The relative energy of N1-H and N3-H to N2-H in the presence of different substituents [9].
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\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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With this huge demand, the building of a wide array of custom-made materials for different and also multiple applications have been made possible. Most often, the design of conjugated molecules is commonly built around small functionalized aromatic polycyclic systems like azole (Figure 1). These systems are built up as pieces of larger conjugated systems like polymers.
Basic benzobisazole units.
In an energy setting that progressively requires efficient and cleaner energy sources, fuel cells are considered as promising electrochemical devices for meeting such demand. This is because they can deliver electric energy with high efficiency and low environmental effect, converting the energy kept in fuels with no pollution. The proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) are known to be one of the most promising sources within the numerous kinds of current fuel cells owing to their great power density and high power-to-weight ratio. One of the downsides of current cells is linked to the electrolytes presently in use, which limit their use to temperatures below 100°C when working with water-assisted proton conduction [1, 2, 3, 4]. Operating temperatures above 100°C increase the performance of PEMFC due to a quicker electrode reaction which takes place without carbon monoxide poisoning of the platinum electro-catalyst, high energy efficiency and easier heating, [1, 2, 3, 4]. Organic semiconductors (OSCs) have attracted much attention over the past few decades owing to their unique properties, which allow them to be included in a host of electronic device applications.
Wood has been used as a traditional material for the construction of marine structures, such as groynes and jetties [5], and yachts and other boats. The application of wood in marine structures is attributable to the wood explicit properties. The factors for utilizing wood in marine structures include ease of construction and repair, relatively low energy costs of production, high strength-to-weight ratio, and renewability. However, biodegradation of wood is predominantly harsh in maritime construction due to the action of marine wood borers and crustaceans, in contrast to beetles, decay fungi, and termites active above the waterline [6]. In borer attack prevention, biocides are, in some cases, used to treat wood [6].
The use of durable hardwood species, mostly tropical hardwoods which are resistant to biodegradation, has led to tropical deforestation that continues to be a cause of concern. There are many other factors associated with this tropical deforestation other than the use of timber in maritime structures. The decrease in naturally durable species has necessitated the treatment of softwoods by using preservatives to achieve suitable protection for the wood under service conditions, mainly for outdoor applications [7].
This chapter seeks solutions which are developed systematically with scientific validation principles. Consequently, this chapter aims to provide a concise overview of integrating azoles in materials used for renewable energy processing and wood treatment, with an outlook on challenges and opportunities.
Azole compounds are part of a large class of heterocyclic compounds in Organic chemistry. Azoles are five-membered heterocyclic compounds containing a nitrogen atom and at least one other non-carbon atom of either nitrogen, sulfur, or oxygen [8]. They include the heterocyclic rings in Figure 2.
Examples of azole compounds.
The chemistry of 1,2,3-triazoles gained much attention since the discovery of the copper-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction, which delivers the 1,4-regioisomer exclusively in high yields [8].
Triazoles are five-membered aromatic heterocyclics, containing three nitrogen atoms. These atoms may be found arranged consecutively or not, given the isomers 1,2,3-triazoles or 1,2,4-triazoles, respectively (Figure 3) [8].
Structures of isomeric triazoles.
The structure of 1,2,3-triazoles, as shown in Figure 3, may exist in two diverse tautomers, per their position of the N-H bond on the ring. The position of the N-H bond can be on nitrogen 1 (1H) or in nitrogen 2 (2H). If the 1,2,3-triazole skeleton is substituted at the nitrogen and carbon atoms, dissimilar regioisomers may be obtained as shown in Figure 4.
Substituted 1,2,3-triazoles with dissimilar regioisomers of carbon and nitrogen.
When compared to their 1,2,4 isomers, the 1,2,3-triazoles have very distinct properties and more importantly, the N2 substituted has different properties than the N1 as well as N3, despite the structural likeness. For instance, the differences in basicity between the N1 and N2 isomers could be responsible for their different behavior within biological systems [8]. The N2-1,2,3-triazole core is found in several bioactive compounds, including antifungals [8]. The different tautomers shown in Figure 5 have distinct physical, chemical and biological properties [8].
Different tautomers of substituted and unsubstituted 1,2,3-triazoles [
The substitution of the triazole implies the study of the N3 -H tautomer, in addition to the N1 -H and N2 -H. Table 1 gives a summary of some energy values obtained by substituting the 1,2,3-triazole at carbon with different substituents, generating tautomers. It has been observed that in all cases studied, the N2 -H tautomer is the most stable. Figure 6 depicts substituent X on the different tautomers, and from Table 1 it can be realized that the substituent X has a strong correlation on the stabilization of the N1-H tautomer against the N3-H tautomer. It can be observed from Table 1 that the donor or electron-withdrawing performance of different groups does not render differences in the stabilization of the tautomers. However, the steric hindrance and hydrogen bonds between the substituent and the adjacent azole nitrogen atom which seem to be the preeminent factor in the stabilization of N1-H versus N3-H.
X | ΔE (kJ/mol) | ||
---|---|---|---|
N3 | N2 | N1 | |
NH2 | 30.734 | 0 | 22.019 |
F | 37.059 | 0 | 21.340 |
Cl | 27,557 | 0 | 20,780 |
CH3 | 20,566 | 0 | 20,080 |
CN | 22,475 | 0 | 18,004 |
NO2 | 22,194 | 0 | 16,941 |
CHO | 17,188 | 0 | 15,530 |
COOH | 12,081 | 0 | 13,261 |
OH | 35.946 | 0 | 18,578 |
CONH2 | 23,266 | 0 | 10,892 |
BF2 | 12,336 | 0 | 16,966 |
BH2 | 5547 | 0 | 15,815 |
The relative energy of N1-H and N3-H to N2-H in the presence of different substituents [9].
Substituents on different azole tautomers.
Azoles are known for their broad-spectrum biological activities including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimitotic, anticonvulsive, diuretic and many other uses as main ingredients in many drugs, [10]. Azoles are also known for their usage wood preservatives [11].
Generally, isolated natural products of heterocyclic nature act as lead compounds for the development of new molecules of bioactive interest. Also, most of the heterocyclic compounds are synthesized from readily available fine chemicals. In this respect, synthesis and characterization of new molecular entities incorporating heterocyclic structures are of great importance.
Azoles constitute a crucial category of antifungal agents in clinical, agricultural, and wood treatment uses. In general, they target the inhibition of ergosterol synthesis. Fungi are eukaryotes just like mammalian cells, and so agents that affect protein or nucleic acid biosynthesis are likely to display general eukaryotic toxicity [12]. Ergosterol, the predominant component of fungal cell membranes, is, therefore, evident and specific target for fungal inhibition.
