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Zapata",authors:[{id:"68808",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan M",middleName:null,surname:"Zapata",fullName:"Juan M Zapata",slug:"juan-m-zapata"},{id:"122262",title:"Dr.",name:"Gema",middleName:null,surname:"Perez-Chacon",fullName:"Gema Perez-Chacon",slug:"gema-perez-chacon"}]},{id:"27991",title:"Altering microRNA miR15a/16 Levels as Potential Therapy in CLL: Extrapolating from the De Novo NZB Mouse Model",slug:"altering-microrna-mir15a-16-levels-as-potential-therapy-in-cll-extrapolating-from-the-de-novo-nzb-mo",signatures:"Siddha Kasar, Yao Yuan, Chingiz Underbayev, Dan Vollenweider, Matt Hanlon, Victor Chang, Hina Khan and Elizabeth Raveche",authors:[{id:"74981",title:"Prof.",name:"Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Raveche",fullName:"Elizabeth Raveche",slug:"elizabeth-raveche"},{id:"121207",title:"MSc.",name:"Siddha",middleName:null,surname:"Kasar",fullName:"Siddha Kasar",slug:"siddha-kasar"},{id:"121208",title:"BSc.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Yuan",fullName:"Yao Yuan",slug:"yao-yuan"},{id:"121209",title:"Dr.",name:"Chingiz",middleName:null,surname:"Underbayev",fullName:"Chingiz Underbayev",slug:"chingiz-underbayev"},{id:"121210",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Vollenweider",fullName:"Daniel Vollenweider",slug:"daniel-vollenweider"},{id:"121211",title:"BSc.",name:"Matthew",middleName:null,surname:"Hanlon",fullName:"Matthew Hanlon",slug:"matthew-hanlon"},{id:"121212",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Victor Chang",slug:"victor-chang"},{id:"121213",title:"BSc.",name:"Hina",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Hina Khan",slug:"hina-khan"}]},{id:"27992",title:"Prognostic Factors in Chronic Lymphoid Leukemia and Identification of New Clinically Relevant Molecular Markers",slug:"prognostic-factors-in-chronic-lymphoid-leukemia-and-identification-of-new-clinically-relevant-molecu",signatures:"José-Ángel Hernández, Marcos González and Jesús-María Hernández",authors:[{id:"68863",title:"Dr.",name:"José-Ángel",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez",fullName:"José-Ángel Hernandez",slug:"jose-angel-hernandez"},{id:"73768",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"González",fullName:"Marcos González",slug:"marcos-gonzalez"},{id:"73769",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesús-María",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández",fullName:"Jesús-María Hernández",slug:"jesus-maria-hernandez"}]},{id:"27993",title:"Genetics of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: Practical Aspects and Prognostic Significance",slug:"genetics-of-chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia-practical-aspects-and-prognostic-significance",signatures:"N. Put, I. Wlodarska, P. Vandenberghe and L. Michaux",authors:[{id:"77350",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucienne",middleName:null,surname:"Michaux",fullName:"Lucienne Michaux",slug:"lucienne-michaux"},{id:"79458",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalie",middleName:null,surname:"Put",fullName:"Natalie Put",slug:"natalie-put"},{id:"79459",title:"Prof.",name:"Iwona",middleName:null,surname:"Wlodarska",fullName:"Iwona Wlodarska",slug:"iwona-wlodarska"},{id:"121130",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Vandenberghe",fullName:"Peter Vandenberghe",slug:"peter-vandenberghe"}]},{id:"27994",title:"Immune Response and Immunotherapy in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia",slug:"immune-response-and-immunotherapy-in-chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia",signatures:"Leticia Huergo-Zapico, Ana P. Gonzalez-Rodríguez, Juan Contesti, Azahara Fernández-Guizán, Andrea Acebes Huerta, Alejandro López-Soto and Segundo Gonzalez",authors:[{id:"68800",title:"Prof.",name:"Segundo",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",fullName:"Segundo Gonzalez",slug:"segundo-gonzalez"}]},{id:"27995",title:"In Vitro Sensitivity Testing in the Assessment of Anti-CLL Drug Candidates",slug:"in-vitro-sensitivity-testing-in-the-assessment-of-anti-cll-drug-candidates",signatures:"Günter Krause, Mirjam Kuckertz, Susan Kerwien, Michaela Patz and Michael Hallek",authors:[{id:"68802",title:"Dr.",name:"Günter",middleName:null,surname:"Krause",fullName:"Günter Krause",slug:"gunter-krause"},{id:"126109",title:"MSc.",name:"Mirjam",middleName:null,surname:"Kuckertz",fullName:"Mirjam Kuckertz",slug:"mirjam-kuckertz"},{id:"126110",title:"MSc.",name:"Susan",middleName:null,surname:"Kerwien",fullName:"Susan Kerwien",slug:"susan-kerwien"},{id:"126131",title:"Dr.",name:"Michaela",middleName:null,surname:"Patz",fullName:"Michaela Patz",slug:"michaela-patz"},{id:"126132",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Hallek",fullName:"Michael Hallek",slug:"michael-hallek"}]},{id:"27996",title:"Interactions of the Platinum(II) Complexes with Nitrogen- and Sulfur-Bonding Bio-Molecules in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia",slug:"interactions-of-the-platinum-ii-complexes-with-nitrogen-and-sulfur-bonding-bio-molecules-in-chronic-",signatures:"Jovana Bogojeski, Biljana Petrović and Živadin D. Bugarčić",authors:[{id:"74550",title:"Prof.",name:"Zivadin",middleName:null,surname:"Bugarcic",fullName:"Zivadin Bugarcic",slug:"zivadin-bugarcic"},{id:"80279",title:"Prof.",name:"Biljana",middleName:null,surname:"Petrovic",fullName:"Biljana Petrovic",slug:"biljana-petrovic"},{id:"80281",title:"MSc.",name:"Jovana",middleName:null,surname:"Bogojeski",fullName:"Jovana Bogojeski",slug:"jovana-bogojeski"}]},{id:"27997",title:"Infectious Diseases and Clinical Complications During Treatment in CLL",slug:"infectious-diseases-and-clinical-complications-during-treatment-in-cll",signatures:"Farhad Abbasi",authors:[{id:"76934",title:"Dr.",name:"Farhad",middleName:null,surname:"Abbasi",fullName:"Farhad