insects. It appears that insect declines are substantially greater than those observed in birds or plants [13], and this could have far reaching consequences on several of the world’s ecosystems. This review summarizes current knowledge about insect declines; that is, the changes in species richness (biodiversity) and population abundance through time in intensive agricultural systems point to the likely drivers of these declines and conclude with management practices that could mitigate these declines in sustainable agricultural systems. Previous reviews are limited in scope to one or a few insect taxa (e.g., butterflies, carabids) in specific regions and made no comparisons across taxa in different geographical regions (e.g., Sequera et al. 2014; Zhao et al. 2015).
Agricultural production has struggled over the past few centuries to keep pace with the ever-increasing world population of humans, which exceeded 7 billion in late 2011 and is expected to reach 9.3 billion by 2050 [14]. In sub-Saharan Africa, for example, the current population of 1.1 billion people is projected to double over the next 30 years [15]. The increasing population increased demand for food and also brought in its wake increased demand for land for housing, roads and other infrastructural needs, which limited land availability for other purposes including agriculture. Thus, the hitherto traditional agricultural practices such as low-input agriculture with inherent low yields and shifting cultivation appeared no longer tenable in the quest to produce enough food for the growing population. This led to the intensification of agricultural practices more especially after World War II. In Europe and North America, the intensification of agriculture began in the first half of the twentieth century, whereas in South America, Africa and Asia, it started mainly in the second half of the century [16].
The agricultural intensification practices include expansion of farms into large commercial enterprises, accompanied by a changed emphasis to monocultures, and the application of increasing inputs of fertilizers and synthetic pesticides [14, 17]. Today’s farmlands are larger in scope than their predecessors, more of monocultures, and more rely more on external inputs such as fertilizer, insecticide, and herbicide. In such systems, there is also greater emphasis on the elimination of weeds, cutting down hedgerows and trees in order to facilitate mechanization of fields. Surface waterways are also modified including stream channelization to ease flow and improve irrigation and drainage of fields. These intensification practices drastically reduce the level of refugia available for insects, herbaceous plants, vertebrate insectivores, and other organisms and consequently an overall decline in biodiversity, both in species numbers and in biomass [14, 18, 19].
More than a quarter of the world tropical forests have been cut since the ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992, leaving many to wonder whether there will be any substantial stands of tropical forest remaining by the end of this century. Many grasslands and forested areas have also been converted into croplands and plantations [17]. The effects of these practices on biodiversity loss is further exacerbated by the effect climate change, which limit the location of favored regions for crops and other life forms [17].
A lot has been reported about the effects of agricultural intensification practices on biodiversity loss in insects. Zabel et al. [19] discussed the trade-offs between increasing agricultural intensification and biodiversity decline. Inevitably, increased structural modification of habitats and change in the heterogeneity of farmlands in agricultural intensification systems affect biodiversity. The intensive practices alter the availability of food and shelter for insects and other life forms, which affect the abundance and diversity of species (14). Consequently, major insect declines were observed when agricultural practices shifted from the hitherto low-input traditional farming to the intensive, industrial-scale production brought about by the Green Revolution [19]. In its wake, rare species associated with protected ecosystems and natural habitats retreated or were lost completely [18, 19]. Monocultures led to a great simplification of insect biodiversity among pollinators, insect natural enemies and nutrient recyclers, and created the suitable conditions for agricultural pests to flourish. Thus, agricultural intensification serves as the main driver of insect declines in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems [20, 21, 22].
Raven and Wagner [17] reported of increased clearing of forests in the tropics for crops, pasture and wood fuel in Central Africa, Central America, many parts of South America and Southeast Asia. An average of 5 million acres of the forest was lost annually to industrial-scale agriculture between 2001 and 2015 [23, 24]. This huge deforestation poses serious threats to the world’s insect biodiversity as the majority of insect species diversity is found in the tropics. Deforestation is one of the major drivers of biodiversity loss and insect declines [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. Moreover, deforestation on larger scales has the potential to change weather and rainfall patterns that may further impact negatively on insect populations [24, 25]. Insect biodiversity is very important for successful agriculture in providing many ecosystem services such as pollination, nutrient recycling and biological pest control.
