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short – range period of enlightened metabolic manipulation”.
During pregnancy, the body systems of the woman, must support nutrient and oxygen supply for the proper growth and development of the foetus and subsequently during lactation. Inability to adopt the changes in maternal physiology may lead to complications, such as gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). The International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) shows that, GDM may complicate 15–20% pregnancies, and has increased in the last 20 years in all ethnic groups as much as 27% [1].
GDM originates from interplay of factors like specific gene mutations, dysregulation of placental hormones and β-cell injury, favored by advanced age, gynecological alterations and diabetogenic factors. GDM mostly develop after the 2nd trimester of pregnancy, between the 24th and the 28th week of gestation. GDM may precipitate serious and long-term complications for foetal and maternal health, in particular, metabolism and cardiovascular in nature [2].
Currently, in most cases, the diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) is done around the late phase of second trimester, which may expose the foetus to the hazards of intrauterine metabolic alterations and also epigenetic changes for the period of exposure. Many documented evidences indicate that the metabolic alterations may subject the new born vulnerable to many long-term pathologies. Detection and management of GDM in pregnancy, can reduce the frequency of adverse pregnancy outcome. Hence, we need to predict and identify GDM earlier in pregnancy even if possible before the pregnancy, in order to limit the exposure to impaired glucose metabolism.
American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommends initial screening for GDM at 24–28 weeks [3]. But Seshiah V et al. from India has detected 62.1% cases of GDM before 24 weeks. Moreover, if we do not test before 24 weeks, we will miss earliest intervention for all the cases of undetected diabetes existing before pregnancy [4].
The aim of this review was to find out the useful and possible markers or guides to detect GDM early in pregnancy before rise of blood sugar and if possible, even before pregnancy to avoid all complication for mother and child arising from effects of GDM on gestation.
References for this review were identified by searching PubMed, Embase for articles in English with no language restrictions for articles published mainly from 2000 to 2021. The search terms used were GDM biomarkers, GDM pathogenesis, GDM prevention and epigenetics of GDM. The final reference list was prepared based on this search, supplemented with references from the authors’ own dataset.
GDM develops when beta cell dysfunction coexists, and is complicated by further abnormalities in adipokine and cytokine profiles, increased free fatty acids (FFA), triglycerides (TG), low vitamin D and endothelial dysfunction. The identification of early biomarkers in pregnancy, who may develop GDM, may lead to an improved understanding of pathogenesis of GDM. Combination of biomarkers and different risk factors into a predictive model, may help in early prediction of GDM. This may also find out effective prevention strategies and finally can limit different complications related with GDM. The first-trimester biochemical predictors of GDM are shown in Table 1.
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Showing the first-trimester biochemical predictors of GDM.
Metabolic alterations like impaired glucose control during the phase of foetal development, may result in functional and structural alterations in the developing foetus, and may result in a predispose to the development of chronic metabolic diseases in future life. These alterations are actually the ‘foetal programming’ and may trigger epigenetic changes [5]. The epigenetic changes are considered as different changes in the biochemical structure of DNA, which alters the gene expression in pregnancy as shown in Table 2.
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Showing the epigenetic changes in pregnancy.
Maternal insulin resistance can also cause insulin resistance in the foetus [6]. Multiple studies have correlated maternal GDM, with the development of obesity and T2DM in children who are eight times more prone to develop T2DM than non-GDM children [7, 8]. This raises the strong need for early detection of GDM preceding the hyperglycaemia which might avoid subsequent harm.
Now a days, more and more women are becoming pregnant, being either overweight or obese. The obese women show a three-fold risk for developing GDM. The global increase in GDM at present time is largely due to the on-going pandemic of obesity. Obesity is related to an altered production of proinflammatory cytokines from the adipocytes, which may lead to a state of chronic low-grade inflammation. It acts upon the expression and production of different proinflammatory cytokines e.g., TNF-alpha and IL-6 and also many anti-inflammatory cytokines. This also produces adipokines e.g., adiponectin, visfatin and leptin etc. Adipokines can modify insulin secretion & sensitivity, appetite, energy control and inflammation. Sound relationship is evident between obesity, chronic low-grade inflammation and development of T2DM. The normal pregnancy shows a balance between the productions of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines.
Pregnancies in obese women, further may aggravate the proinflammatory markers and may lead to an imbalance and possible complications. It is now accepted that inflammation is also an associated feature of GDM [9]. During GDM, the increased production of proinflammatory cytokines disturbs the insulin signaling [10]. A down regulation of adiponectin and anti-inflammatory markers such as IL-4 and IL-10 and an enhanced production of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-α are usually observed in GDM [11].