In the beginning of the development of organic chemistry, heterocyclic chemistry of which azoles belong has held center stage in the development of molecules to enhance the quality of human life. Examples include drugs development, agricultural produce and wood preservation, as well as energy applications [8, 13]. Some of these organic compounds, as early as the 1950s, had been reported to have electrical conductivity [13]. However, the first breakthroughs did not occur until the 1970s. OSCs have been incorporated into various electronic devices, including organic photovoltaics (OPVs) [14, 15], some of which have been developed commercially [16, 17].
Researchers had become interested in the antifungal activity of azole compounds since 1958 after the introduction of topical chlormidazole. However, the first report of the antifungal activity of an azole compound, benzimidazole, was already described in 1944 by Woolley [18]. The initial reports of antifungal properties for imidazoles were published in the late 1960s [19]. During that period, three new topical compounds: clotrimazole, developed by Bayer Ag (Germany), and miconazole and econazole, both developed by Janssen Pharmaceutica (Belgium) were introduced [20].
There have been significant changes in the wood preservation industry over the past several years. For ground contact applications, copper-based systems have replaced the chromate copper arsenate (CCA) product used for many years but had some corrosion and mold issues during the initial phases of the transition [20]. Creosote was virtually the only preservative until various new preservatives were introduced in the 1930 and 1940s. There was a continued evolution of preservative systems, and in 1990, copper-azole preservatives were introduced [20].
There is quite a large number of azole compounds that are suitable for energy applications. These include but not limited to imidazoles, diazoles, triazoles, tetrazoles, thyazoles and pyrazoles [2]. A fuel cell, which is a device that provides electrical energy with high efficiency and low environmental impact, converts the chemical energy stored in fuel, such as hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, etc., directly and efficiently to electrical energy. In fuel cell applications, the fuel cell consists of thermal, humidification, and reactant/product management systems, electronics, and the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) [2]. The membrane electrode assembly is the electrochemically active portion of the cell, which contains an ion-permeable but electrically non-conductive electrolyte sandwiched between an anode and cathode at which oxidation of fuel and reduction of oxygen occur. Organic ionic liquids, molten salts, and strong acids/bases can all be utilized as the electrolyte separating anode and cathode. However, to minimize corrosion and gas diffusion and to improve the mechanical strength of fuel cells, solid oxide and polymer electrolyte membranes are the predominant separators in modern systems. Engineering of the complete fuel cell, including its support systems, is, therefore, an essential task in which the materials and chemistry are focused on the electroactive MEA. Thus, the proton-exchange membrane (PEM) is a significant component for the operation of proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC).
Generally, PEM are made of polymeric organic compounds containing acidic functions (example, Nafion). The restrictions of modern membranes have nurtured the research and development of alternative membranes, including doped polybenzimidazole (a combination of Nafion and metal oxides), organosiloxane based on inorganic-organic hybrids with various acidic species, and sulfonated polymers based on aromatic hydrocarbons [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14].
Typically, some amount of hydration is essential to conduct ions, and there are some new materials merging acceptor and donor ion carrier abilities of numerous groups [10]. Heterocyclics do act as a proton-conducting species, due to the amphoteric behavior of nitrogen. Thus, they can be used either as dopant or pendant groups in PEMFC devoid of the need to use external humidification. The properties of numerous heterocyclics, including benzimidazole and triazole, permit them to be used in materials operational above 100°C [21, 22, 23, 24].
Several azole derivatives have been synthesized to become precursors for novel fuel cell membrane materials. For example, from the azole compound 4,7-dibromobenzimidazole, new phosphonate-, hydroxybisphosphonate- and aminobisphosphonate benzimidazole derivatives substituted at N-1 position have been synthesized in good yields. Again, new regioisomers of phosphonate- and aminobisphosphonatebenzotriazole derivatives substituted at N-1 or N-2 positions have been synthesized in good yields from 4,7-dibromobenzotriazole. Characterization by NMR, IR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (low and high resolution) of these compounds have been fully done allowing the assignment of regioisomers [24].
Considering chemical viewpoint, two principal structural features give rise to the properties of organic semiconductors (OSCs). These are conjugated core or support, and countless types of solubilizing side chains. These two structural features, exact by chemical synthesis, have a wide influence on the nano-scale morphology, optoelectronic energy levels, and the bulk physical features of these materials.
Standard monomer building blocks to construct conjugated polymer for solar cells include azoles, and they are categorized by the number of rings and way of linking. Polybenzobisazoles, a class of polymers that are known for their exceptional thermal stability and high tensile strength of fibers spun from them, are important in organic solar cells applications. 9 An example is poly(
The quest for clean and efficient energy has motivated the search for new materials to develop environmentally friendly energy applications. Fuel cells have potential for alternative clean and efficient energy conversion devices with zero pollution [1, 27]. Considering the various kinds of fuel cells, the proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are known to be sources of power, due to their inherent great high power-to-weight ratio and power density. The PEM is a key material for the operation of PEMFC. In recent years, PEM has been a focus of many research works, to obtain membranes with good chemical/thermal stability, high proton conductivity, low electrical conductivity, low permeability to fuel and oxidant, good mechanical properties and cost-effective [1, 27]. Temperature is a critical factor in operating PEMFCs due to its correlation with the water content of fuel cell. The processes above 100°C increase the performance of the fuel cell due to quicker electrode reaction without carbon monoxide poisoning of the platinum electrocatalyst, easier heating, water consumption management and high energy efficiency [1, 27]. The PEM is usually made of polymeric organic compounds containing acidic ends; however, the proton transport properties of these membranes are strongly related to the water content and, therefore, limit their operating temperatures up to 90°C [1, 27].
The limitations of temperature have brought about an increased interest in research and development of new alternative membranes. Among them, a variety of membranes have been developed as alternative to the perfluorosulphonic polymers,, such as polybenzimidazole (PBI)-doped composites of Nafion and metal oxides, sulfonated polymers based on aromatic hydrocarbons, and organosiloxane polymers based on inorganic-organic hybrids with various acidic species [1, 27].
Azoles as amphoteric species conduct protons as pure compounds. Recent computational studies are geared towards elucidating the mechanism underlying structural diffusion in some of these amphoteric species. In protonated imidazole, charge transport occurs via a method directly analogous to aqueous transport, exhibiting rapid molecular reorientations and a shifting hydrogen bond network [28].
In several azole-based systems, proton conductivity is being investigated by pulsed field gradient spin-echo nuclear magnetic resonance (PFGSE-NMR) and impedance spectroscopies, to confirm results obtained by computational simulations [29, 30]. Improving the proton conductivity of polymer electrolytes under high temperature and low humidity conditions by imbibing polymers (Figure 7) that exhibit favorable hydrated properties with small-molecule amphoteric species is a current research agenda. These molecules effectively replace the water that would traditionally exist as a proton solvent, enabling proton conduction under these dehydrating conditions. Doping studies of PEM with azoles are thus high on the research agenda [31, 32].