In [26, 27], it was reported that agriculture is the primary contributing factor in insect losses in California and Ohio. According to [27, 28], butterfly diversity in southwest Germany began declining two centuries ago, but with steeper rate of declines observed after World War II, when intensification practices increased. Over the past half century, two-thirds of the common moth species in Great Britain are decreasing in number. Powney et al. [29] analyzed the long-term abundance trends of moths in Great Britain and reported that moth abundances had decreased by 31% over the past five decades [19]. Similarly, in [17], the elevated rate of loss was reported in diverse group of insect fauna of the grassland world, including butterflies and noctuid moths (Lepidoptera); ants, bees and wasps (Hymenoptera); scarab and ground beetles (Coleoptera); crickets, grasshoppers and katydids (Orthoptera); leaf and plant hoppers, seed bugs and their kin (Heteroptera). Further, there are reports of declines of wild bees, particularly from northwestern Europe due to agricultural intensification [30].
This part of the chapter discusses in detail biodiversity declines of selected insect groups caused by the effect of agricultural intensification practices across the globe.
Butterflies and moths have high level of host plant specialization and are therefore vulnerable to habitat deterioration [31]. They also have a wide range of distribution and important for the delivery of key ecosystem services such as biological pest control and pollination [32]. Moths, which are about 10 times more different than butterflies, constitute important prey items for bats and sustain population levels of a myriad of other insectivorous animals [33].
Maes and Van Dyck [34] pioneered report of drastic changes in butterfly biodiversity in Flanders (Belgium) during the twentieth century. They observed that habitat loss due to urbanization and agricultural intensification expansion resulted in a steady decline of 69% of 45 extant species [34]. A follow-up study in the Netherlands by van Dyck [35] also found that 11 out of 20 most common and widespread butterfly species declined in both distribution and abundance between 1992 and 2007. Moreover, local populations of
Long-term monitoring data of butterflies are limited in the United States. However, surveys in prairie habitats and bogs of Wisconsin and Iowa showed fluctuating populations of certain species. These fluctuations were driven by habitat modification and moisture levels dependent on climate change [43]. Surveys of 67 butterfly species in California between 1972 and 2012 showed initially stable populations until 1997 when populations dropped steeply to 23 species. The observed declines correlated significantly with percentage of land converted to agriculture and usage of insecticide, with neonicotinoid being the most important. The declining trend in 1997 followed the introduction of the neonicotinoid insecticides in that State [44]. In Massachusetts, the distributional ranges of 116 species shifted northward between 1992 and 2010. Two southern species adapted to warmer conditions expanded in range (
Insect taxon | Declining (%) | Threatened (%) | Extinction rate (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Coleoptera | 49 | 34 | 6.6 | [48] |
Diptera | 25 | 0.7 | n.a | [49] |
Ephemeroptera | 37 | 27 | 27 | [50] |
Hemiptera | 8 | n.a | n.a | [51] |
Hymenoptera | 46 | 44 | 15 | [52] |
Lepidoptera | 53 | 34 | 11 | [13] |
Odonata | 37 | 13 | 6 | [53] |
Orthoptera | 49 | n.a | n.a | [1] |
Plecoptera | 35 | 29 | 19 | [54] |
Trichoptera | 68 | 63 | 6.8 | [49] |
Proportion of declining and threatened species per taxa according to IUCN criteria.
Members of this group include bees, ants and wasps. They provide many important ecosystem services such as pollination and biological control of insect pests. Bees are essential pollinators of flowering plants and constitute a third of all pollinators [19]. Also, honey bees have been managed for millennia as a source of honey and beeswax. Hence, a need for information about their population status because of the important ecosystem services they provide [55].
A report on 18 bee species in Britain showed declining trends for seven species since the 1960s. The species with the most declines were
In general, studies [83, 84, 85] identified four major phases of bee extinction particularly in Britain. These are as follows: i) the second half of the nineteenth century, with the introduction of guano fertilizers and conversion of arable crops to permanent grasslands, which reduced floral resources; ii) after the First World War, when florally-diverse crop rotations were replaced with chemical fertilizers; iii) between 1930 and 1960, when most species went extinct probably due to changes in agricultural policy (i.e., Green Revolution) that fostered agricultural intensification; and iv) from 1987 to 1994, when rates of decline slowed down perhaps because the most sensitive species were already lost or reduced substantially [20].