Adiponectin is actually an adipocyte protein and consists of anti-atherogenic, anti-inflammatory and also insulin-sensitizing effects [12]. Adiponectin is inversely correlated with the clinical conditions like hypertension, dyslipidaemia, obesity and also coronary artery disease. Diminished level of adiponectin are usually seen with an increased risk of T2DM [13]. During the normal pregnancies, adiponectin decrease progressively also, probably from a decrease in insulin sensitivity [14]. Many studies have indicated that reduced adiponectin levels during 24–28 weeks in GDM compared to non GDM women, probably corelate low levels of adiponectin with onset of insulin resistance and diminished beta cell function [15, 16]. In one study, adiponectin concentrations in 560 GDM patients and 781 controls revealed a significantly decreased adiponectin level in GDM patients vs. controls [17].
Adiponectin, an adipokine having anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerotic and insulin-sensitizing proprieties in another study, was constantly lower along the 1st–3rd trimester of GDM gestations [18]. Hypoadiponectinemia increases the risk of developing GDM by 4.6 times [19], and is inversely correlated with the insulin resistance, BMI and leptin [20]. The ratio of plasma adiponectin and leptin (< 0.33) is also considered as predictor of GDM as early as the period of 6th to 14th week of pregnancy [21]. But probably the assessment of the high molecular weight oligomeric-adiponectin may give better results [22].
Recent prospective studies have addressed the role of adiponectin as a possible early predictor of GDM. Lower levels of adiponectin in the first trimester of pregnancy are associated with a greater risk for developing GDM. This suggests that a down regulation of adiponectin may be a predictor of GDM [23]. In a systematic review and meta-analysis, adiponectin had a moderate effect for predicting future GDM [24]. Again, a case–control study found revealed that low adiponectin levels in pre-pregnancy period is associated with an increased risk of 5.0-fold for developing GDM [25].
This association was significant even when adjustment of known risk factors for GDM was done. This is important as it can identify a group of high-risk women, who might be not detected by conventional tests. Therapy with adiponectin in animal models of obesity improves glycaemia and also can reduce hyperinsulinaemia without any changes in body weight [26].
To summarize, a lower level of adiponectin is seen with type 2 diabetes, obesity and GDM. Adiponectin may influence the pathophysiology of GDM and also be a promising predictive biomarker for identifying GDM. Subsequent research for lifestyle interventions or adiponectin therapy should be done to finalize the role of adiponectin and diagnostic ability in cases of GDM particularly during the first trimester of GDM. Serum adiponectin in GDM, when is below <8.9 μg/ml shows an odds ratio of 3.3.
Mean value of 1,5 Alfa anhydroglucitrol level is significantly lower in those destined to develop GDM. In the first trimester, higher SHBG levels are indicating the risk of GDM but this was no longer statistically significant when BMI, ethnicity and family history were considered. A measurement of CRP in the first trimester is not a useful marker of GDM [27].
Leptin is an adipocyte-derived hormone, mostly produced by adipocytes but is also produced in ovaries and the placenta. It regulates energy balance through hypothalamic pathways. Increased leptin is associated with weight gain, obesity and hyperinsulinaemia.
Leptin is a proinflammatory adipokine and participate in immune responses. It also affects glucose metabolism by antagonistic action on appetite and insulin action. In addition, it can stimulate oxidative stress, atherogenesis and arterial stiffness [28]. Leptin levels is detected to be significantly higher in the 2nd half of pregnancy in both normal and overweight women with later diagnosis of GDM [29]. Menon M et al. did a prospective observational study with three study groups, with two-time points-first and second trimester to detect gestational diabetes mellitus as follows: [30]
Normal glucose tolerance (NGT)
Gestational diabetes mellitus 1 (GDM1), OGCT done at 1st trimester patients diagnosed as GDM in 1st trimester
Gestational diabetes mellitus 2 (GDM2), Repeat OGCT done at 2nd trimester patients diagnosed as GDM in 2nd trimester.
They found that found that out of the adipokines, leptin was found to be elevated in GDM2 compared to GDM1 and NGT group with a p value (0.11), adiponectin was reduced only in GDM1 group with p value (0.33), TNFα is almost the same in all the 3 study groups but IL-6 is elevated in first and second trimester GDM group.
Maternal leptin levels increase 2 to 3 times in pregnancy, as a placental secretion. Increased levels of leptin have been seen in GDM.
Inflammatory markers like IL-6 and TNF-α also are involved in the pathophysiology of GDM by promoting both the chronic low-grade inflammation and also leptin concentrations. A prospective study detected elevated values of leptin before 16 weeks of conception, regardless of presence of adiposity and this was accompanied by an increased risk of GDM [31]. In another study leptin was increased in all pregnant women, but with highest concentrations in obese GDM patients [32]. But due to confounding effects of the measures of adiposity, current evidence is limited. Leptin is probably involved in the pathophysiology of GDM but is a poor predictor of GDM.
Visfatin an adipokine mostly secreted from visceral fat. It possesses both endocrine, paracrine and autocrine effects. Increased level of visfatin is noted in obesity, metabolic syndrome and T2DM. During pregnancy, visfatin levels increase up to the 2nd trimester, then they decrease and persist in lowest concentrations in the third trimester. During GDM, studies on visfatin levels are is inconsistent, as both decreased and increased levels have been reported [33].