Chemical structure of unsubstituted polybenzimidazole (PBI) (poly-2,2-
Enormous potential exists in solar energy to take the place of fossil fuels due to its vast energy stock and availability worldwide [33]. Solar energy conversion system is traditionally based on silicon technology. However, the wide use of silicon-based solar cell technology is limited by its high power conversion cost [34]. To address this issue, organic solar cell has been developed to replace Si-solar cell [35].
The optoelectronic properties of polymeric semiconductor materials can be used for the fabrication of photonic devices. If key structural requirements are met, these materials exhibit distinctive properties such as solution processability, large charge-transporting capabilities, and/or broad optical absorption. Developments in the area of π-conjugated polymeric semiconductors for bulk-heterojunction photovoltaic cell (BHJ-OPV) or organic solar cell (OSC) applications have been made, and these conjugated polymers (CPs) have become pervasive in photovoltaic cells applications [36].
Conjugated polymers offer several advantages over their inorganic counterparts, including solution processability to reduce fabrication costs, and the ability to tune their properties via organic synthesis, which enables optimization for use in specific applications. Currently, a good and effective strategy for adjusting the optical and electronic properties of conjugated polymers is through the integration of alternating electron-donating and electron-accepting comonomers within the polymer backbone. This approach which is a current trend, has afforded many materials with narrow bandgaps suitable for effective harvesting of solar energy. For example, a synthesis of benzo[1,2-c:4,5-c]bis[1,2,5]thiadiazole containing donor-acceptor monomers and their acid-catalyzed polymerization has been reported [37].
Conjugated polymer-based solar cell (PSC) has several important advantages compared with conventional Si-based solar cell. These include solution processability by spin-coating, ink-jet printing and roll-to-roll processing to reduce manufacturing cost; tunable physical properties, and mechanical flexibility for PSC application on curved surfaces [38].
An important electron-accepting unit in organic electronics including organic solar cells is 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (BT). Two types of BT-fused units have been synthesized. These are thiazole-fused BT containing electron-withdrawing C=N bond and imidazole-fused BT containing electron-donating nitrogen atom as well as an electron-withdrawing C=N bond. Theoretical calculations and measurements by electrochemical means suggest that thiazole-fusion enhances electron-accepting ability [39]. In contrast, imidazole-fusion bestows the benzothiadiazole skeleton with electron-donating capacity while sustaining its electron-accepting ability. Besides, in thiazole-fused BT units, the electronic configuration could be additionally controlled by tuning the oxidation number of the sulfur atom in methylthio group at the fused thiazole ring [39]. Thus, the electron withdrawing ability of BT can be further increased by replacing one carbon atom with
Structure of (a) BT, (b) aza-BT and (c) Se-BT.
A variety of low bandgap polymers containing BT have been synthesized and tested for PSC performance (Figure 9) [40, 41].
Benzothiadiazole containing low bandgap polymers.
Doping of azoles with strong acids can bring about the problems, including incorporating some of the undesirable anhydrous properties of these acids (e.g. high water uptake, physical stiffening of the polymer matrix) into mixed materials. In fuel cells applications, introducing polymer electrolytes with small-molecule proton solvent does not entirely solve the problem of anhydrous proton conductivity. For instance, imidazole still evaporates or is washed from the membrane over time. Also, unlike water, its equilibrium partial pressure in the surrounding atmosphere is negligible, and once it leaves the membrane, it is not easy to re-introduce. Even for species large enough to have little vapor pressure like imidazoles with long tethers (Figure 10), leaking along with the water that is formed and expelled during fuel cell operation is a significant challenge. This leaking leads to both loss of conductivity with time and potentially to the corrosion of other parts of the fuel cell.
Tethered imidazoles used to investigate relative rates of a vehicle and structural diffusion in imidazole-based molecules [
Although some recent examples of anhydrous proton conducting polymers utilize members of the azole family as proton solvents. Yet, still, comparatively few azoles have been studied to date due in part to the synthetic limitations of available techniques. Also, there is a problem of leaking and other forms of solvent loss which could, however, be overcome by tethering the solvent providing proton transport (e.g. imidazole, phosphoric acid) directly to a polymer backbone. An outcome is that the connectivity and percolation of solvating species is key for conduction in materials where their long-range diffusion is restricted. The low anhydrous conductivities of poly(styrenesulfonic acid) and poly(vinylphosphonic acid) for example, illustrate this effect. Figure 10 shows azole-based materials with a polymer-bound proton solvent that exhibit measurable proton conductivity [42].
Organic photovoltaic (OPV) systems, in particular, polymer solar cells, made by solution-processed organic materials, have shown great promise as a technology for affordable electricity. Until recently, the commercialization of OPV has been hampered by the difficulty of converting laboratory-produced cell into reliable industrial-scale product performances. Unfortunately, a significant barrier to the introduction of organics into these areas has to do with inferior electrical properties as compared to traditional inorganic semiconductors.
The significant concerns by using some azole polymers arise from the azole synthesis and processing conditions. These azole polymers require very high temperatures (more than 200°C) in highly acidic media (poly(phosphoric acid)) to be synthesized and maintain its solubility after cooling [43]. Molding these polymeric materials into films also necessitates that the materials are dissolved in highly acidic media (conc. Sulfuric acid, aluminum chloride in nitromethane) [43]. Once formed, it is also challenging to get rid of trace acid, which leads to unintentional doping. The performance of organic electronic devices is hampered by the presence of acidic impurities by the interference with charge and exciton transport.
Fuel cells, as zero pollution systems have the potential to become alternative clean and efficient energy conversion systems [1]. From previous experiences of utilizing polybenzobisazoles in high-performance applications, all of the necessary monomers for fuel cells can now be synthesized on an industrial scale, and purification effected without the use of column chromatography. This is beneficial for large-scale synthesis of azoles. Furthermore, the ring system of benzobisazole is electron-deficient and planar, and as a consequence, leads to resilient intermolecular interactions and good charge transport properties within polymer films [44]. The key to conductivity in systems where the proton solvent is tethered to a backbone is rotational and translational mobility of the tethered moiety. While imidazole, phosphoric acid, and sulfuric acid all conduct well as mobile small-molecule liquids, the proximity to poly(vinylphosphonic acid) and stiffness of the backbone in the poly(vinylphosphonic acid) significantly limits these acids’ ability to form conductive networks. By contrast, the low glass transition temperature (Tg) of the backbone and flexible tether of the imidazole-containing polymer illustrated in Figure 10 enables proton conductivity in this material.