Apart from bees, the status of most other hymenopterans (i.e., ants, wasps and parasitoids) that provide important ecosystem services remains practically unknown to date (Table 2). There is, therefore, a need for intensive research on these species.
Taxon | Abundance | Decline | Location | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bumble bees | 18 species | 7 species | England | [56] |
Bumble bees | 14 species | 8 species | Canada | [61] |
Bumble bees | 60 species | 48 species | Central Europe | [59] |
Honey bees | 6-m colonies | 3.5-m colonies | USA | [67] |
Wild bees | 52% population | Britain | [85] | |
Wild bees | 67% population | Netherlands | [63] | |
Wild bees | 32% population | North America | [64] | |
Cuckoo wasps | 23% population | Finland | [85] | |
Stingless bees | 30 species | 11 species | USA | [64] |
Orchid bees | 24 species | 64% species | Brazil | [72] |
Parasitic wasps | 48 species | 23% species | Finland | [85] |
Ground beetles | 419 species | 34% species | Belgium, Denmark | [86] |
Ground beetles | 49 species | 16% species | UK | [87] |
Ladybird beetles | 68% species | USA | [86] | |
Dung beetles | 31% population | Italy | [88] | |
Saproxylic beetles | 436 species | 57% species | Europe | [89] |
Dragonflies | 52 species | 65% population | USA | [90] |
Odonata species | 200 species | 57 species | Japan | [91] |
Odonata species | 155 species | 13 species | South Africa | [92] |
Stoneflies | 14 species | 5 species | Czech Republic | [93] |
Stoneflies | 77 species | 29% species | USA | [94] |
Mayflies | 107 species | 43% species | Czech Republic | [95] |
Status of some taxa and their geographical areas.
Hoverflies (Syrphidae) are not only important pollinators, but vital biological pest control agent for pest such as aphids, with a preference for damp habitats. Most studies in the Mediterranean countries showed significant differences in diversity within this taxon, with 249 species alone in Greece [77] and 429 in Spain [96]. This notwithstanding, the only long-term study to date shows reductions in species richness among hoverflies in the Netherlands and the U.K. [76].
This insect group contributes greatly to ecosystem management through control of pests and decomposition of organic matter [97]. Habitat destruction, extensive application of toxic chemicals and urbanization are the main causes of their decline. Of 419 species surveyed in the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxemburg and Denmark, there was a 34% decline for carabids, with over 50% of xerophilic species of the genera
A study of 62 historical datasets of ladybird species in the USA and Canada showed stable species richness and population abundance [86]. However, a 68% decline was observed over a 20-year period in 1986 [86]. Two local species (i.e.,
Studies on the trends of dung beetle abundance and distribution are obtainable only for the Mediterranean region, which has the largest range of dung beetles in Europe [108]. A study in Spain indicated that out of the 55 native species, nine had declined from 28 to 7% loss, while their distributional range contracted from 48 to 29% [108].
Studies of scarab beetles showed that two
These are distinctive phytophagous insects of plane regions, associated with natural and anthropogenic grasslands areas [85]. Sweep-net samples collected from 1963 to 1967 were compared with those collected from 2008 to 2010 at the same sites regarding species diversity, species composition and abundance. Generally, there was no change in species richness, irrespective of the strong interannual variability in abundance and weather condition. However, a decline in 14 species was observed while there was an increase in nine others and one species (
A wide-ranging study on grasshoppers and crickets was conducted in Germany [116]. There was no fluctuation in their biodiversity and abundance over four decades (median nine species per site), and variations in species groupings were small. The only significant change was a steep decline in the Grasshopper of bare soils,
Dragonflies (Anisoptera) and damselflies (Zygoptera) are a small group of insects that contribute to the management of nuisance mosquitoes and agricultural pests [117, 118]. Of 118 aquatic insect species that are threatened, 106 are from the order Odonata [94, 119]. A study of 42 sites across USA recorded a decline in 52 species of dragonflies and damselflies, while there was an increase in 29 species over the 98-year period. Nine pollution-tolerant species declined significantly, including four species (
Freshwater insect taxa mostly exhibit inflexible life cycles, with several species being univoltine, thus making them vulnerable to habitat modifications. Flow changes, habitat fragmentation, pollution and invasive species are the main threats to all aquatic organisms, including insects [124, 125]. Data for three main orders of freshwater insects, Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera, are reported here. There were no records found for Coleoptera (e.g., Dytiscidae, Hydrophilidae), Hemiptera (e.g., Notonectidae, Gerridae) or Diptera (e.g., Chironomidae, Tipulidae).