In addition to its insulin-like properties to bind to the insulin receptor-1 and promotion of hypoglycaemic effects, visfatin can activate NFκB signaling and chemotaxis and lead to the development of insulin resistance. In fact, visfatin was found increased at the late 1st trimester [34], but differentially expressed at the 3rd trimester of GDM [35].
One study observed, visfatin was better in the prediction of GDM in the first trimester than CRP, IL-6, adiponectin and leptin [36]. One case–control study found that, visfatin in the 1st trimester was higher in GDM, but when it was added to the other maternal risk factors, the GDM detection rate had no improvement [37]. At present, findings indicate that visfatin is a potential biomarker for GDM, but we need further prospective studies to further asses the relationship between visfatin and GDM.
Resistin represents an adipose-derived hormone and is expressed from monocytes, macrophages and adipocytes. It is corelated with high LDL-c and pro-inflammatory molecules and is also positively associated with adiposity. It increases during pregnancy, probably from weight gain. A potential link might exist between resistin, adiposity and insulin resistance during pregnancy, but till now, remains inconclusive as because of conflicting reports from case–control studies [38]. Resistin, is found to be reduced or unchanged during GDM [39, 40].
But, nested case–control studies, investigating resistin levels in early pregnancy, found no differences in resistin levels between GDM and controls (adjusted for BMI) [41]. Currently, there is no solid evidence that resistin is involved in the pathophysiology or prediction of GDM.
Omentin-1, is an adipokine produced in non-fat cells from the adipose tissues (stromal vascular cells). It is involved in vascular tone relaxation due to the production of endothelial nitric oxide and lowering of both hs-CRP and TNFα signaling [42]. Omentin-1 was lower at the 2nd trimester of GDM similar to adiponectin, and in contrast to IL-6 [43].
Hungarian study reported that fasting serum ghrelin levels were lower in women with GDM compared to non-pregnant healthy controls and pregnant controls without GDM in the 1st trimester and 3rd trimester [44].
TNFα a proinflammatory cytokine produced by monocytes and macrophages affects insulin sensitivity and secretion. These occurs from impairment of B-cell function and insulin signaling and results in insulin resistance and possibly GDM [45]. Multiple studies showed increased maternal TNFα levels in GDM, predominantly during late pregnancy [46]. Increased TNF-α levels in GDM than controls have been shown. Subgroup analysis detected this relationship to remain significant when they are compared with BMI-matched controls [47].
These increased levels are due to increased oxidative stress and inflammation arising from impaired glucose metabolism [48]. A small case–control study 0f 14 cases and 14 controls to address the predictive value of TNFα found no differences between women with GDM and without [49]. In one study of GDM and controls, TNFα levels measured pre-gravid, at 12–14 weeks and 34–36 weeks were increased at 34–36 weeks of gestation. These were inversely correlated with the insulin sensitivity [50]. We need more prospective studies to assess the predictive value of TNFα during GDM, with due adjustment for measures of adiposity.
IL-6 is one of the proinflammatory cytokines and is increased in obesity and associated with indices of adiposity and insulin resistance, such as body mass index (BMI). The relationship between IL-6 and insulin action appears to be regulated via adiposity. However, in a case–control study, plasma IL-6 levels were elevated when adjusted for BMI in women with GDM [51].
Wolf and co-workers had found that the first-trimester CRP levels were significantly raised among them who later on developed GDM than the control subjects (3.1 vs. 2.1 mg/L, P < 0.01) [52]. After the adjustment for age, race/ethnicity, blood pressure smoking, parity, and age at gestation at CRP sampling, the increased risk of developing GDM among women was seen in the highest tertile than the lowest tertile and was 3.6 times higher (95% CI: 1.2–11.4). But when adjusted for BMI, this relation was not seen anymore. But Berggren and co-workers examined whether first-trimester hs CRP could predict the third-trimester impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). The hs CRP was positively correlated to (hs)CRP and GDM appears to be partly mediated by BMI.
Another study found that elevated plasma insulin and reduced adiponectin levels during first trimester may improve GDM identification rates than by clinical factors alone [53]. Maternal risk factors alone offer a prediction rate of 61% for GDM, but addition of adiponectin and SHBG, improved detection rates to 74% [54].
O’Malley E G et al. found that, both the serum insulin and C-peptide levels in the third tertile were correlated with GDM development (p < 0.001 if adjusted for maternal obesity). Higher values of ghrelin were showing a lower odd of development of GDM, even after adjustment for maternal obesity. The conclusion of the study was though 3 of the 10 biomarkers were statistically indicating an increased risk of GDM, but the presence of large overlap in values between women with normal and abnormal glucose tolerance reflect that the biomarkers (alone or in combination) were not clinically helpfull [55].
