\r\n\t
\r\n\tComputer graphics are not entirely an original topic, because it defines and solves problems using some already established techniques such as geometry, algebra, optics, and psychology. The geometry provides a framework for describing 2D and 3D space, while the algebraic methods are used for defining and evaluating equality related to the specific space. The science of optics enables the application of the model for the description of the behavior of light, while psychology provides models for visualization and color perception.
\r\n\t
\r\n\t3D computer graphics (or 3D graphics, three-dimensional computer graphics, three-dimensional graphics) is a term describing the different methods of creating and displaying three-dimensional objects by using computer graphics.
\r\n\tThe first types of graphic interpretations were put in the plane (two-dimensional 2D). Requirements for a universal interpretation led to a three-dimensional (3D) interpretation content. From these creations have arisen applied mathematics and information disciplines of graphic interpretation of content - computer graphics. It relies on the principles of Mathematics, Descriptive Geometry, Computer Science and Applied Electronics.
\r\n\t
\r\n\t3D computer graphics or three-dimensional computer graphics use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data (often in terms of the Cartesian coordinate system) that is stored on a computer for the purpose of doing the calculation and creating 2D images. The images that are made can be stored for later use (probably as animation) or can be displayed in real-time.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tObjects within the 3D computer graphics are often called 3D models. Unlike rendered (generated) images, data that are ""tied"" to the model are inside graphic files. The 3D model is a mathematical representation of a random three-dimensional object. The model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or can be used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations. With 3D printing, models can be presented in real physical form.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tComputer graphics have remained one of the most interesting areas of modern technology, and it is the area that progresses the fastest. It has become an integral part of both application software, and computer systems in general. Computer graphics is routinely applied in the design of many products, simulators for training, production of music videos and television commercials, in movies, in data analysis, in scientific studies, in medical procedures, and in many other fields.
The term nanoparticle (NP) refers to particles with at least one dimension less than 100 nanometers [1]. NPs are an essential part of earth’s biogeochemical system, produced by many physical and chemical processes including different natural and human activities. They are commonly classified as naturally occurring and synthetic or anthropogenic NPs, depending on their origin. Synthetic or anthropogenic NPs can be further categorized into two types: incidental and engineered nanoparticles [2]. Naturally occurring nanoparticles can be formed by chemical, photochemical, mechanical, thermal, and biological processes occurring in all spheres of the Earth. NPs such as alumina, iron oxide, gold, sulfur manganese oxide, and so on derived from natural sources can be found in volcanic ash, fine sand, ocean spray, and even some biological matter [1]. Incidental nanoparticles are unintentionally produced as a byproduct of human day-to-day activities involving combustion process such as running diesel engines, large-scale mining, and even starting a fire. On the other hand, the engineered or manufactured NPs such as silver, gold, zinc, metal oxides like manganese dioxide (MnO2), aluminum oxide Al2O3, titanium oxide (TiO2) of controlled shape, sizes, and compositions are specifically designed and deliberately synthesized by human beings [3]. Engineered NP include nonmetals like carbon nanotubes and quantum dots, polymers like chitosan, alginate, lipids like stearic acid, and metal sulfide like CuS, AgS, ZnS and so on [4]. Another classification of NP is their grouping into organic nanoparticles and inorganic nanoparticles. Organic nanoparticles include liposomes, dendrimers, micelles and so on. Examples of some of inorganic NP include metallic NP like gold, iron, silver, aluminum, titanium oxide (TiO2), and zinc oxide (ZnO). Nanomaterials can also be classified based on their size for example zero-dimension, one dimension, two dimension, and three dimensions [5]. Silver, gold, copper, and platinum are some of the most commonly used metals NP. Metal-based NPs can be easily conjugated with various functional groups, like polylysine, polyethylene glycol (PEG) or bovine serum albumin [6, 7].