Azole-containing polymers are particularly attractive as anhydrous proton conductors due to their chemical diversity and comparatively small changes in physical properties in the presence of water. Sulfonic acids form stiff, immobile clusters at low hydration and absorb significant quantities of water from the atmosphere at high humidity. By contrast, less acidic moieties, such as carboxylic acids (e.g. Surlyn®, a copolymer of ethylene and methacrylic acid) hydrate much less strongly, mitigating changes in properties with changing RH [36]. The weak hydrogen bonding observed in imidazole, and by extension, the azoles in general likewise enables polymers containing these moieties to remain fluid under anhydrous conditions. This property plagues the anhydrous behaviour of sulfonated materials.
The goals of OSC technological development are not necessarily to exceed the performance of inorganics. There is a great opportunity in using combinations of the organics and inorganics. OSCs offer new device functionalities (optical transparency, chemical response, lightweight) as well as a way to produce electronic materials at a lower cost [45]. A critical factor in achieving excellent performance is to develop OPV materials (buffer materials, polymer donors, acceptors, electrodes materials and encapsulants) exhibiting the required technical and economic characteristics to be conveniently used in an industrial environment. The improvement in new materials development remains an important area of research despite the fact that CP-based OPVs are rapidly approaching the 10% power conversion efficiency recommended for them to be of commercial importance. Particularly, the advancement of effective donor materials that takes into consideration practical aspects of commercialization such as enhanced environmental and thermal stability of the resulting material, facile synthesis and purification of monomers, is still pertinent. The most attractive part about the use of OSCs instead of using traditional inorganic semiconductors, is derived from the synthetic range intrinsic in organic molecules. There exist many different ways to alter the properties of OSCs by chemical synthesis, making the OSCs easily tunable to fit the needs of a device [46].
Still needed for commercialization of azole-based materials for energy applications is the continued improvements in efficiency, stability, and cost. Ongoing research and development of azole materials, devices, and systems are making significant advances, benefiting from strong synergies with current research efforts in photovoltaics, nanotechnologies, and azole materials. In this vein, efficiencies are being improved through enhanced sunlight absorption and better surface catalysis.
Wood preservatives are known to be chemicals impregnated into wood to help with the resistance of attack by mold, decay fungi, and termites. When a wood may be in contact with humans or will be painted, waterborne wood preservatives are commonly used in their treatment. Different formulations of waterborne preservatives have been made, but only a few of these have been used commercially. Most commercial treatments contain copper ions, which give treated wood its characteristic greenish-brown colouration.
Alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ) amine, a wood preservative, is composed of 67% copper oxide and a 33% didecyldimethylammonium chloride or carbonate (a quaternary ammonium compound) [47]. Since its initial commercialization, the quaternary ammonium compound has been produced using a chloride formulation, which was later replaced with a formulation from a carbonate. Several preparations of ACQ have been commercialized, and it can be treated with an amine or ammonia carrier. Copper azole preservatives (denoted as CA-B and CA-C under American Wood Protection Association/AWPA standards) are composed of 96% ammine copper and a 4% azole. In copper azole type B, the azole is entirely composed of tebuconazole. In type C, the azole is a 50/50 mixture of propiconazole and tebuconazole. While copper azole contains a higher percentage of copper than does ACQ , the retention required for aboveground use [47] is lower and, therefore, the total amount of copper in the treated wood is less.
Tebuconazole had been first identified by Grundlinger and Exner (1990) as an unleachable, light and heat-stable organic biocide that provides protection against copper tolerant fungi” [48]. Kugler et al. reported of tebuconazole and propiconazole as complementing each other in terms of their efficacy against the brown rot basiodiomycete fungi [49]. The test method for assessing the performance against basiodiomycete decay fungi is EN113, and the toxic values for
Copper azole type B (CA-B) is formulated from tebuconazole (4%) and amine copper (96%). In copper azole type C (CA-C), half of the tebuconazole in copper azole type B is replaced with the azole, propiconazole. Thus, the copper azole type C consists of 2% tebuconazole, 2% propiconazole and 96% amine copper. A previous preparation, copper azole type A (CBA-A) contained boric acid as a main ingredient in addition to the tebuconazole. Although copper azole is an amine formulation, it may also be formulated with an amine-ammonia compound. The ammonia may be added if the copper azole formulation is used to treat refractory wood species.
Through laboratory screening tests and extensive field trials, copper and triazole were identified as the active ingredients which could offer a viable alternative to CCA. For example, the main active ingredients in the commercial preservative TanalithR E are copper carbonate, tebuconazole and propiconazole, [50]. The ratio of actives as presented by Enviros [51] in their treated timber classification report on a percentage weight/weight basis in the preservative was copper carbonate 20%, propiconazole 0.2% and tebuconazole at 0.2%.
Azole molecules and their derivatives are among the organic corrosion inhibitors for copper that are frequently used. In this vein, density functional theory (DFT) calculations have been performed on the adsorption of four azole molecules; imidazole, 1,2,3-triazole, tetrazole, and pentazole on Cu (III) and Al (III) surfaces, and these have been characterized. It was found out that the molecules adsorb in an upright geometry onto the top site of Cu (III) only weakly, via single nitrogen atom. The chemical bonding with two nitrogen atoms to a bridge site becomes slightly preferred in all the molecules except for triazole. Molecular electronic structure is only weakly perturbed when adsorbed, and hybridization between molecular σ orbitals and metal states constitutes the molecule-surface interaction. Yet, the significant contribution to bonding comes from the electrostatic dipole interactions due to the dipole-dipole moment of azole molecules. Also, the lateral intermolecular repulsion can be significant and very long-ranged. The molecular electronegativity and chemical hardness increase linearly with increasing number of nitrogen atoms in the azole ring. The harder the molecule the more difficult the hybridization with metal states. This explains why with the increasing number of nitrogen atoms in azole ring the molecule-Cu(III) bond strength decreases linearly as: imidazole > 1,2,3–triazole > tetrazole > pentazole [52].
Wood-degrading organisms, in conditions that support their growth are generally responsible for the deterioration of many commonly-used wood species if exposed. Wood products are therefore, protected by utilizing chemical preservatives for protection against attack by decay fungi, harmful insects, or marine borers. Treating wood materials with preservatives increases their lifespan, which leads to reduced replacement costs and ensures greater resourceful use of forest trees. The extent of wood protection is dependent on the type of chemical preservative used, and the treatment method used. In terms of effectiveness, some of the chemical preservatives are better than others, while some are also more adaptable to specific applications. For long-term effectiveness, chemical preservative, and treatment method for each wood species are needed for adequate penetration and retention [53].