Li et al. compared 379 women in the first trimester who developed GDM subsequently with 2166 healthy women. They found that lipid profile was different between the groups. The GDM patients had higher concentrations of Triglyceride, LDL-Cholesterol and total cholesterol but lower concentrations of HDL [58]. The lipid values at first trimester in the cohort of Correa et al. was altered even when glycaemia and glycated hemoglobin were normal. The first trimester insulin concentration was seen to be also higher in women who developed GDM. Both theses indicate that there is a role of lipid metabolism in the pathogenesis of the disease [59].
Placenta-Related Factors such as sex hormone-binding globulin, afamin, fetuin-A, fibroblast growth factors-21/23, ficolin-3 and follistatin, or specific micro- RNAs may be involved in GDM progression and may help in its recognition [60].
In GDM, some adipose-derived factors such as TNFα, visfatin, omentin and FABP4 may be also expressed and expressed from placenta, resulting to their elevated plasma levels [10]. The sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) from placenta acting as a regulator of sex steroid hormones had been linked with inversely insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, obesity and T2DM [61]. A lower level of plasma SHBG in the 1st trimester was a true biomarker for GDM [62, 63].
Nanda et al. showed reduced SHBG in parallel to adiponectin in GDM during 11–13th week of pregnancy, in presence of previous macrosomia, BMI > 30 kg/m2, and family history of DM [63, 64]. Similarly, an hepatokine promoter of insulin resistance, known as fetuin-B, is raised at the 3rd trimester of GDM, but returns after delivery [65]. Again, at the late 1st trimester, a reduction of plasma fetuin-A levels (and elevated hs-CRP) is also noted [66].
FGF-21, responsible for browning of white adipose tissue and an upstream effector of adiponectin, was increased in GDM at the 24th week of gestation [67]. Afamin, a glycoprotein member of the albumin family found in liver and placenta, may be a first trimester biomarker for pathological glucose and lipid metabolism [68].
The decreased levels of ficolin-3 (an activator of the lectin pathway of the complement system expressed in liver and placenta) and the increased ratio of ficolin-3/adiponectin are predictive of GDM at the 16–18th week of gestation [18]. Follistatin, a gonadal regulator of follicular-stimulant hormone and activin-A, having angiogenic, anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective properties, were lower in the 3rd trimester of GDM pregnancy [69].
The non-coding RNAs such as micro-RNAs (miR) can be released from placenta to maternal circulation as early as the 6th week of gestation and may be involved in placenta development, insulin signaling and cardiovascular homeostasis [70]. These miR can regulate trophoblasts proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion, and angiogenesis [71].
A significant downregulation of miR-29a, miR-132 and miR-222 had been reported in plasma at the 16th week of pregnant women who developed GDM [72]. Similarly, during the 7th–23rd week of gestation, elevated plasma levels of miR-21-3p were seen with GDM [73].
SHBG a glycoprotein regulates the transport of sex hormones. In vitro, this is a marker in insulin resistance as insulin and insulin-like growth factor inhibit SHBG secretion. Indeed, a relation of low levels of SHBG and T2DM has been observed [74]. A study found its concentrations to be significantly lower in GDM [75]. Moreover, women treated with insulin showed even lower SHBG levels. Probably SHBG may help to differentiate or predict who will require insulin therapy or not.
A prospective study evaluated several biomarkers before 15 weeks of gestation and observed that low levels of SHBG were indicating an increased risk of GDM. Adding hs-CRP increases the specificity to 75.46% [76]. However another prospective cross-sectional study, revealed that low levels of SHBG assessed between 13 and 16 weeks of gestation were positively associated with the development of GDM (n = 30) (P < 0.01) [77]. A case–control study also found that SHBG in the non-fasting state in first trimester had a consistent association with an increased GDM risk [78].
AFABP or Adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein may be one of the risk predictors for cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome and T2DM [79]. Two studies have established its increased levels in GDM. Gestational diabetes mellitus causes changes in the concentrations of adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein and other adipo-cytokines in cord blood [80, 81]. Studies investigating the predictive value of AFABP in GDM have not been performed to date, however.
The fatty acid-binding protein 4 (FABP4) correlates with obesity markers e.g., fat mass and high BMI. FABP4 act on lipid and glucose metabolism via fatty acid transport and uptake [82]. The retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4) is one of the circulating retinol transporters and id correlated with cardiometabolic markers in inflammatory chronic diseases like T2DM, metabolic syndrome obesity, and atherosclerosis process [83]. Higher levels of FABP4 can predict GDM from the 1st and 3rd trimester of [84, 85]. Upregulated values of plasma RBP4 in the 1st and 2nd trimester may modestly indicate GDM risk, especially among women with obesity and advanced age [18, 86].
Growing evidence suggests the use of SNPs, DNA methylation, and miRNAs as biomarkers that could help in the early detection of GDM. In presence of their potential, these molecular biomarkers pose several challenges that need to be addressed before they can become clinically applicable [87].
Decreased levels of first trimester pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A) and increased levels of second trimester unconjugated estriol (uE3) and dimeric inhibin A (INH) were associated with GDM [88].