Abbasi",slug:"farhad-abbasi"}]},{id:"27998",title:"Emerging Therapies in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia",slug:"emerging-therapies-in-chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia",signatures:"Reslan Lina and Dumontet Charles",authors:[{id:"77685",title:"Dr.",name:"Lina",middleName:null,surname:"Reslan",fullName:"Lina Reslan",slug:"lina-reslan"},{id:"77735",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Dumontet",fullName:"Charles Dumontet",slug:"charles-dumontet"}]},{id:"27999",title:"Heat Shock Proteins in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemia",slug:"heat-shock-proteins-in-chronic-lymphocytic-leukaemia",signatures:"Nina C. Dempsey-Hibbert, Christine Hoyle and John H.H. Williams",authors:[{id:"78174",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:"H. H.",surname:"Williams",fullName:"John Williams",slug:"john-williams"},{id:"83431",title:"Dr.",name:"Nina",middleName:null,surname:"Dempsey-Hibbert",fullName:"Nina Dempsey-Hibbert",slug:"nina-dempsey-hibbert"},{id:"83432",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine",middleName:null,surname:"Hoyle",fullName:"Christine Hoyle",slug:"christine-hoyle"}]},{id:"28000",title:"Present and Future Application of Nanoparticle Based Therapies in B-Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (B-CLL)",slug:"present-and-future-application-of-nanoparticle-based-therapies-in-b-chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia-b-c",signatures:"Eduardo Mansilla, Gustavo H. Marin, Luis Núñez, Gustavo Larsen, Nelly Mezzaroba and Paolo Macor",authors:[{id:"80040",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo H.",middleName:null,surname:"Marin",fullName:"Gustavo H. Marin",slug:"gustavo-h.-marin"},{id:"80052",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Mansilla",fullName:"Eduardo Mansilla",slug:"eduardo-mansilla"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"647",title:"Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ed7cea1e96993e2edc66548c29bb436",slug:"chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia",bookSignature:"Pablo Oppezzo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/647.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68891",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Oppezzo",slug:"pablo-oppezzo",fullName:"Pablo Oppezzo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"759",title:"Osteosarcoma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f4f2676183c2de632e44e5d72bcc778",slug:"osteosarcoma",bookSignature:"Manish Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/759.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58420",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"manish-agarwal",fullName:"Manish Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"759",title:"Osteosarcoma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f4f2676183c2de632e44e5d72bcc778",slug:"osteosarcoma",bookSignature:"Manish Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/759.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58420",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"manish-agarwal",fullName:"Manish Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"73049",title:"Biomaterials for Drug Delivery: Sources, Classification, Synthesis, Processing, and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93368",slug:"biomaterials-for-drug-delivery-sources-classification-synthesis-processing-and-applications",body:'The quest for controlled drug release emanating from side effects associated with the application and delivery of conventional drugs has necessitated the need for materials that can transport drugs to target site without difficulty or problem during and after delivery. Normally, drugs are delivered repeatedly on prescription to the body in measures that will bring about remediation and quick recovery to the patient during the treatment period. In this wise, drug concentration levels will increase and when above the body’s tolerance level, the problems associated with over therapeutic concentrations could occur that could result into toxic side [1]. It is also possible that the drug release rate is so fast that therapeutic actions are no longer effective owing to low drug concentrations at the delivery site, which may occur through drug metabolism, degradation, and transport out of the target [1]. Consequently, this phenomenon would result in drug wastage and transport medium loss with high risk offside effects on surrounding body cells, tissues, and organs. The solution to these problems is to have drug carriers that can provide controlled release rate to the target and would allow for complete therapeutic rehabilitation before degradation and transport of excess concentration of drug and carrier medium [2]. The drug and its carrier in form of capsules are orally administered and may be formulated for parenteral administration [3]. The drug release rate of the capsule can be controlled via the use of cellulose coatings exhibiting slow dissolution, incorporation of drug-complexing elements or compounds which hinder fast dissolution of drug, use of compressed tablets, and the inclusion of emulsion and suspensions. Materials that can permit drug release without changing or decaying over time with longer therapeutic windows (days to years) are required. These carries are such that they can be injected and/or implanted directly to target diseased tissues/cells for enhancing delivery efficiency [4]. To achieve target drug delivery, the use of affinity ligands deposited on biomaterial surfaces to allow for a set retention and usage by infirm tissues and cells have been employed [5]. The design of biomaterials for drug carriers aside permitting surface modification using ligands should also shield drugs from speedy break down and/or degeneracy within the target site.