Stoneflies are ecologically important and characterized by high degrees of endemism and narrow ecological requirements [126]. Previous report in Europe showed a disappearance of
Unlike terrestrial taxa, most declines were found among habitat generalists and less in specialized species (60–70%), which are tolerant to organic pollution. Sites affected by organic pollution showed only 17–33% decline of subtle and eurytopic species since the mid-1990s [93]; certain amount of species recovery has been detected following pollution modification in acidified habitats [131]. In Switzerland, 50% of the species of stoneflies and mayflies were lost between 1940s and 1980s [132], and similar trend occurred in other European countries and the USA, where 29% of the 77 local stonefly species were lost and 62% of the remainder became endangered over the past century [94]. Main losses occurred in the large rivers and agricultural areas during the 1940s and 1950s, when both agricultural intensification and urban expansion took place. Modification of river flows, channels and drainages structures was considered the driving factors for the declines. The large, long-lived species of Perlidae (summer stones) and Perlodidae (spring stones) were impacted the most, and 36% of summer stones had gone extinct since 1860. For sensitive genera such as
A checklist of mayfly species in the Czech Republic identified 107 species of which four are considered extinct, seven critically threatened, another seven endangered, 16 vulnerable and 14 near threatened [95]. A comparison of local mayfly also showed variations in species abundance, distribution and composition, but no major declines were observed in biodiversity except for the large lowland rivers, which lost five specialist species [133]. Biodiversity improved slightly in the mid- and upper streams and rivers, possibly because of substantial reduction in water pollution post-1989 [93]. Two species became extinct (
A comprehensive study on caddiflies species recorded 278 species in comparatively uninterrupted regions of Minnesota (USA) since the 1890s. Among the 278 species, 6–37% have declined in different areas, especially within the Limnephilidae (44% of species), Phryganeidae (21%) and Leptoceridae (12%) families [137].
The reports above show clearly that although agricultural intensification practices improve yields, they also impact negatively on the environment as evidenced by the decline in insect biodiversity. Biodiversity is an integral part of the natural resource base for agricultural production and therefore must be protected to sustain and safeguard the increased yields for the present and future generations. Over time, plant productivity decreases as biodiversity is lost [14]. A large proportion of studies (49.7%) point to habitat change as the main driver of insect declines, a factor equally implicated in global bird and mammal declines [135, 136]. Thus, habitat management practices are a key for sustainability of agricultural intensification practices. According to [136, 137], sustainable agricultural intensification is the management and conservation of the natural resource base and the orientation of technological and institutional change to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. It involves a process to produce high yields for existing land resource without affecting the environment. Sustainable intensification must include natural resource management practices that maintain the diversity of habitats as an intrinsic part of the agro-ecosystem or as additional land use interspersed among the fields (Firbank et al. 2008). These practices include crop rotation, reduced tillage, soil and water conservation, application of organic manure, intercropping and agroforestry [136, 138]. The practices will among other benefits ensure sustainable soil fertility through improved soil structure and soil microbial activities. Thus, sustainability requires the integration of multiple practices on a long-term basis to achieve desired environmental and agricultural outcomes. Intercropping with improved cultivars as well as integration of mixed crops with agroforestry and livestock could promote sustainable intensification and food security [137]. Also, the judicious implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) will minimize the use of toxic pesticides and enhance environmental safety for sustainable crop production [138]. Furthermore, in many of the world’s farming systems, biological control constitutes an under-utilized and yet cost-effective tactic for pest control. The effect of biological control will be felt more in sustainable intensification systems such as those that involve IPM practices that are benign to natural enemies of pests and/or conserve biodiversity [139]. For aquatic insects, rehabilitation of marshlands and improved water quality are essential for biodiversity conservation and enhancement [140]. This may require the implementation of effective remediation technologies to clean the existing polluted waters [141, 142].