The technological advancements of human society as well as progress in the field of nanotechnology have shown a sharp rise in consumer products that deliberately include synthetic nanoparticles [8]. This has resulted in high levels of exposure to many types of synthetic NPs, and it is likely that this trend will continue in future. The easiest place to find these nano-enabled products in our own homes is in health care products, cosmetics, and food additives. In the past decade, many companies have used ZnO and TiO2 NPs as sun block materials because these materials are very effective at absorbing UV radiation [9]. Some commonly used nanomaterials as food additives include silver, silicon dioxide (SiO2), titanium TiO2, and iron oxide (Fe2O3) [10]. Silver NPs are also commonly used as antibacterial and antiviral agents, while gold NPs are used for drug delivery, photothermal therapy and diagnostic applications, and polymeric NPs are used for controlled and targeted drug delivery [11].
Extensive use of engineered NP poses risk to human health. The health hazards are cause of concern in pregnant women and their unborn children. Therefore, it is important to study the toxic effect of NP on developing fetuses. In this chapter, we summarize the developmental toxicity of NP on the nervous system.
The embryonic toxicity of nanoparticles depends on their bioaccumulation, which in turn depends on the following [12]:
Chemical composition, particle size, shape, surface modification, and degree of agglomeration. Smaller NPs have been shown to induce more pronounced blood brain barrier (BBB) breakdown, brain edema and neuronal injuries, glial fibrillary acidic protein upregulation, and myelin vesiculation in young animals [13]. Similarly, different shapes of the same NP have been shown to induce different cellular responses by nonspecific uptake into cells [14]. In vivo animal studies have demonstrated that administration of higher doses of smaller particles NP caused their increased accumulation in placental and embryonic/fetal tissues [15].
Type of coating, concentration of particles, surface charge of the particles, zeta potential, and crystal form. Unmodified fullerene NPs can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) to damage cells, whereas surface-modified fullerene NPs have been demonstrated to enter cerebral microvessel endothelial cells and protect these cells by attenuating ROS-induced cellular damage, such as F-actin depolymerization [16].
Other factors include the pH of the solution, salt concentration and the temperature [17], “protein corona,” chemical characteristics, metal impurities, and degradation properties [18].
Particle dissolution also alters the particle presence [15].
Routes of exposure in in vivo studies. Inhalation is the main route of exposure in occupational and environmental settings. Experimental studies commonly use intravenous and intra peritoneal routes [15].
The anatomical and functional state of the placenta [19, 20] and the critical period of exposure during gestation [15].
Zeta potential of the NP. The charges on the NP determine their interactions with the biological system. Also, the zeta potential determines the stability of the NP in colloidal systems [21].
The exogenous entry of engineered NP is mainly from hand-to-mouth contact in the workplaces. Nanoparticles enter the body through food, drinking water, drugs, or exposure during medical procedures. Inhalation of airborne nanoparticles is also an important point of entry into the body [22]. Larger particles are trapped in the nasopharyngeal region (5–30 μm), while the smaller particles (1–5 μm) get deposited in the tracheobronchial region. These particles can be removed by mucociliary clearance. Finally, the remaining submicron particles (< 1 μm) and nanoparticles (< 100 nm) with the smallest size distribution penetrate deeply into the alveolar region, where removal mechanisms may be insufficient. Nanosized particles can reach the alveolar region of the lungs where they get in contact with the alveolar epithelium. From the alveolar epithelium these particles can cross the blood-air-tissue barrier and enter the bloodstream to reach various organs [22]. Inhaled ultrafine particles may get deposited in the olfactory mucosa from where they can translocate in the central nervous system (CNS), which in turn might cause neurotoxicity. Studies have shown that the CNS may be a crucial target for nanoparticle inhalation or intranasal installation exposure [23, 24]. The third route of entry of NP into the body is through dermal penetration [22, 25].