Wood preservatives must meet two broad criteria which include the provision of the desired wood protection in the intended end-use, and doing so without presenting unreasonable risks to people and the environment. For several decades now, copper-based wood preservatives have dominated the industrial preservation of wood for exterior applications [54].
Materials and products from nanotechnology are increasingly being produced and used for the potential they hold to provide great interests to society. As such, although still emerging, nanotechnology has been identified as a key enabling technology. One of its important areas of application is biocide preservatives for wood protection. One prominent example is copper azole, used in wood preservation through impregnations. The use of nanoscale Cu instead of bulk Cu improves the durability of wood against microbial and fungal activity due to mainly decreased viscosity of formulations and increased effective surface area of Cu, enhancing dispersion stability. These properties contribute to easier impregnation and deeper and more homogeneous uptake of reactive biocide into the wood, which allows continuous and effective protection over its lifetime. In these preservatives, copper is the main biocide, and the azole is a co-biocide. These preservatives have gained a significant market importance in the wood industry.
Copper azole which is a water-based preservative and dependent principally on copper solubilized in ethanolamine and an organic trizaole co-biocide, is a recent development. The first copper azole preservative that was developed consisted of 49% copper, 49% boric acid, and 2% tebuconazole. More recently, a copper azole preservative containing 96% copper and 4% tebuconazole has been manufactured. The copper in copper azole systems provides the primary fungicide and insecticide activity. The azole component protects against copper tolerant fungi, and thus acts as a co-biocide.
During the preservation process, proper handling and conditioning of the wood after treatment helps minimize leeching and potential environmental impacts for these preservatives. Amine keeps copper soluble in these treatment solutions. After preservative treatment, wood has to be thoroughly dried and suitably stabilized. In the copper azole (CA–B) preservative, copper stabilization is very rapid occurring within 24 h at a retention of 1.7 kg m−3. However, the stabilization process slows down to a large extent at higher retentions unless the wood is heated to enhance the stabilization [53].
With increasing demand for wood products, utilization of wood composites will increase, and these composite products also need to be protected with suitable wood preservatives. Thus, in the wood preservation industry, there is the need for superior alternative technologies to the traditional preservatives and pressure-treatment processes. In this instance, the development of effective and economical 3rd generation organic preservatives for wood used in areas with high or severe decay and deterioration hazards, will be interesting. The wood preservation industry needs to develop high-value products with desirable and dependable properties that have a high economic return sufficient to encourage companies to undertake the long-term and expensive research necessary to create azole-based preservatives for the future.
There are known risks to aquatic communities associated with the use of azole-based wood preservatives. For instance, it has been established that micronized copper azole represents a source of harm to marine benthic communities comparable to that from copper salts, such as copper sulfate. There is therefore a need for better understanding of benthic community interactions when exposed to nanomaterial stress [55].
The increased use of copper azole as wood preservative for residential construction has exposed the preservative as causing corrosion to fasteners. There is limited evidence on the effects of these preservatives on the corrosion rate of the fasteners. However, Simpson Strong Tie has a technical bulletin publication which indicates that both ACQ and copper azole are roughly twice as corrosive as chromate copper arsenate (CCA) and gives recommendations on fastener types for a given environment and preservative [56].
Recently, however, the durability of fasteners in preservative-treated wood has been a key concern. Changes in legislation and certification in some countries have restricted the use of chromate copper arsenate (CCA), which used to be the most extensively used waterborne wood preservative [57]. Ensuing these changes, several different wood preservatives have come to the market, some of which are much more corrosive than CCA [58].
Prospective health effects of exposure to copper azole preservative are shown in Table 2. Tebuconazole is slightly persistent in the environment, and it is not mobile. Also, light intensely increases the degradation progression. Tebuconazole degradation is approximately 20% in water according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Test Guideline 301C. Its half-life in soil is around 100 days. Tebuconazole is considered moderately toxic to aquatic organisms and has a slight potential to bioconcentrate, but it is rapidly eliminated from fish [59].
Possible health effects | |||
---|---|---|---|
Exposure category (Route of Entry) | Type of exposure | Short-term exposure | Long-term exposure |
Estimated daily intake from various sources (air, water, food) with limited to no heath effecta | |||
Copper (an essential element) | 2.47 mg/day | ||
Eye contacta,b | Direct contact | CA-B concentrate is corrosive | Ulceration, may cause irreversible damage |
Will cause irritation, pain and reddening | |||
Skin contacta,b | Significant skin contact with concentrates | Short term (up to 1 hour) | Long term |
Mild to moderate skin irritation, inflammation, reddening | Severe irritation, ulceration, chemical burns | ||
ACGIH threshold limit value-time weighted averages (TWAs)c | Ethanolamine: 8 mg/m3 air 3 ppm | ||
Exposure to airbome contaminant or dust inhalationa,b | Inhalation of mists, droplets or dust of concentrates | May cause upper respiratory tract irritation | Moderate to severe irritations of mucous membrane, nose, throat and lungs |
Moderate irritation of nose, throat and lungs | |||
ACGIH threshold limit value-time weighted averages (TWAs)c | Copper (dusts and mists): 1.0 mg Cu/m3 air | Irritation of eyes | Irritation of eyes |
Prospective health effects of exposure to copper azole preservative [59].
International Labour Organization ICSC Card database, http://www.ilo.org/dyn/icsc/showcard.home
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/substances/index.asp
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH): http://www.acgih.org/tlv/
Both old and new structures are susceptible to mold infestation in the absence of moisture. Treatment of wood products with nontoxic, nonvolatile fungicides adds a level of protection against mold infestation. However, these preservatives have corrosion problems. Use of azole-based fungicides to protect wood from indoor mold infestations is one strategy to address this problem. Although a lot of recent research has been conducted in this area, no attempt has been made to summarize all the recent advances, and confusion exists about the corrosiveness of alternatives to CCA and proper materials selection for use in treated wood. Thus, opportunities exist in searching for appropriate materials for the requisite preservatives.
Copper azole is a major copper-based wood preservative that has come into wide use in both developed and developing countries following restraints on CCA. The use of copper azole and other preservatives are directed by national and international specifications, which give the requirement for the volume of preservative application for a specific wood end-use. In terms of chemical composition, copper azole is similar to ACQ . The difference between them, however, is the dissolved copper preservative which is augmented by an azole co-biocide like organic triazoles such as tebuconazole or propioconazole, in the copper azole preservative. These preservatives are also used in food crops protection, instead of the quaternary biocide which is used in ACQ [60]. The azole co-biocide produces a copper azole compound that is effective at lower retentions than required for equivalent ACQ performance.