This chapter has provided a comprehensive discussion of effects of agricultural intensification on decline in insect biodiversity. Intensification practices highlighted as causes of this decline include expansion of farms into large commercial enterprises, cutting down hedgerows and trees in order to facilitate mechanization of farms, changed emphasis to monocultures, and increasing application of external input of fertilizers and synthetic pesticides. These practices largely reduce the level of refugia available for insects, herbaceous plants, vertebrate insectivores, and other organisms and consequently an overall decline in biodiversity, both in species numbers and in biomass. Insect biodiversity is integral to the resource base of the plant ecosystem that provides essential services for increased crop productivity and, therefore, must be protected to safeguard the survival of the present and future generations. To mitigate this decline therefore, the chapter highlights sustainable intensification practices to include habitat restoration practices such as intercropping, crop rotation, reduced tillage, agroforestry, application of organic manures coupled with drastic reductions in application of synthetic pesticides.
The authors gratefully acknowledge management and staff of the Entomology Section of CSIR – SARI for their support in diverse ways during the preparation of this book chapter.
The authors declare no conflict of interest in the publication of this book chapter.
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Anomalies of binocular vision results in confusion, diplopia, which leads to suppression, eccentric fixation, anomalous retinal correspondence, and amblyopia.",book:{id:"8418",slug:"eye-motility",title:"Eye Motility",fullTitle:"Eye Motility"},signatures:"Arvind Kumar Morya, Kanchan Solanki, Sahil Bhandari and Anushree Naidu",authors:[{id:"270083",title:"Prof.",name:"Arvind",middleName:null,surname:"Morya",slug:"arvind-morya",fullName:"Arvind Morya"},{id:"273705",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalpit",middleName:null,surname:"Jangid",slug:"kalpit-jangid",fullName:"Kalpit Jangid"},{id:"279906",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanchan",middleName:null,surname:"Solanki",slug:"kanchan-solanki",fullName:"Kanchan Solanki"},{id:"279907",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahil",middleName:null,surname:"Bhandari",slug:"sahil-bhandari",fullName:"Sahil Bhandari"},{id:"290171",title:"Dr.",name:"Anushree",middleName:null,surname:"Naidu",slug:"anushree-naidu",fullName:"Anushree Naidu"},{id:"290172",title:"Dr.",name:"Priyanka",middleName:null,surname:"Rathore",slug:"priyanka-rathore",fullName:"Priyanka Rathore"},{id:"290173",title:"Dr.",name:"Sujeet",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"sujeet-prakash",fullName:"Sujeet Prakash"},{id:"290174",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonalika",middleName:null,surname:"Gogia",slug:"sonalika-gogia",fullName:"Sonalika Gogia"},{id:"290176",title:"Dr.",name:"Sulabh",middleName:null,surname:"Sahu",slug:"sulabh-sahu",fullName:"Sulabh Sahu"}]},{id:"46503",title:"Disorders of Optic Nerve and Visual Pathways",slug:"disorders-of-optic-nerve-and-visual-pathways",totalDownloads:3939,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"3848",slug:"ophthalmology-current-clinical-and-research-updates",title:"Ophthalmology",fullTitle:"Ophthalmology - Current Clinical and Research Updates"},signatures:"Ipek Midi",authors:[{id:"169657",title:"Dr.",name:"Ipek",middleName:null,surname:"Midi",slug:"ipek-midi",fullName:"Ipek Midi"}]},{id:"18960",title:"Measurement of Anterior Chamber Angle with Optical Coherence Tomography",slug:"measurement-of-anterior-chamber-angle-with-optical-coherence-tomography",totalDownloads:6217,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"517",slug:"the-mystery-of-glaucoma",title:"The Mystery of Glaucoma",fullTitle:"The Mystery of Glaucoma"},signatures:"De Orta-Arellano F, Muñoz-Rodriguez P and Salinas-Gallegos JL",authors:[{id:"31619",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiola",middleName:null,surname:"de Orta Arellano",slug:"fabiola-de-orta-arellano",fullName:"Fabiola de Orta Arellano"},{id:"35207",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz Rodriguez",slug:"pablo-munoz-rodriguez",fullName:"Pablo Muñoz Rodriguez"},{id:"35208",title:"Dr.",name:"José Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Salinas Gallegos",slug:"jose-luis-salinas-gallegos",fullName:"José Luis Salinas Gallegos"}]},{id:"42721",title:"Intracameral Mydriatics in Cataract Surgery",slug:"intracameral-mydriatics-in-cataract-surgery",totalDownloads:8523,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"239",slug:"cataract-surgery",title:"Cataract Surgery",fullTitle:"Cataract Surgery"},signatures:"Anders Behndig, Björn Lundberg and Gunnie Bäckström",authors:[{id:"47264",title:"Prof.",name:"Anders",middleName:null,surname:"Behndig",slug:"anders-behndig",fullName:"Anders