The NPs enter the CNS through three main routes: (1) Transport through the lymphatic and circulatory system; (2) Activity of the mucocilliary escalator followed by oral exposure; and (3) Transport through the olfactory and trigeminal nerves [18, 26]. This pathway involves the passage of nanoparticles through the olfactory epithelium and the neurons associated with it to the brain [18]. Carbonaceous nanomaterials have been reported to show increased access to the brain via the facilitation of olfactory mucosa and olfactory nerve [23]. After uptake, NPs can permeate into other parts of the brain by simple diffusion and then travel along the direction of the convection of the interstitial fluid and the cerebrospinal fluid flow [27].
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a term used to describe the unique properties of the microvasculature of the central nervous system (CNS). CNS is made of continuous and non-fenestrated vessels. These blood vessels function to regulate the movement of molecules, ions, and cells between the blood and the CNS [28, 29]. The central nervous system of vertebrates is isolated from the rest of the body by BBB. Normal functioning of BBB is essential for homeostasis. The BBB is made of two main types of cells, that is, endothelial cells (EC) and mural cells. ECs function to regulate the movement of ions, molecules, and cells between the blood and the brain. ECs are held together by tight junctions (TJs), which greatly restrict the paracellular movement of solutes [30]. The tight junctions hold CNS ECs in place forming a paracellular barrier to molecules and ions [30].
Mural cells are the cells surrounding the large vessels and pericytes, which are present on the abluminal surface of the endothelium [31]. Pericytes and astrocytes are considered the key cell types involved in BBB regulation through their interactions with brain endothelial cells. Astrocytes interact with brain endothelium and are thought to be involved in the maintenance of BBB endothelial cell properties [32] and regulate BBB permeability [33]. The BBB restricts the movement of molecules by forming a physical barrier, which is represented by tight junctions between the endothelial cells. The endothelial cells express two main types of transporters: the efflux transporters, which transport lipophilic substances toward the blood [34] and nutrient transporters, which transport nutrients into the CNS and remove waste products from the CNS to the blood [35]. The EC cells of the CNS are characterized by a higher number of mitochondria [36]. These mitochondria supply the BBB with Adenosine triphosphate to carry out their transport processes.
Other cell types of the BBB are astrocytes and immune cells, mainly macrophages and microglial cells [30]. Pericytes, astrocyte end-feet, and a discontinuous basal membrane support the functions of the BBB. The highly selective functionality of the BBB is due to endothelial tight junctions that are assisted by astrocytes and pericytes. The tight influx control is complemented by the efflux transport system, which rapidly eliminates classic xenobiotics and NMs buildup in the brain [37]. However, nanomaterials have been reported to cross the BBB via a transcytosis-mediated route [38].
A second barrier observed in the nervous system is the metabolic barrier. The metabolic barrier is composed of enzymes and transport systems [39]. The metabolism of endothelial cells plays an important role in the function of BBB. L-Dihydroxyphenylalanine is the precursor of dopamine which enters the brain through the neutral amino acid-transport system. However, its entry is restricted due to L-Dihydroxyphenylalanine decarboxylase and monoamine oxidase inside the endothelial cells of the brain capillaries. This “enzymatic blood-brain barrier” limits the passage of L-Dihydroxyphenylalanine into the brain (https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter11.html). The brain capillaries contain enzymes that metabolize neurotransmitters. These enzymes include endopeptidases, cholinesterases, aminopeptidases, and Gamma-Aminobutyric acidtransaminases. The brain capillaries also contain drug and toxin-metabolizing enzymes found in the liver [40].
The endothelium of the BBB lacks pinocytic vesicles. This limits pinocytosis by the cells of BBB. The cells of BBB express many enzymes on the intra and extracellular surfaces, which restrict the movement of substances through the BBB. P-glycoproteins, and similar substances present on the endothelial cells also help to eliminate various endogenous and exogenous toxins [18]. P-glycoproteins cause multi-drug-resistant cancer cells to pump out the drugs. The endothelial cells have P-proteins, which help to pump some hydrophobic substances like cyclosporin A, domperidone, digoxin and so on into the blood.