Thus, the design parameters include: (i) the encapsulation of the sufficient drug of the biomaterial for lengthened release pattern to achieve efficient healing, (ii) sustaining drug stability for effective therapeutics through body transport and at the target site while preserving biological activity, (iii) predictable release rate in the therapeutic period from days to years, (iv) biomaterials and its degradation products must be biocompatible and nontoxic within the body, and (v) the cost of biomaterial synthesis and/or fabrication.
Lupron Depot, a poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) microsphere encapsulating the hormone leuprolide, for the treatment of advanced prostate cancer, and endometriosis [6], PLGA, poly (lactic acid) (PLA), and polyglycolic acid (PGA) materials have FDA approval as micro-particle depot systems as they versatile in controlling material biodegradation time, are biocompatible with nontoxic natural degradation products (lactic acid and glycolic acid). Clinical nanoparticles with FDA approval for cancer nanomedicine treatment of Kaposi’s sarcoma (approved 1995) and for recurrent ovarian cancer (approved 1998) is Doxil [7], a poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) coated (i.e., PEGylated) liposomal encapsulating the chemotherapeutic doxorubicin [8]. This enhances circulation half-life and tumor uptake of the drug, and also reduces its toxicological activity in patients in comparison to the use of free drug [9]. Other approved nanoparticle drug carriers include Marqibo, a liposomal encapsulating vincristine for rare leukemia treatment [10] and Abraxane an albumin-bound paclitaxel nanoparticle for the treatment of breast cancer [11]; Duragesic-transdermal drug delivery system patch containing the opioid fentanyl embedded within an acrylate polymer matrix, in the treatment of chronic pain [12]; and OROS, an osmotically controlled oral drug delivery technology, incorporated into several oral delivery products including Concerta [13]. Implantable biomaterials used include the Gliadel wafer, which consists of dime-sized wafers comprised of the chemotherapeutic agent carmustine and a polymer matrix made of poly (carboxyphenoxy-propane/sebacic acid), which are surgically inserted into the brain post-tumor resection [14, 15, 16] use as an adjunct to surgery in patients with recurrent glioblastoma multiforme.
An ideal therapeutic drug is expected to treat or cure a disease without resulting to any side effects [17, 18, 19]. However, this goal has not been achieved. Many chemotherapeutics are found to destroy both cancerous and healthy cells within the vicinity of the target site [20]. An efficient chemotherapeutics would administer drug, directly to diseased cell populations. Polymers have been found to permit the creation of “responsive” materials within the host environment and can be formulated with drugs to control release [21]. This polymer attribute is due to tuning propensity of the molecular weight of polymers that can be controlled via monomer stoichiometry using controlled polymerization strategies like ATRP [22], RAFT [23], NMO [24], and ROMP [25]. A bioresponsive material is one that can respond to a specific “trigger” inside or outside of the human body. Because the body have unique pathological parameters as pH gradients, temperatures, enzymes, small molecules, etc., the creation of materials that will respond to physiological alterations in both space and time are required.
Triggers include chemical, biological, and physical stimuli [26, 27], the chemical and biological ones are intrinsic to the body, while the physical stimuli are extrinsic to the body can thus be used to quicken sole drug delivery.
Bioresponsive materials are initiated by redox potential difference tissue environment and its surrounding [28]. There are materials that can respond to both oxidation and reduction triggers, which are incorporated into responsive polymers, e.g., diselenides with chemical structure like those of disulfides [29]. Diselenides allows for alternative triggers within nano-biotechnology applications [30].
The constituents of the human body such as tissues, fluids, and organelles have varied pH values. Areas like stomach, vagina, and lysosomes display acidic pHs (<7); ocular surface (7.1), the blood (≈7.4), and bile (7.8) [21]. Owing to these varied pHs of systems and organs in the body improvement in the efficacy and precision of therapeutic molecules will necessitate the design of polymeric drug delivery systems that are pH specific. pH-responsive materials have been useful in nucleic acid delivery, doxorubicin delivery, and taste masking [31, 32]. The target treatment of tumors has been enhanced using the pH-responsive materials. Such known target delivery includes multifunctional acid sensitive nanocomposites for anticancer drugs and acid-responsive poly(ethylene glycol) derivatives [33] for the controlled release of therapeutics in tumor target treatment (Figure 1).