Behndig"},{id:"53862",title:"Mr.",name:"Björn",middleName:null,surname:"Lundberg",slug:"bjorn-lundberg",fullName:"Björn Lundberg"},{id:"53863",title:"Mrs.",name:"Gunni",middleName:null,surname:"Bäckström",slug:"gunni-backstrom",fullName:"Gunni Bäckström"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"191",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81396",title:"Low-Vision Rehabilitation with Audio-Biofeedback in Age-Related Macular Degeneration",slug:"low-vision-rehabilitation-with-audio-biofeedback-in-age-related-macular-degeneration",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104227",abstract:"Audio-biofeedback (AFBF) with microperimetry is an important step in low-vision rehabilitation in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). After identifying the preferential retinal locus (PRL) with microperimetry, it is possible to begin rehabilitation to stabilize the PRL, increasing the quality of vision with 10 sessions of audio-biofeedback, at least one session per week, of 10 minutes for each eye. This involves presenting a chessboard grid in the site of fixation variable from the beginning to the end of the session. Audio-biofeedback allows for shifting the site of fixation to another point if the spontaneous fixation that the patient has found is not good to continue rehabilitation; at the end of biofeedback, we call this site the trained retinal locus (TRL) to differentiate it from the PRL. With audio-biofeedback, the low-vision patient with AMD acquires awareness about the best site of vision, thus improving the quality of vision, including better contrast sensitivity, visual acuity, color perception, and definition of the surrounding world.",book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg"},signatures:"Giovanni Sato and Roberta Rizzo"},{id:"81034",title:"Health Promotion for AMD and the Role of Nutrition",slug:"health-promotion-for-amd-and-the-role-of-nutrition",totalDownloads:34,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103835",abstract:"There is an increase in demand for health promotion and preventative medicine playing a vital role in managing chronic illnesses. Many of these conditions stem from a poor diet, sedentary lifestyle and smoking, all of which are risk factors for age-related macular degeneration (AMD). To combat chronic diseases, the root of the conditions may be addressed through the concept of health promotion. Health promotion thoroughly assesses how a population’s environmental, political, socioeconomic, behavioral, and cultural practices influence its health. This concept can be applied in a primary care setting which takes on a broader approach in treating and managing patients. Primary care providers need to be aware of the connections between common chronic illnesses and AMD. All primary care providers and eyecare specialists must be patients’ advocate and help improve their systemic and ocular prognosis.",book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg"},signatures:"Alexander Martinez, Joseph J. Pizzimenti, Drake W. Lem and Pinakin Gunvant Davey"},{id:"76690",title:"OCT Biomarkers for AMD",slug:"oct-biomarkers-for-amd",totalDownloads:210,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97752",abstract:"Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD) is an acquired retina disease that can potentially cause significant central visual impairment. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) applied to the study of retinal pathologies has revolutionized the understanding and management of AMD, especially with the technology of full-depth imaging (FDI) Spectral Domain (SD) OCT. With the increasing amount of data from several important studies using SD-OCT and OCT-angiography (OCT-A) we can now better classify and more accurately decode AMD. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the most important AMD biomarkers recently discovered using SD OCT. Understanding AMD phenotype is very important to define prognosis and individualized forms of treatment and follow up. Biomarkers on OCT have been crucial for a better understanding of AMD.",book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg"},signatures:"Luciana de Sá Quirino-Makarczyk and Maria de Fátima Sainz Ugarte"},{id:"76806",title:"Anti-VEGF Treatment and Optical Coherence Tomography Biomarkers in Wet Age-Related Macular Degeneration",slug:"anti-vegf-treatment-and-optical-coherence-tomography-biomarkers-in-wet-age-related-macular-degenerat",totalDownloads:182,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97689",abstract:"Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of the most common causes of severe visual loss in middle and old-age population, and often leads to serious deterioration in quality of life. Currently, the first-line treatment for neovascular AMD (nAMD) are intravitreal injections of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) medications, including bevacizumab, ranibizumab, and