Lower levels of vitamin D have been seen in both obesity and type 2 diabetes and also in pregnancy very often. Low levels of Vitamin D levels during first trimester also carry a higher risk for GDM as seen in recent meta-analyses [89]. As the mentioned studies all were not randomized controlled studies, we need future RCTs to confirm the predictive role of vitamin D [90].
Zhao et al. studied maternal blood prospectively from pregnant women at 12–16 weeks of pregnancy. Among these, 30 women were subsequently diagnosed with GDM at 24 to 28 weeks and were selected as case studies along with 30 normoglycemic women as controls. They found that, four proteins, apolipoprotein E, coagulation factor IX, fibrinogen alpha chain, and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 5, with a high sensitivity and specificity, may provide effective early screening for GDM. The panel of four candidate proteins could distinguish women subsequently developed with GDM from controls with high sensitivity and specificity [91].
For the first time, Ding M et al. detected 8 variants to be associated with GDM, They are rs7957197 (HNF1A), rs3802177 (SLC30A8), rs10814916 (GLIS3), rs34872471 (TCF7L2), rs9379084 (RREB1), rs7903146 (TCF7L2), rs11787792 (GPSM1) and also rs7041847 (GLIS3). They also confirmed 3 other variants e.g., rs1387153 (MTNR1B), rs10830963 (MTNR1B), and rs4506565 (TCF7L2), which had been earlier identified by them or significant association with GDM risk [92].
The study of urine metabolome profile in GDM during the 3rd trimester found relation of 14 metabolites with the steroid hormone biosynthesis and tryptophan metabolism, which were significantly high. They are l-urobilinogen, l-tryptophan, 21-deoxycortisol, cucurbitacin-C, ceramide (d18:0/23:0) and aspartame [93]. Upregulation of these pathways could aggravate insulin resistance and respond to oxidative stress and inflammation during GDM. Earliest at 12th–26th week of pregnancy, augmented levels of AHBA, 3-hydroxybutanoic acid (BHBA), valine, alanine, serotonin and related metabolites like l-tryptophan levels were observed in urine (and plasma) from GDM mothers [94].
Clinical risk prediction models’ wave has been investigated in GDM. For example, the development of GDM can be predicted from the ethnicity, family history, history of GDM and body mass index. One large prospective study (n = 7929), found that, based on BMI, ethnicity, family history of diabetes and past history of GDM, there was a sensitivity, specificity and AUC of 73% [66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79], 81% [80, 81, 82] and 0.824 (0.793–0.855), respectively, for the identification of GDM patients who required insulin therapy [95].
The introduction of biomarkers if added to a set of clinical risk factors are supposed to increase the predication rates of GDM. In particular, low HDL cholesterol and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) appeared as independent significant predictors of GDM. The addition of these 2 biomarkers to a group of clinical and demographic risk factors enhances the ROC (area under the curve) from 0.824 to 0.861 [96]. The t-PA not only is a predictor of GDM, it is also associated with a higher risk of T2DM [97].
Addition of maternal adiponectin and visfatin to a bunch of maternal risk factors, reached a detection rate of 68% [98]. The clinical implementation of these multi-parametric prediction models is determined by factors like practical acceptability, significant reduction in adverse pregnancy outcomes and cost-effectiveness. But these models need prospective validation studies and also further identification of predictive threshold values for the said biomarkers.
In one study, women with GDM (n = 96) were matched to women with NGT (n = 96) by age, BMI, gravidity and parity and the levels of 91 metabolites measured. Six metabolites (anthranilic acid, alanine, glutamate, creatinine, allantoin and serine) were found to have significantly different levels between the two groups in conditional logistic regression analyses (p < 0.05). Metabolic markers identified as being predictive of type 2 diabetes may not have the same predictive power for GDM [99].
Endogenous galanin as a novel biomarker to predict gestational diabetes mellitus is also observed [100]. The higher level of galanin observed in GDM may represent an adaptation to the rise of glucose, weight, GGT associated with GDMs thriving for clinically useful thresholds [101].
Mean 1,5 AG levels are significantly lower in those that go on to develop GDM. Hs-CRP and SHBG are important early predictors of GDM. Adding SHBG to hs-CRP improves specificity and serves good overall accuracy. Uric acid, creatinine and albumin have no role in GDM prediction [102].
Bivariate logistic regression analysis had shown that both adiponectin and insulin highlight future development of gestational diabetes. Both of them measured at 11 weeks, may predict oncoming GDM. But we need further studies to assess the reliability of these biomarkers [103].
Placental growth factor (PLGF), a vascular endothelial growth factor-like protein, is highly expressed in the placenta. About three studies suggest that higher early pregnancy PLGF levels are associated with GDM [104, 105, 106]. Recently, ALT, a liver enzyme, a marker of hepatocellular damage, has been examined as a first-trimester predictor of GDM [107].