Schematic illustration of drug loading and controlled release of poly (ethylene glycol) [
Hydrolysis prone materials can be degraded by body fluid via nucleophilic addition of water into an electrophilic functional group on a polymer. The electrophilic functional groups often used on polymers include esters and anhydrides [35]. The Gliadel wafer consisting of chemotherapeutic Carmustine impregnated within a polyanhydride material has been demonstrated as hydrolysis-sensitive materials for drug delivery [36] in the treatment of brain tumors. Enzyme-responsive polymers such as matrix metallo-proteins, hyaluronidases, phospholipases, and prostate-specific antigen [21] have been incorporated into polymers for target drug delivery in areas like tumor imaging, doxorubicin delivery, and minimization of inflammation in the colon [37].
Another drug delivery vehicle is the temperature-sensitive polymers that can operate at both human body temperature of 37°C and at ambient temperature such as 25°C [38]. These polymers include poloxamers, poly(N-alkyl acryl amides), poly(N vinyl caprolactams), cellulose, xyloglucan, and chitosan. These thermo-responsive polymers can be modified via [39] varying the ratio of monomers, end-group modifications, and post-polymerization modifications to make them suitable for varying applications [40].
Magnetic-responsive polymers are therapeutic drug-loaded polymers that work under the influence of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to delivery its drug to the target [41]. These include the following: systematic release of dopamine from alginates impregnated with magnetic beads; targeted plasmid delivery to the lung via chitosan nanoparticles; and insulin delivery [42].
Light-responsive polymers are used as external drug delivery systems that use noninvasive and painless techniques [26, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48] as drugs are delivered by light UV- and visible-wavelength irradiation stimulation. In this technique, a remote-activated approach without direct patient contact is used [49]; this includes the release of drugs from a light-responsive azobenzene modified amphiphilic block copolymer to target melanoma cells [50].
There are polymers that can swell or shrink in response to external stimuli [51]. This phenomenon can have stemmed from changes in porosity occasioned as ionic cross-linking molecules are leached, resulting in alteration of the diffusion pathways for sensing molecules. Alginate is a commonly employed polymer that is isolated from seaweed, is relatively biocompatible, and has been used for sustained delivery of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) to a target within the body.
While a limited number of affinity-based delivery systems have been developed for the delivery of neurotrophic factors, we also examine the broad spectrum of reservoir-based delivery systems, including microspheres, electrospun nanofibers, hydrogels, and combinations of these systems.
Drug delivery systems transport biological active agents, such as growth factors and genetic material, into the desired location to promote beneficial effects for the treatment of diseases and disorders [52], osmotic pumps for the delivery of neurotrophic factors [53] to target site, affinity-based delivery systems (ABDS) in which drug loading and controlled release are achieved through the interactions of therapeutic drug and the delivery system, and reservoir-based delivery systems, where a polymer structure encapsulates the drug while its release is controlled via the material properties.
ABDS operate through the noncovalent interactions between device material and target drug [54] in a similar pattern to the interactions that occur in the extracellular matrix where the delivery of proteins and other biomolecules are controlled [55]. ABDS include molecular imprinting, cyclodextrin-based delivery, and heparin-based delivery [56]. Molecular imprinting uses polymer networks synthesized via a precursor molecule that is removed to reveal an imprint that acts as an affinity binding zone. In cyclodextrin-based delivery systems, small hydrophobic drugs are attracted to the hydrophobic center of an oligosaccharide cyclodextrin torus, which permits the complexes formation with enhanced solubility when compared to the drug itself. ABDS is observed to be superior to traditional reservoir-based systems as the release characteristics are dependent on the activities occurring between the drug and the matrix in a way not affected by the matrix properties [57].
Reservoir-based delivery systems (RBDS) are porous with drug release rate controlled by diffusion [58]. In RBDS, the drug is immersed or dissolved in a polymer solvent/reservoir. The drug penetrates via the biodegradable polymer structure to control the initial release followed by another release as surface and bulk erosion occurs in polymer reservoir. RBDS include nanogels, nanoparticles, micelles, hydrogels, microspheres, and electrospun nanofibers.
Microspheres are usually used as controlled drug release systems for stereotactic injections to isolated disease or injury sites in medicine and pharmacology [59]. Drugs like neurotransmitters, hormones, and neurotrophic factors have been encapsulated using microspheres obtained from biodegradable polymers [60]. These polymers include poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), and poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL). Microsphere-based drug delivery uses localized surgical injection to circumvent the blood-brain barrier; this is better in performance to orthodox methods like intravenous injection and oral drug delivery. The parameters of the microsphere such as the particle size, polymer degradation rate, and method of erosion (bulk versus surface degradation) can be utilized to control the rate of drug delivery rates [61]. PCL has been found useful as a microsphere for the carrier of sustained long period drug delivery as it demonstrates the slowest degradation rate [62]. The double emulsion method is often used in synthesizing of microspheres. The method involves dissolving the desired polymer in a nonpolar solvent to form an oil emulsion. The hydrophilic compound that is to be encapsulated is dissolved in an aqueous solution and then emulsified with the dissolved polymer-solvent solution to give a water-in-oil emulsion. After this the solvent evaporates, the polymer solidifies as it forms microspheres that encapsulated the inner aqueous solution [63].