Wood treated with copper azole is marketed widely across many international markets. The AWPA standard retention for CA-B is 0.10 lb/ft3 for above ground applications and 0.21 lb/ft3 for ground contact applications. Copper azole type C has been presented under the Wolmanized and Preserve brands. The AWPA standard retention for CA-C is 0.06 lb/ft3 for above ground applications and 0.15 lb/ft3 for ground contact applications. Opportunities exist for local standardization of these copper-azole preservatives as well as expanded local markets. Also, research question on how azoles contribute to the leaching of copper in treated wood is significant.
Azoles are widely used and efficient fungicides commonly employed to treat and prevent fungal diseases in humans and animals, as well as in food production, horticulture and wood industry. Residues of azoles in nature are regarded as environmental toxins and suggested to have general endocrine-disrupting properties. It has been suggested that triazole resistance has evolved in the environment and could be driven by the selective pressure of azole fungicides [61].
A significant challenge facing treated wood products is the lack of an effective strategy for handling treated wood that has been removed from service [61]. Until recently, the fixation processes of the amine wood preservatives were poorly understood, but ongoing research in North American university laboratories is beginning to expand the knowledge base considerably [62].
Some research works have shown that copper azole-treated wood can be chipped or flaked and recycled to form durable panel products or wood composites. However, this type of recycling has not gained significant commercial acceptance because of concerns with processing the treated wood. Recycling of the treated wood releases the preservatives into the panel fabrication process, which leeches into the environment, with consequent adverse impacts [63].
The widespread use of azoles in biomass preservation can affect the environment and the phytopathogens therein, with concomitant medical implications [64]. Accordingly, with azole treatment, fungi causing important human mycoses may develop azole-resistance [64, 65]. Azole as fungicide is very significant, as some human diseases are caused by fungi such as Aspergillus, Histoplasma, Coccidioides and Cryptococcus that survive in different environments [65].
Azole-based solar cells, fuel cells, and wood preservatives are of critical importance in energy applications and wood treatment, respectively. Multiple benefits are accrued from exploring this type of research in organic chemistry. Firstly, it will help in unraveling the intrinsic chemical behavior of azoles and their interactions with other molecules. Secondly, it will significantly help in the advancement of novel synthetic methods. Thirdly, using spectral methods for the characterization of a set of compounds could create benchmarks for similar molecules. In the next step, structure–activity relationships of azoles applications in energy and wood preservation will enhance their utilization. Finally, biological evaluation of the synthesized azole compounds may explore lead-compounds for further structural fine-tuning. Among the broad array of organic compounds, those incorporating one or more sulfur or nitrogen atoms like azoles are of great significance because of their unique properties imparted by these elements.
There are four main determinants as to how well an OSC will perform in a device: oxidative and thermal stability, properly aligned energy levels, good thin-film morphological characteristics, and purity and defects. The more researchers explore azole functions, the greater the possibility for OPV to demonstrate at last its enormous potential on the industrial scale.
Recommendations for additional steps to assess the risks and consequences of the environmental usage of azole derivatives are pertinent. With azoles applications in both solar cells and fuel cells, where electronic excitations and ions mobility properties respectively of the azoles are taken advantage of, a solar PV/fuel cell hybrid energy systems for stationary applications employing azoles, could be embarked upon, and preliminary energy and exergy efficiency analyses performed for the hybrid energy system. Such a system, built on different scientific principles, can convert solar energy and chemical energy of fuel to electrical energy simultaneously within the same system.
For azole-based fuel cells and solar cells to achieve widespread production and adoption in energy applications, especially in developing countries, it is necessary to decrease their cost of production. Also, an increase in research output in the area and improvement in the range of environmental conditions under which they effectively operate will ensure widespread production and adoption in energy applications.
A broad approach that combines preservative formulations, treatment efficiency, component interaction studies, and carefully designed strategies for azole-based wood preservative utilization is needed. This approach will increase preservative efficacy, corrosion resistance, and reduce the risk of environmental pollution, and prevent azole-resistant infections. Improved research work, including azole-based preservative optimization and modeling, is a significant key to a better understanding of the magnitude of this emerging approach.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
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\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"62941",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80233",title:"Inorganic Coordination Chemistry: Where We Stand in Cancer Treatment?",slug:"inorganic-coordination-chemistry-where-we-stand-in-cancer-treatment-",totalDownloads:2160,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Metals have unique characteristics such as variable coordination modes, redox activity, and reactivity being indispensable for several biochemical processes in cells. Due to their reactivity, their concentration is tightly regulated inside the cells, and abnormal concentrations are associated with many disorders, such as cancer. As such metal complexes turned out to be very attractive as potential anticancer agents. The discovery of cisplatin was a crucial moment, which prompted the interest in Pt(II) and other metal complexes as potential anticancer agents. This chapter highlights the state of the art on metal complexes in cancer therapy, highlighting their uptake mechanisms, biological targets, toxicity, and drug resistance. Finally, based on the importance of selective target of cancer cells, drug delivery systems will also be discussed.",book:{id:"7549",slug:"basic-concepts-viewed-from-frontier-in-inorganic-coordination-chemistry",title:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry",fullTitle:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry"},signatures:"Pedro Pedrosa, Andreia Carvalho, Pedro V. Baptista and Alexandra R. Fernandes",authors:[{id:"253664",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra R",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",slug:"alexandra-r-fernandes",fullName:"Alexandra R Fernandes"}]},{id:"55951",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69588",title:"Sol-Gel Processes of Functional Powders and Films",slug:"sol-gel-processes-of-functional-powders-and-films",totalDownloads:1718,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The key principles of sol-gel process and its characteristics are outlined and its major control parameters are summarized. Different samples of functional powders and films with magnetic, optical, and dielectric properties prepared by the sol-gel method are described. To determine the relationship between microstructure and properties, the effects of preparation conditions on the size and microstructure and electric properties, dielectric properties, optical properties, and magnetic properties are analyzed.",book:{id:"5879",slug:"chemical-reactions-in-inorganic-chemistry",title:"Chemical Reactions in Inorganic Chemistry",fullTitle:"Chemical Reactions in Inorganic Chemistry"},signatures:"Chao-Qun