One moderate-sized study (N = 182) showed that glycosylated fibronectin measured in the first trimester could predict GDM with high accuracy [108]. Watanabe et al. assessed the soluble (pro)renin receptor levels in 716 Japanese women at less than 14 weeks of gestation and found increased levels in women who developed subsequent GDM [109]. In a case–control study of 1000 women from the UK, Syngelaki et al. found that maternal serum TNF-alpha measured at 11–13 weeks gestation was associated with subsequent GDM [110].
Donovan et al. in their study, indicated that women diagnosed with GDM have lower first trimester levels of both pregnancies associated free β-hCG and plasma protein-A (PAPP-A) than normoglycemic pregnant women. These two markers may indicate the presence of abnormal glucose metabolism at the beginning of pregnancy and may help for identification of future development of GDM [111].
Tenenbaum-Gavish et al. in a cohort of GDM group found that, compared to the normal group BMI and insulin (P = 0.003) were higher (both P < 0.003). The soluble (s)CD163 and multiples of median values of uterine artery pulsatility index (UtAPI) were high (p for both <0.01) but, pregnancy associated plasma protein A, tumor-necrosis factor alpha and placental protein 130, were low (p for all <0.005). There was no significant difference between the groups in placental growth factor, leptin, interleukin 6, soluble mannose receptor or peptide YY. For screening GDM in obese pregnancy a combination of high BMI, TNFα, insulin and sCD163 reached an AUC of 0.95, and the detection rate of 89% with a 10% false positive rate. For nonobese pregnancy, the combination of TNFα, PP13,sCD163 and PAPP-A showed an AUC of 0.94 and the detection rate was 83% at 10% false positive rate [112].
By blood sugar estimation when GDM is diagnosed, adverse foetal changes have already set in. So, we will have to attempt to diagnose GDM, before the foetal changes take place. It would be more rewarding if we can diagnose impending GDM and alert the person even when she plans for pregnancy.
Different biomarkers e.g., glycemic, insulin resistance, inflammatory, adipocyte and placenta-derived, had been evaluated as the first-trimester predictors of GDM. The majority of these studies are smaller in size and was based on case–control designs. But some large studies of glycemic markers indicated that hemoglobin A1C and/or fasting glucose help in detecting women without diagnosis of previous diabetes and they may be benefited from early detection and treatment of GDM, though these observations should be confirmed by interventional studies.
The improvement of GDM development and outcomes is possible by earlier and more specific identification of GDM accompanied by metabolic and cardiovascular risks. In line with these, first or second trimester-related biomarkers seen in maternal plasma like adipose tissue-derived factors like adiponectin, omentin-1, visfatin, fatty retinol binding-protein-4 and acid-binding protein-4 reflect correlations with development of GDM. In addition, placenta-related factors e.g., sex hormone-binding globulin, afamin, fetuin-A, ficolin-3 and follistatin, fibroblast growth factors-21/23 and specific micro-RNAs may be important in detecting progression of GDM and its recognition. Finally, urinary metabolites related to non-polar amino-acids and ketone bodies, serotonin system, may help in completing a predictive or early diagnostic group of GDM biomarkers.
To transform the observations obtained from observational studies into clinical practice, we need also more clinical trials or cost-effectiveness analyses of screening and treatment c.onsidering the first-trimester biochemical GDM predictors. Further studies should examine the first-trimester biochemical markers for adverse outcomes in GDM by prospective trials to find its prevention or early treatment.
GDM involves a significant proportion of pregnant women and is becoming more prevalent as rates of obesity rise globally. Its development and complications could be arrested if accurately predicted in early pregnancy even if possible before conception and effective interventions initiated. Many Several biomarkers have been studied to understand pathogenesis of GDM, but till date none are showing adequate robustness to be used for clinical algorithms for prediction of GDM.
Application of the high methodologies gives novel insights about the role of genetic variants, metabolomics and epigenetics regarding the pathogenesis of GDM. This option for using a predictive model during the subclinical phase of GDM appears to be promising as an important arena of future research and development. These modern technologies are off course complex and not applicable to mass level screening. There are also issues related to validity across populations, reproducibility, and selectivity. We will have to find out methods with cost-effectiveness and universal access, otherwise the present complex biomarkers are likely to prove invaluable in the diagnosis of GDM.
The emerging evidences suggest that the assessment at eleven and thirteen weeks of gestation, should be the platform towards a new approach in antenatal care. The data from the maternal history should be added to the results of biochemical and biophysical tests to examine the patient-specific risk related to a wide variety of pregnancy complications. Ideal GDM biomarkers appears to be a combination of several molecular biomarkers to balance the lack of sensitivity and specificity of individual factors. But targeted rapid technological advances will overcome these challenges and develop a quick, cost-effective point-of-care test that can accurately identify women at high risk for GDM during early pregnancy even if before conception.