Electrospinning process involves the application of an electric potential to draw out thin nanometer to micrometer diameter polymer fibers (natural or synthetic). A viscous solution of the polymer is prepared (at room or elevated temperature), then pumped via a spinneret nozzle (positive terminal) into an electric field such that the applied force due to the high voltage counters the surface tension leading to the formation of fiber droplets onto a collector plate that serves as negative terminal. The nanofibers produced are often used as drug based-reservoir delivery systems as the pores in the matrix serves as receptive sites for bioactive agents [64]. This fiber production process advantages include surface flexibility with respect to function or application, reduced initial burst release, and the possibility of producing different fiber configuration depending on usage [65]. Drugs are embedded in the pores of electrospun nanofibers by emulsion electrospinning; the target drug is dissolved in a desired polymer solution [64] such as in diclofenac sodium (DS) and human serum albumin (HSA) [66]. Electrospun nanofibers show some draw backs that include formation of drug aggregates during encapsulation along nonsmooth fibers, maintaining uniform fiber size distribution, the use of toxic solvents to form polymer-drug emulsion in drug delivery and its attendant health concerns. Despite these drawbacks, advances in the development of less toxic electrospun fibers, which contain extracellular matrix components such as keratin and collagen, have been developed for wound healing application. The biocompatibility potential of PVA with the bioactive nature of keratin, CoQ10, and antimicrobial mupirocin has been evaluated for wound care due to its ability to support the growth of keratinocytes and hasten skin regeneration [67].
Hydrogel is a hydrophilic network of cross-linked polymer chains with swelling capability but does not dissolve in aqueous solution in the presence of water to create a three-dimensional gel-like structure. The synthesis of hydrogels is through polymerization [68], its properties, and drug release mechanism that depend on the polymer type used. The mechanisms involved in the drug delivery of hydrogel may be diffusion controlled, chemical controlled, swelling controlled, and modulated release systems. The use of acetyl-(Arg-Ala-Asp-Ala)4-CONH2 self-assembling peptide hydrogel to carry model factors such as lysozyme, trypsin inhibitor, BSA, and IgG [69] reveals the potential of these hydrogels carriers of therapeutic agents with the preservation of protein activity. An agarose hydrogel has been found capable of delivering sustained bioactive lysozyme release [70] and was used for the local delivery of BDNF in adult rat models.
The biomaterial surface chemistry and topography impact protein adsorption, cell interaction, and host site response. Monocyte adhesion in vitro [71] have been shown to be altered by its surface chemistry, while in vivo surface chemistry does not significantly influence the foreign body reaction. Polymeric, ceramic, or metallic-based biomaterials exhibit variability in surface properties such as hydrophilic to hydrophobic; hard to soft in vivo [72].
Cell adhesion to adsorbed proteins is achieved via integrin and other receptors in the cell membrane and the occurrence of this triggered intracellular signaling events. Thus, the control of protein adsorption on biomaterials surfaces is crucial to controlling and directing cell responses. Oligopeptides with specific binding sites have been incorporated to control cell adsorption to the protein surface and these include short oligopeptide, e.g., adhesive oligopeptide is an arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (or RGD) [73] that is found in a number of different extracellular matrix proteins, such as fibronectin [74], laminin [75], collagen [76], and vitronectin [77]. Short oligopeptides are less expensive, easy to synthesize, and has greater flexibility for surface modification compared to bulky and labile intact proteins. To a surface modified using nonfouling PEG (99%) and RGD (1%), the protein adsorption was minimal (2 ng/cm2) leaving the sufficient RGD sites for fibroblast cell adhesion [78]. Structure and conformation of oligopeptides influence modulating cell adhesion as demonstrated with the use of immobilized cyclic RGD peptide which increased human bone marrow stromal cell adhesion to that of linear RGD peptides [79] (Table 1).