Ye",authors:[{id:"198716",title:"Dr.",name:"Chaoqun",middleName:null,surname:"Ye",slug:"chaoqun-ye",fullName:"Chaoqun Ye"}]},{id:"62661",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79472",title:"Mechanism of Interactions of Zinc(II) and Copper(II) Complexes with Small Biomolecules",slug:"mechanism-of-interactions-of-zinc-ii-and-copper-ii-complexes-with-small-biomolecules",totalDownloads:2061,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Over the past few decades, transition metal complexes have attracted considerable attention in medicinal inorganic chemistry, especially as synthetic metallonucleases and metal-based anticancer drugs that are able to bind to DNA under physiological conditions. The use of metal-based drugs presents the most important strategy in the development of new anticancer and antimicrobial agents. Negative side effects during treatment (such as vomiting, resistance, nephrotoxicity, ototoxicity, neurotoxicity and cardiotoxicity) prompted researchers to design new classes of DNA and protein targeting metal-based anticancer agents with potential in vitro selectivity and less toxicity. Knowledge of mechanism of the interaction zinc(II) and copper (II) ions with biomolecules and other relevant ligands is essential for understanding the cellular biology of delivery complexes to DNA and proteins. Results obtained from investigations provide useful information for the future design of potential zinc- and copper-based anticancer drugs. Different mechanism of interactions with selected biomolecules compared to platinum-based drugs has been observed.",book:{id:"7549",slug:"basic-concepts-viewed-from-frontier-in-inorganic-coordination-chemistry",title:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry",fullTitle:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry"},signatures:"Tanja Soldatović",authors:[{id:"256260",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanja",middleName:"V.",surname:"Soldatovic",slug:"tanja-soldatovic",fullName:"Tanja Soldatovic"}]},{id:"54684",doi:"10.5772/68071",title:"Physicochemical Properties and Catalytic Applications of Iron Porphyrazines and Phthalocyanines",slug:"physicochemical-properties-and-catalytic-applications-of-iron-porphyrazines-and-phthalocyanines",totalDownloads:1787,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Porphyrazines and phthalocyanines belong to porphyrinoids, which are macrocyclic compounds consisting of four pyrrole or indole rings, respectively. The aromatic rings of porphyrazines and phthalocyanines are fused together by azamethine bridges (meso nitrogen atoms) in place of methine bridges present in porphyrins. The physicochemical properties of these macrocycles can be modified in two ways. The first is by substitution of metal cation in the core, whereas the second relies on peripheral modification with various substituents. Porphyrazines and phthalocyanines can be modified inside the macrocyclic core with various transition metal cations, including iron(II/III), which impacts their electrochemical properties and influences potential applications in redox reactions. Due to their unique optical and electrochemical properties, porphyrazines and phthalocyanines found many potential and practical applications in medicine and technology. They were mainly researched as photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy, as sensors in biomedical and analytical applications or as building blocks for materials chemistry. This chapter presents physicochemical properties and catalytic applications of iron porphyrazines and phthalocyanines. The first part summarizes the influence of peripheral and axial substituents of iron(II/III) porphyrazines and phthalocyanines on their spectral properties, whereas the second focuses on the electrochemical properties of these molecules. The third part covers the activity of selected iron(II/III) porphyrazines and phthalocyanines of potential value for diverse applications including catalytic reactions.",book:{id:"5848",slug:"recent-progress-in-organometallic-chemistry",title:"Recent Progress in Organometallic Chemistry",fullTitle:"Recent Progress in Organometallic Chemistry"},signatures:"Tomasz Koczorowski, Wojciech Szczolko and Tomasz Goslinski",authors:[{id:"194381",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Goslinski",slug:"tomasz-goslinski",fullName:"Tomasz Goslinski"},{id:"196559",title:"MSc.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Koczorowski",slug:"tomasz-koczorowski",fullName:"Tomasz Koczorowski"},{id:"199685",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Szczolko",slug:"wojciech-szczolko",fullName:"Wojciech Szczolko"}]},{id:"54947",doi:"10.5772/68132",title:"Voltammetric Analysis of Platinum Group Metals Using a Bismuth-Silver Bimetallic Nanoparticles Sensor",slug:"voltammetric-analysis-of-platinum-group-metals-using-a-bismuth-silver-bimetallic-nanoparticles-senso",totalDownloads:1495,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This study dealt with the development of a bismuth-silver bimetallic nanosensor for differential pulse adsorptive stripping voltammetry of platinum group metals (PGMs) in environmental samples. The nanosensor was fabricated by drop coating a thin bismuth-silver bimetallic film onto the active area of the screen-printed carbon electrodes. Optimization parameters such as pH, dimethylglyoxime (DMG) concentration, deposition potential and deposition time, stability test and interferences were also studied. In 0.2 M acetate buffer (pH = 4.7) solution and DMG as the chelating agent, the reduction signal for PGMs ranged from 0.2 to 1.0 ng L−1. In the study of possible interferences, the results have shown that Ni(II), Co(II), Fe(III), Na+, SO42−, and PO43− do not interfere with Pd(II), Pt(II), and Rh(III) in the presence of DMG with sodium acetate buffer as the supporting electrolyte solution. The limit of detection for Pd(II), Pt(II), and Rh(III) was found to be 0.07, 0.06 and 0.2 ng L−1, respectively. Good precision for the sensor application was obtained with a reproducibility of 7.58% for Pd(II), 6.31% for Pt(II), and 5.37% for Rh(III) (n = 10).",book:{id:"5848",slug:"recent-progress-in-organometallic-chemistry",title:"Recent Progress in Organometallic Chemistry",fullTitle:"Recent Progress in Organometallic Chemistry"},signatures:"Charlton van der Horst, Bongiwe Silwana, Emmanuel Iwuoha and\nVernon S. Somerset",authors:[{id:"6648",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vernon",middleName:null,surname:"Somerset",slug:"vernon-somerset",fullName:"Vernon Somerset"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62941",title:"Inorganic Coordination Chemistry: Where We Stand in Cancer Treatment?",slug:"inorganic-coordination-chemistry-where-we-stand-in-cancer-treatment-",totalDownloads:2160,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Metals have unique characteristics such as variable coordination modes, redox activity, and reactivity being indispensable for several biochemical processes in cells. Due to their reactivity, their concentration is tightly regulated inside the cells, and abnormal concentrations are associated with many disorders, such as cancer. As such metal complexes turned out to be very attractive as potential anticancer agents. The discovery of cisplatin was a crucial moment, which prompted the interest in Pt(II) and other metal complexes as potential anticancer agents. This chapter highlights the state of the art on metal complexes in cancer therapy, highlighting their uptake mechanisms, biological targets, toxicity, and drug resistance. Finally, based on the importance of selective target of cancer cells, drug delivery systems will also be discussed.",book:{id:"7549",slug:"basic-concepts-viewed-from-frontier-in-inorganic-coordination-chemistry",title:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry",fullTitle:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry"},signatures:"Pedro Pedrosa, Andreia Carvalho, Pedro V. Baptista and Alexandra R. Fernandes",authors:[{id:"253664",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra R",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",slug:"alexandra-r-fernandes",fullName:"Alexandra R Fernandes"}]},{id:"62661",title:"Mechanism