aflibercept and also latest commercially available drug, brolucizumab. During initial examination and imaging and treatment follow-up for patients with nAMD, optical coherence tomography (OCT) is used to predict and assess the therapeutic response and guide the treatment. Several OCT-based biomarkers, including the central subfoveal thickness (CSFT), the presence of intraretinal cysts (IRCs) or subretinal fluid (SRF), and the presence of pigment epithelial detachment (PED), were found to influence baseline visual acuity or visual improvements. Recent analyses of large randomized control trials (RCTs) summarized the usefulness of these OCT-based biomarkers. However, many of these early studies relied on time-domain OCT to evaluate the retinal structures thus providing less precise evaluation of the retinal details. After introduction of spectral-domain OCT (SD-OCT) which provided high resolution images, recent studies offered new insights in specific morphological changes and their different impact on visual function in nAMD. For example, these advancement in resolution offered new classification of IRCs into degenerative and exudative which impacts treatment strategy and final outcome in the treatment of nAMD. Moreover, the recent data disclose a substantial difference between RCTs and real-world studies regarding the response to anti-VEGF therapy. In conclusions, IRCs and PED are associated with poor visual improvement in nAMD in a realworld setting. Both IRCs and SRF responded better than PED to anti-VEGF therapy. These observations mandate large longitudinal studies focusing on the usefulness of these high resolution SD-OCT biomarkers in real-world situations.",book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg"},signatures:"Maja Vinković, Andrijana Kopić and Tvrtka Benašić"},{id:"76465",title:"New Drugs in the Pipeline for the Management of AMD",slug:"new-drugs-in-the-pipeline-for-the-management-of-amd",totalDownloads:318,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97665",abstract:"Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) therapies have revolutionized the care of patients with retinal diseases. In the 1990s, it was observed that anti-VEGF antibodies reduced tumor angiogenesis, and consequently, these antibodies started to be used off-label in the exudative form of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). In the 2000s, research was directed towards the development of anti-VEGF therapies for retinal disease management. Several anti-VEGF therapies were approved: pegaptanib, an RNA aptamer, in 2004; ranibizumab, an anti-VEGF Fab, in 2008; aflibercept, a humanized IgG Fc, in 2011; and brolucizumab, an scFv, in 2019. Currently, new therapeutic options are emerging, and approval is expected soon. These new therapies aim to increase treatment durability and thus reduce treatment burden and improve real-world outcomes. In this chapter, the mechanisms of action and the preliminary trial results of these potential new therapies will be described.",book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg"},signatures:"Ana Marta and Bernardete Pessoa"},{id:"75711",title:"Evidence-Based Practice and Trends in Visual Rehabilitation for Patients with Age-Related Macular Degeneration",slug:"evidence-based-practice-and-trends-in-visual-rehabilitation-for-patients-with-age-related-macular-de",totalDownloads:218,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96817",abstract:"Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a common, chronic, and progressive eye disease that is considered the leading cause of visual loss among the elderly in developed countries. Advanced AMD, including choroidal neovascularization (CNV) or geographic atrophy (GA), is associated with substantial and progressive visual impairment that can lead to a significant reduction in functional independence and quality of life (QoL) for affected individuals, whose number is expected to increase in the coming years in line with population growth and ageing. In this context, while an important part of medical care is focused on preventing the progression of the disease, Visual Rehabilitation (VR) aims to address its consequences by providing these patients with a number of strategies to achieve their goals and participate autonomously, actively and productively in society. This chapter aims to provide an update on evidence-based practices in the field and how modern technologies play an important role in the development of new VR approaches.",book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg"},signatures:"Luis Leal Vega, Irene Alcoceba Herrero, Adrián Martín Gutiérrez, Joaquín Herrera Medina, Natalia Martín Cruz, Juan F. 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She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. 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He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. 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