S/No. | Drug delivery systems | Biomaterial | API | Significance of the study | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ORAL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS | |||||
Silk Nanoparticles | Silk and fibrin | Celecoxib and curcumin | Silk fibroin nanoparticles were seen to promote anti-inflammatory properties of celecoxib or curcumin and could be exploited for oral osteoarthritis management since a controlled drug release was achieved by varying the drug loading | [80] | |
Electrospun fibers | Polylactic acid | Metronidazole | PLA nanofibers associated with metronidazole (MNZ) were used to control microbiological proliferation during periodontitis treatment, inhibiting bacteria growth during the treatment | [81] | |
OCULAR DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS | |||||
Nanocomposite hydrogel | Hyaluronic acid | Latanoprost | The hyaluronic acid nanocomposite hydrogels, with controlled degradation properties and sustained release, could serve as potential drug delivery systems for many ocular diseases as they controlled the release of latanoprost in vitro | [82] | |
Hydrogel contact lens | Silicone | Ofloxacin and Chloramphenicol | The drug release from the lenses was directly proportional to the amount of drug loaded and the lenses at the different loading concentrations showed transmittance of 95–97%. The silicone hydrogel contact lenses can be used to control drug delivery to the eye and is an alternative ocular delivery technique in the treatment or prevention of corneal infections | [83] | |
PULMONARY DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS | |||||
Porous particles | Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) | Celecoxib | Large porous celecoxib-PLGA microparticles prepared using supercritical fluid technology exhibited sustained drug delivery and antitumor efficacy, without causing any significant toxicity | [84] | |
Nanoparticles | Nanopolymeric particles consisting of hydroxyl propyl methylcellulose (HPMC), poly-vinylpyrrolidone (PVP) | Fluticasone | The in vitro antibacterial studies showed that HPMC-PVP-FLU nanoparticles displayed superior effect against Gram-positive bacteria compared to the unprocessed FLU and positive control | [85] | |
IV | IMPLANT DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS | ||||
Silk disc implants | Silk fibrin | IgG antibody or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) inhibitor 5P12-RANTES | SF was formulated into insertable discs that can encapsulate either IgG antibody or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) inhibitor 5P12-RANTES. The water vapor annealing showed a sustained release for 31 days and this released protein could inhibit HIV infection in both blood and human colorectal tissue | [86] | |
Bone biomaterials implant | Hydroxyapatite | Doxorubicin-loaded cyclodextrin | Hydroxyapatite-cyclodextrin-doxorubicin chemotherapeutic strategy enhanced the drug-targeting effect on tumor cells while protecting the more sensitive healthy cells after implantation. A successful integration of such a drug delivery system might allow healthy cells to initially survive during the doxorubicin exposure period | [87] | |
V | SYSTEMIC DRUG DELIVERY | ||||
Polylactide scaffold hydrogel injections | Cholesterol-modified poly(ethylene glycol)–polylactide | Chondrocytes | The formulation shows lower critical gelation temperature, higher mechanical strength, larger pore size, better chondrocyte adhesion, and slower degradation compared to plain polylactide scaffold gels. The hydrogel serves as a promising chondrocyte carrier for cartilage tissue engineering and gives an alternative solution to surgical cartilage repair | [88] | |
ANG-(1–7) functionalized plant chloroplast | Lyophilized lettuce cells (ACE2/ANG-(1–7)) | Lyophilized lettuce cells (ACE2/ANG-(1–7)) | Toxicology studies showed that both male and female rats tolerated ~10-fold ACE2/ANG-(1–7) higher than efficacy dose. The efficient attenuation of pulmonary arterial hypertension with no toxicity augurs well for the clinical advancement of the first oral protein therapy to prevent/treat underlying pathology for this disease. | [89] | |
VI | VAGINAL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS | ||||
Organogel | Palm oil and hyaluronic acid | Maraviroc | There was a 2.5-fold increase in the percentage of maraviroc release in the presence of hyaluronidase, hence the effectiveness of hyaluronidase enzyme acting as a trigger. This shows the potential use of palm oil/hyaluronic acid-based organogel for the vaginal delivery of anti-HIV microbicide for HIV prevention | [90] | |
Vaginal rings | Silicone matrix polymer | Dapivirine | A monthly vaginal ring containing dapivirine reduced the risk of HIV-1 infection among African women, with increased efficacy in subgroups with evidence of increased adherence | [91] | |
VII | TOPICAL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS | ||||
Electrospun fibers | Polylactic acid and collagen | Collagen and silver sulfadiazine | The electrospun fibers were nontoxic to the cells and provided favorable substrates for the neonatal epidermal keratinocytes cells to undergo cell attachment and proliferation, hence its potential for use in chronic wound management | [92] | |
Hydrogel | Polyvinyl alcohol and carbopol | Diclofenac diethylamine | In vitro skin permeation for 10 h showed that the enhancement ratios of the flux of diclofenac was higher compared to the marketed formulations. The study highlighted the advantage of the experimental transdermal hydrogel over the hydrogel with microsized drug particles | [93] |
Drug delivery systems showing the significance of the biomaterials utilized in delivering active pharmaceutical ingredients at their biological target site.
Poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG), or poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) having nonfouling surfaces demonstrates protein and cell resistance capabilities. PEG have been attached to materials in such a manner to render them nonfouling through processes like covalent immobilization, adsorption, or interpenetration. PEG has been covalently attached to mussel adhesive protein to form a nonfouling and a sticky segment copolymer [94] with gold and titanium surfaces attached to the sticky segment, while the PEG chains occur at the new interface. It should be noted that the nonfouling ability/attribute of PEG is dependent on the surface chain density that is prone to oxidants damaged. However, the use of plasma deposition of tetra ethylene glycol dimethyl ether (tetraglyme) on PEG will reduce protein surface adsorption [95]. Other materials with nonfouling surfaces include phospholipid surfaces [96] and saccharide surfaces [97], and these biomaterials ensure increased compatibility issues between the drug carrier systems and biological systems to which they are introduced to elicit a pharmacological activity.