of Interactions of Zinc(II) and Copper(II) Complexes with Small Biomolecules",slug:"mechanism-of-interactions-of-zinc-ii-and-copper-ii-complexes-with-small-biomolecules",totalDownloads:2061,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Over the past few decades, transition metal complexes have attracted considerable attention in medicinal inorganic chemistry, especially as synthetic metallonucleases and metal-based anticancer drugs that are able to bind to DNA under physiological conditions. The use of metal-based drugs presents the most important strategy in the development of new anticancer and antimicrobial agents. Negative side effects during treatment (such as vomiting, resistance, nephrotoxicity, ototoxicity, neurotoxicity and cardiotoxicity) prompted researchers to design new classes of DNA and protein targeting metal-based anticancer agents with potential in vitro selectivity and less toxicity. Knowledge of mechanism of the interaction zinc(II) and copper (II) ions with biomolecules and other relevant ligands is essential for understanding the cellular biology of delivery complexes to DNA and proteins. Results obtained from investigations provide useful information for the future design of potential zinc- and copper-based anticancer drugs. Different mechanism of interactions with selected biomolecules compared to platinum-based drugs has been observed.",book:{id:"7549",slug:"basic-concepts-viewed-from-frontier-in-inorganic-coordination-chemistry",title:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry",fullTitle:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry"},signatures:"Tanja Soldatović",authors:[{id:"256260",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanja",middleName:"V.",surname:"Soldatovic",slug:"tanja-soldatovic",fullName:"Tanja Soldatovic"}]},{id:"63759",title:"Modern Techniques in Synthesis of Organometallic Compounds of Germanium",slug:"modern-techniques-in-synthesis-of-organometallic-compounds-of-germanium",totalDownloads:1249,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Germanium is one of the most significant semiconductors to be used for electronic devices due to small bandgap and high intrinsic mobility of holes and electrons. Germanium has received a large attention due to its extraordinary reactivity and properties. It is commonly used in fluorescent lamps and as catalyst as well to produce various types of plastic. Germanium nanomaterials have broad range of applications from photovoltaic devices to phase-change memory materials. Germanium forms complexes by reacting with numerous elements such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and phosphorous as a part of several organic compounds. Germanium coordinates with these elements by single, double, and triple linkages. Interestingly, all such reactions occur at ambient temperature usually in tetrahydrofuran under vacuum. Germanium may also react directly with primary and secondary nitrogen in the presence of a suitable base, whereas with tertiary nitrogen, it may react directly even in the absence of a base. Nevertheless, this chapter describes the modern techniques in synthesis of organometallic compounds of germanium.",book:{id:"7549",slug:"basic-concepts-viewed-from-frontier-in-inorganic-coordination-chemistry",title:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry",fullTitle:"Basic Concepts Viewed from Frontier in Inorganic Coordination Chemistry"},signatures:"Hina Hayat and Muhammad Adnan Iqbal",authors:[{id:"253633",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"muhammad-adnan-iqbal",fullName:"Muhammad Adnan Iqbal"},{id:"253635",title:"Ms.",name:"Hina",middleName:null,surname:"Hayat",slug:"hina-hayat",fullName:"Hina Hayat"}]},{id:"55634",title:"Concerning Organometallic Compounds in Environment: Occurrence, Fate, and Impact",slug:"concerning-organometallic-compounds-in-environment-occurrence-fate-and-impact",totalDownloads:1947,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Organometallic compounds can be found in our surrounding environmental compartments either because of human extensive activities or their existence as natural products in the environment. Since organometallic species of trace metals were found often more worrying than their parent compounds, intensive research on their properties, pathways of transformation in different environmental compartment as well as their fate and interactions between different environmental compartments (under different external and internal conditions), and not finally their end-up and disposal, has become a requirement from many public health and environmental protection agencies.",book:{id:"5848",slug:"recent-progress-in-organometallic-chemistry",title:"Recent Progress in Organometallic Chemistry",fullTitle:"Recent Progress in Organometallic Chemistry"},signatures:"Kovacs Melinda Haydee and Kovacs Emoke Dalma",authors:[{id:"197543",title:"Dr.",name:"Melinda",middleName:null,surname:"Kovacs",slug:"melinda-kovacs",fullName:"Melinda Kovacs"},{id:"199573",title:"MSc.",name:"Emoke Dalma",middleName:null,surname:"Kovacs",slug:"emoke-dalma-kovacs",fullName:"Emoke Dalma Kovacs"}]},{id:"54684",title:"Physicochemical Properties and Catalytic Applications of Iron Porphyrazines and Phthalocyanines",slug:"physicochemical-properties-and-catalytic-applications-of-iron-porphyrazines-and-phthalocyanines",totalDownloads:1787,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Porphyrazines and phthalocyanines belong to porphyrinoids, which are macrocyclic compounds consisting of four pyrrole or indole rings, respectively. The aromatic rings of porphyrazines and phthalocyanines are fused together by azamethine bridges (meso nitrogen atoms) in place of methine bridges present in porphyrins. The physicochemical properties of these macrocycles can be modified in two ways. The first is by substitution of metal cation in the core, whereas the second relies on peripheral modification with various substituents. Porphyrazines and phthalocyanines can be modified inside the macrocyclic core with various transition metal cations, including iron(II/III), which impacts their electrochemical properties and influences potential applications in redox reactions. Due to their unique optical and electrochemical properties, porphyrazines and phthalocyanines found many potential and practical applications in medicine and technology. They were mainly researched as photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy, as sensors in biomedical and analytical applications or as building blocks for materials chemistry. This chapter presents physicochemical properties and catalytic applications of iron porphyrazines and phthalocyanines. The first part summarizes the influence of peripheral and axial substituents of iron(II/III) porphyrazines and phthalocyanines on their spectral properties, whereas the second focuses on the electrochemical properties of these molecules. The third part covers the activity of selected iron(II/III) porphyrazines and phthalocyanines of potential value for diverse applications including catalytic reactions.",book:{id:"5848",slug:"recent-progress-in-organometallic-chemistry",title:"Recent Progress in Organometallic Chemistry",fullTitle:"Recent Progress in Organometallic Chemistry"},signatures:"Tomasz Koczorowski, Wojciech Szczolko and Tomasz Goslinski",authors:[{id:"194381",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Goslinski",slug:"tomasz-goslinski",fullName:"Tomasz Goslinski"},{id:"196559",title:"MSc.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Koczorowski",slug:"tomasz-koczorowski",fullName:"Tomasz Koczorowski"},{id:"199685",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Szczolko",slug:"wojciech-szczolko",fullName:"Wojciech Szczolko"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"491",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"dinh-hoa-nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",slug:"hongbin-ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",slug:"yasushi-kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:18,paginationItems:[{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - 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