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',metaTitle:"Terms and Conditions",metaDescription:"These terms and conditions outline the rules and regulations for the use of IntechOpen Website at https://intechopen.com and all its subdomains owned by Intech Limited located at 7th floor, 10 Lower Thames Street, London, EC3R 6AF, UK.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/terms-and-conditions",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"By accessing the website at www.intechopen.com you are agreeing to be bound by these Terms of Service, all applicable laws and regulations, and agree that you are responsible for compliance with any applicable local laws. Use and/or access to this site is based on full agreement and compliance of these Terms. All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Insect pests are one of the main causes for losses in agriculture production, and current control technologies based on pesticide application or the use of transgenic crops expressing Bacillus thuringiensis toxin proteins are facing efficacy challenges. Novel approaches to control pests are urgently necessary. RNA interference (RNAi) is a gene silencing mechanism triggered by providing double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), that when ingested into insects can lead to death or affect the viability of the target pest. Transgenic plants expressing dsRNA version of insect specific target genes are the new generation of resistant plants. However, the RNAi mechanism is not conserved among insect orders, and its elucidation is the key to develop commercial RNAi crops. In this chapter, we review the core RNAi pathway in insects and the dsRNA uptake, amplification, and spread of systemic silencing signals in some key insect species. We also highlight some of the experimental steps before developing an insect-pest-resistant “RNAi plant”. Lastly, we review some of the most recent development studies to control agricultural insect pests by RNAi transgenic plants.",book:{id:"5090",slug:"rna-interference",title:"RNA Interference",fullTitle:"RNA Interference"},signatures:"Thais Barros Rodrigues and Antonio Figueira",authors:[{id:"176770",title:"Dr.",name:"Thais B.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigues",slug:"thais-b.-rodrigues",fullName:"Thais B. Rodrigues"},{id:"176820",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Figueira",slug:"antonio-figueira",fullName:"Antonio Figueira"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50471",title:"Molecular Mechanisms of Skin Aging and Rejuvenation",slug:"molecular-mechanisms-of-skin-aging-and-rejuvenation",totalDownloads:5174,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"The aging process in the skin is complex and influenced by more intrinsic and extrinsic factors than any other body organ. The effects of these two types of factors overlap for the most part. The combined effects of these two aging processes also affect dermal matrix alterations. The main clinical signs of skin aging include wrinkling and irregular pigmentation, which are influenced by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic (e.g., UV radiation, heat, smoking, and pollutants) factors. Histologically, collagen decreases, and the dermis is replaced by abnormal elastic fibers as a cause of wrinkle formation through the loss of skin elasticity. There have been numerous studies of skin aging performed to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms and to develop various antiaging therapeutics and preventive strategies. We summarized the molecular mechanisms and treatments of skin aging. Mainly UV radiation induces ROS formation and DNA damage, leading to increased production of MMPs and decreased production of collagen in keratinocytes and fibroblasts, which reflect the central aspects of skin aging. Besides UV radiation exposure, extrinsic factors including tobacco smoking, exposure to environmental pollutants, infrared radiation, and heat contribute to premature skin aging. Like UV radiation, these factors cause ROS formation and increase expression of MMPs, thus accelerating skin aging by inducing extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation. Accumulated collagen fibrils inhibit the new collagen synthesis and account for the further degradation of the ECM through this positive feedback loop. Accumulating evidence for molecular mechanisms of skin aging should provide clinicians with an expanding spectrum of therapeutic targets in the treatment of skin aging.",book:{id:"5258",slug:"molecular-mechanisms-of-the-aging-process-and-rejuvenation",title:"Molecular Mechanisms of the Aging Process and Rejuvenation",fullTitle:"Molecular Mechanisms of the Aging Process and Rejuvenation"},signatures:"Miri Kim and Hyun Jeong Park",authors:[{id:"47695",title:"Prof.",name:"Hyun Jeong",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"hyun-jeong-park",fullName:"Hyun Jeong Park"},{id:"185767",title:"Prof.",name:"Miri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"miri-kim",fullName:"Miri Kim"}]},{id:"49637",title:"RNA Interference Technology — Applications and Limitations",slug:"rna-interference-technology-applications-and-limitations",totalDownloads:4097,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"RNA interference (RNAi), an evolutionarily conserved mechanism triggered by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), causes gene silencing in a sequence-specific manner. RNAi evolved naturally to mediate protection from both endogenous and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids and to modulate gene expression. Multiple technological advancements and precision in gene targeting have allowed a plethora of potential applications, ranging from targeting infections in crop plants to improving health in human patients, which have been reviewed in this chapter.",book:{id:"5090",slug:"rna-interference",title:"RNA Interference",fullTitle:"RNA Interference"},signatures:"Devi Singh, Sarika Chaudhary, Rajendra Kumar, Preeti Sirohi,\nKamiya Mehla, Anil Sirohi, Shashi Kumar, Pooran