Materials which respond to environmental changes are attractive particularly in vivo as these can be utilized to control drug release, cell adhesiveness, mechanical properties, or permeability. These environmental changes can be brought about by stimulants like pH [98], temperature [99], and light [100]. The body employs changes in pH to facilitate a range of different processes. For example, along the gastrointestinal track, food is broken down into nutritive substances in the stomach under acidic pH ∼ 2 and subsequently absorbed in the small intestine (pH ∼ 7). Patient often prefers the oral drug delivery requiring routine, periodic delivery of drugs and for effectiveness, the drug must resist the stomach acidic pH. The pH-sensitive materials that are mindful of gastrointestinal tract pH variation have been developed to transport drugs successfully through the stomach to the small intestine. Such successful materials include pH responsive hydrogels prepared from poly(methacrylic acid) grafted with poly(ethylene glycol) (PMAA-g-PEG) that swells in response to pH. For instance, the gel shrinks by trapping the drug cargo pH ∼ 2 as interpolymer complexes are formed, but at physiological pH ∼ 7, the gel can swell 3–25 times based on its composition as it releases its cargo in the target site [101]. Insulin-loaded PMAA-g-PEG gels have been orally delivered to diabetic mice with a significant decrease in glucose levels as protein function is protected in acidic and digestive enzymes environments [102].
Self-organization or self-assembly is based on the formation of weak noncovalent bonds, like hydrogen, ionic, or Van der Waals bonds or hydrophobic interactions [103]. In amphiphilic molecules, there are hydrophobic and hydrophilic segments that self-assemble to form nanometer 3D structures like micelles, vesicles, and tubules, which depend on the molecule’s length and composition [104, 105, 106, 107]. When any of these are dispersed in aqueous solvent, the hydrophobic segments agglomerate and water is expelled to produce a well-ordered structure useful in biomedical applications. Phospholipid a naturally occurring amphiphilic molecule that is largely compose of cell membrane is one such amphiphilic molecules while an oligomer, a polymer of amino acids, can be synthesized to have hydrophobic, hydrophilic, charged, etc., regions that can self-assemble into a macroscopic hydrogel [108]. The self-assembled biomaterials can be engineered for use in nanotechnology, tissue engineering for drug and cell carriers.
Polymers are large molecules formed from simple monomers and may be synthetic or biopolymers that are the constituents of living organisms like proteins, nucleic acids, and sugars. Biopolymers are active in controlling and regulating many biochemical and biophysical functions of living cells, and thus can participate in cooperative interactions, resulting in nonlinear response to external stimuli. The cooperative interaction mechanism of biopolymers is utilized in producing synthetic polymers that are similar in behavior to biopolymers, which are used as biomaterials with ability to interface with biological systems for a variety of living cells functions.
Polymeric, biodegradable materials are often useful in biomedical applications, as the polymers degrade into normal metabolites of the body or eliminated from the body with or without further metabolic transformation [109, 110]. Developed polymeric biomaterials have physical and chemical properties that are maintained and are not tampered with during synthesis. The use of synthetic polymeric biomaterials includes artificial corneal substitute, blood contacting devices, hip joint replacements, and formation of intraocular lenses [111, 112]. Biodegradable polymers are either natural or synthetic. Natural polymers are derived from natural resources and have potential to be considered for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications owing to biocompatibility, biomimicking environments, unique mechanical properties, and biodegradability. Natural polymers are prone to viral infection, antigenicity, and unstable material supply, which limit biomedical application. On the other hand, synthetic polymers are flexible in synthesis procedure technique with excellent reproducibility which made them useful for surgical and short-term medical application, orthopedic applications that may slowly transfer the load as it degrades [113].
The drug administration into the body is either via an oral or intravenous route with repeated administration done to increase concentration and performance. But this may reach an extreme level before it declines rapidly especially when the elimination rate from the body is high. A too low or too high drug concentration in the body will not benefit the patient because of the side effects. This phenomenon then becomes a concern requiring the use of controlled drug release mechanism which can only be offered by biomaterials [114]. For controlled drug release, the therapeutic and bioactive agents are enveloped or encapsulated in an insoluble biodegradable subnano, nano, micropolymer matrix cavity where the therapeutic agents are released in a controlled fashion.
Widely used drug delivery systems include a liposomal drug delivery system [115, 116] that consists of phospholipids, i.e., fatty acid esters and fat alcohol ethers of glycerol phosphatides; they are negatively charged at physiological pH due to their phosphate groups. Cationic liposomes are prepared using lipid molecules having a quaternary ammonium head group. Because cellular membranes carry negative charges, cationic liposomes interact with these cellular membranes [117]. The stability of liposomes in biological environment is improved with steric stability that can extend its blood circulation time after being administered [118]. Biodegradable polymers are usually used to enhance the steric stability of the liposomes. Natural biodegradable polymers that are suitable for drug delivery systems include proteins (collagen, gelatin, albumin, etc.) and polysaccharides (starch, dextran, chitosan, etc.) [119].
Polysaccharides are many monosaccharide repeating units with high molecular weight. It is biodegradable, biocompatible, and water soluble which make suitable for drug delivery. There are several different types of polysaccharides having different functional groups, which are as follows:
Alginic acid is a linear hetero polysaccharide, nonbranched, high-molecular-weight binary copolymer of (1–4) glycosidic linkage with β-D-mannuronic acid and α-L guluronic acid monomers [120, 121]. Natural alginic acid can be obtained from the cell walls of brown algae. Its acidic nature helps in its spontaneous formation of salts and later gels in the presence of divalent cations like calcium ions. This occurs by the interaction of divalent cations with guluronic acid blocks present on other polysaccharide chains. The gel property paves way for the encapsulation of molecules that can act as drugs within alginate gels with negligible side effects. The drug delivery mechanism of alginates is hinged on the drug polymer interaction and chemical immobilization of the drug on the polymer backbone via reactive carboxylate groups [122, 123, 124].
Starch, which is a carbohydrate source can be isolated from corn, wheat, potato, tapioca, rice, etc., and consists of two glucosidic macromolecules: 20–30% of linear molecule—amylase and 70–80% of branched molecule—amylopectin. The products of starch processing include thin films, fibers, and porous matrices. It is an important polymer for thermoplastic biodegradable materials due to its low cost, availability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and having renewable resources [125]. The products of starch degradation include fructose and maltose that are low molecular weight sugar [126]. Microspheres from starch have bioadhesive drug delivery system potential for nasal delivery of proteins [127].
Dextran is a natural polysaccharide of large glucose molecules with long and branched chains of varying lengths from 3 to 2000 Kd at 1,6- and partly at 1,3-glucosidic linkages. It is synthesized from sucrose via lactic-acid bacteria like
Pullulan occurs naturally as linear homopolysaccharide polymer with maltotriose units of 3-glucose or D-glucopyranose units which are linked by α-(1 → 4) glycosidic linkages. It is edible, bland, and tasteless and thus is added to food and beverages. It serves as a coating agent in pharmaceutics, breath fresheners, or oral hygiene products [130]. Consecutive maltotriose units are linked to one another via α-(1 → 6) glycosidic bond. The pullulan backbone structure is similar to dextran, as both are plasma expanders. Pullulan is commercially synthesized via fermentation process involving the growth of fungus
Hyaluronic acid also a natural occurring negatively charged linear polysaccharide made of repeating disaccharide units of D-glucuronic acid and 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-glucose monosaccharide units. It exists majorly in articular cartilage, connective tissues, synovial fluids of mammals and the mesenchyme of developing embryos. It is water soluble and forms highly viscous solutions and therefore suitable for use as wound dresser as it can act as scavenger for free radicals in wound sites to modulate inflammation [131]. Its use in tissue repair application include to protect delicate tissue in the eye in removal of cataract, corneal transplantation, and glaucoma surgery, as vitreous substitute in retina re-attachment surgery, to relieve pain and improve joint mobility in osteoarthritis (knee) patients suffering and accelerate bone fracture healing [132].
Chitin a natural occurring polysaccharide of 1 → 4 β-linked glycan containing 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-glucose is a component of shells of crustaceans, cell walls of fungi, etc. When chitin is deacetylated chitosan a semi-crystalline linear copolymer polysaccharide is produced with (1 → 4) β-linked D-glucosamine and some N-acetyl glucosamine groups. The degree of deacetylation (DD) of chitosan may be from 70% and 90% and the MW is in between 10 and 1000 k [133]. While chitin is insoluble in regular solvents, chitosan is fully soluble in aqueous solutions with pH <5.0 [134]. Chitosan degrades in vivo enzymatically via lysozyme to nontoxic products [134]. Chitosan is easy to process and applied, oxygen permeability, water absorptivity, hemostatic property, and ability to induce interleukin-8 from fibroblasts. It uses include wound and burn dressing material, drug delivery and controlled drug release.
Polyurethane is a polymer with a chain of organic units linked by carbamate (urethane), which is formed from two or several bi- or higher-functional monomers, one having two or more isocyanate functional groups (–N=C=O) and the other with two or more hydroxyl groups (–OH) [135]. It is a material with similar elasticity to rubber, possess toughness and durability comparable to metal, and is chemically inert. Polyurethane micelles are suitable drug delivery systems.
Advances in medical research have led to the exploration of various materials as drug carriers for suitable delivery. Biomaterials are currently well explored in recent years as a result of their ubiquitous nature, ease of accessibility, biodegradability, and biocompatibility with living tissues. They have been singly used or blended with other materials as composites. This chapter has thus discussed the different biomaterials with their functionalities in the area of drug release. More biomaterials can be explored by processing and characterizations from natural origin to ensure effective performance and limit health complications associated with drug release.
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He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). 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He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"19",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Science",keywords:"Animal Science, Animal Biology, Wildlife Species, Domesticated Animals",scope:"The Animal Science topic welcomes research on captive and wildlife species, including domesticated animals. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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