Chand and Pankaj\nKumar Singh",authors:[{id:"176625",title:"Prof.",name:"Devi",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"devi-singh",fullName:"Devi Singh"},{id:"176744",title:"Ms.",name:"Preeti",middleName:null,surname:"Sirohi",slug:"preeti-sirohi",fullName:"Preeti Sirohi"},{id:"176745",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajendra",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"rajendra-kumar",fullName:"Rajendra Kumar"},{id:"176746",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sarika",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"sarika-chaudhary",fullName:"Sarika Chaudhary"},{id:"176747",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamiya",middleName:null,surname:"Mehla",slug:"kamiya-mehla",fullName:"Kamiya Mehla"},{id:"176748",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"pankaj-kumar-singh",fullName:"Pankaj Kumar Singh"},{id:"176749",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"shashi-kumar",fullName:"Shashi Kumar"},{id:"176809",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooran",middleName:null,surname:"Chand",slug:"pooran-chand",fullName:"Pooran Chand"}]},{id:"43280",title:"Gene Therapy for Diabetic Retinopathy – Targeting the Renin-Angiotensin System",slug:"gene-therapy-for-diabetic-retinopathy-targeting-the-renin-angiotensin-system",totalDownloads:2458,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3509",slug:"gene-therapy-tools-and-potential-applications",title:"Gene Therapy",fullTitle:"Gene Therapy - Tools and Potential Applications"},signatures:"Qiuhong Li, Amrisha Verma, Ping Zhu, Bo Lei, Yiguo Qiu, Takahiko Nakagawa, Mohan K Raizada and William W Hauswirth",authors:[{id:"155578",title:"Dr.",name:"Qiuhong",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"qiuhong-li",fullName:"Qiuhong Li"}]},{id:"49416",title:"Microinjection-Based RNA Interference Method in the Water Flea, Daphnia pulex and Daphnia magna",slug:"microinjection-based-rna-interference-method-in-the-water-flea-daphnia-pulex-and-daphnia-magna",totalDownloads:2186,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"It is well known that most daphnid species have several attractive life history characteristics such as cyclical parthenogenesis, environmental sex determination, and predator-induced defense formation. Recent advances in high-throughput omics technologies make it easy to obtain a huge number of potential candidate factors involved in environmental stimuli-triggered phenotypic alterations. Furthermore, our group has developed a microinjection system to introduce foreign materials such as nucleotides and chemicals into the early-stage (one-cell stage) egg of Daphnia pulex and Daphnia magna. Consequently, we established a microinjection-based RNAi system that allows arbitrary gene functions to be investigated. However, this microinjection system does not seem to have pervaded in the daphnid research community due to its low throughput and high level of skills required. In this chapter, we review the microinjection method and its RNAi system in water fleas, D. pulex and D. magna, providing some technical tips and making challenging proposals for the development of novel high-throughput RNAi methods. Finally, we provide an overview of recently developed gene functional analysis methods such as overexpression and genome-editing systems.",book:{id:"5090",slug:"rna-interference",title:"RNA Interference",fullTitle:"RNA Interference"},signatures:"Kenji Toyota, Shinichi Miyagawa, Yukiko Ogino and Taisen Iguchi",authors:[{id:"92826",title:"Dr.",name:"Taisen",middleName:null,surname:"Iguchi",slug:"taisen-iguchi",fullName:"Taisen Iguchi"},{id:"176835",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Toyota",slug:"kenji-toyota",fullName:"Kenji Toyota"}]},{id:"55603",title:"RNA‐seq: Applications and Best Practices",slug:"rna-seq-applications-and-best-practices",totalDownloads:3743,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"RNA‐sequencing (RNA‐seq) is the state‐of‐the‐art technique for transcriptome analysis that takes advantage of high‐throughput next‐generation sequencing. Although being a powerful approach, RNA‐seq imposes major challenges throughout its steps with numerous caveats. There are currently many experimental options available, and a complete comprehension of each step is critical to make right decisions and avoid getting into inconclusive results. A complete workflow consists of: (1) experimental design; (2) sample and library preparation; (3) sequencing; and (4) data analysis. RNA‐seq enables a wide range of applications such as the discovery of novel genes, gene/transcript quantification, and differential expression and functional analysis. This chapter will encompass the main aspects from sample preparation to downstream data analysis. It will be discussed how to obtain high‐quality samples, replicates amount, library preparation, sequencing platforms and coverage, focusing on best recommended practices based on specialized literature. Basic techniques and well‐known algorithms are presented and discussed, guiding both beginners and experienced users in the implementation of reliable experiments.",book:{id:"5944",slug:"applications-of-rna-seq-and-omics-strategies-from-microorganisms-to-human-health",title:"Applications of RNA-Seq and Omics Strategies",fullTitle:"Applications of RNA-Seq and Omics Strategies - From Microorganisms to Human Health"},signatures:"Michele Araújo Pereira, Eddie Luidy Imada and Rafael Lucas Muniz\nGuedes",authors:[{id:"202103",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Michele",middleName:"Araújo",surname:"Pereira",slug:"michele-pereira",fullName:"Michele Pereira"},{id:"202456",title:"MSc.",name:"Eddie Luidy",middleName:null,surname:"Imada",slug:"eddie-luidy-imada",fullName:"Eddie Luidy Imada"},{id:"202460",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Guedes",slug:"rafael-guedes",fullName:"Rafael Guedes"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"419",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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