A third barrier represented by the blood-Cerebrospinal fluid barrier also serves to prevent indiscriminate entry of substances in the CNS [41]. This barrier is made up of choroid plexus epithelial cells. The blood-Cerebrospinal fluid barrier is made up of choroid plexus epithelial cells, which have smaller tight junctions than the BBB endothelia. The blood-Cerebrospinal fluid barrier prevents the entry of macromolecules into the Cerebrospinal fluid. The active transport systems of the BBB actively remove therapeutic organic acids from the Cerebrospinal fluid [42].
Some of the ways by which NP can circumvent the blood brain barrier include the following (Figure 1):
Transcellular diffusion—Low molecular weight solid lipid nanoparticles [43].
Paracellular diffusion—this route is taken by silica and reduced graphene oxide NP [44, 45].
Receptor-mediated transcytosis—Engineered nanomaterials with ligands such as transferrin, insulin, ApoE can avoid the BBB by this route [46].
Adsorptive-mediated transcytosis—Cationic albumin-conjugated pegylated NPs enter the brain by adsorptive-mediated transcytosis [47].
Cell mediated transcytosis—Macrophages take up engineered nanomaterials and release them into the CNS [48].
Possible pathways through which nanoparticles cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and damage the neurons. Engineered nanomaterials with specific physicochemical properties can cross the BBB through various transport pathways such as (A) transcellular diffusion; (B) paracellular diffusion; (C) receptor-mediated transcytosis; (D) adsorptive-mediated transcytosis; and (E) cell mediated transcytosis. Nanoparticles interact directly with neuronal cells and cause neurotoxicity.
Exposure of pregnant mice to different NPs has been reported to induce pregnancy complications or damage to the fetus. Placenta is the maternal-fetal interface, which is formed of both maternal and fetal tissues that protects the embryo from harmful substances in the maternal blood. Placenta functions to exchange oxygen, nutrients, metabolic waste, and other molecules between the maternal and fetal bloodstream [49]. Factors that control the transfer of substances between maternal and fetal circulation include membrane surface area and thickness, blood flow, hydrostatic pressure in the intervillous chamber and the difference between fetal and maternal osmotic pressure [50]. Beside the placenta, amnion, chorion and parietal decidua also surround the fetus. These membranes are impervious to most of the xenobiotics in the maternal blood [51].
The brains from the fetuses of rats and mice have shown the presence of NP when the pregnant mothers were exposed to NP [52, 53]. Nano-silica and nano-TiO2 have been reported to accumulate in the placenta, fetal liver, and fetal brain when injected to pregnant mice [54]. The extent of transfer of nanoparticle across the placenta depends on the characteristics and functionalization of the particles [55, 56]. NPs with diameters 1–100 nm have been shown to transverse the placental barrier and were detected in the brain of the offspring [57, 58]. Gestational age is an important factor affecting the toxicity of NP on the fetus [50]. Fennell et al. [59] have demonstrated that AgNP administered through oral and IV route on gestational day 18 resulted in placental accumulation after 48 h. Campagnolo et al. [60] demonstrated that inhalation of Ag NP during the first gestational day until the fifteenth gestational day in female rats caused fetal resorption. This was accompanied with an increased expression of pregnancy-relevant inflammatory cytokines in the placentas. Zhang et al. [19] have shown that maternal exposure of mice to TiO2 NP decreased in angiogenesis in placental tissue and activated apoptotic pathways through caspase-3 in placental tissue.
Studies have demonstrated that various NPs can cross the BBB and placental barrier [61, 62]. Titanium dioxide nanomaterials (nTiO2) have been reported to cross the placental barrier in pregnant mice and cause neurotoxicity in their offspring. Toxicity to the brain cells was reported to be caused due to necrosis (Figure 2) [63].
Maternal exposure of nanoparticles (NPs) results in neural fetotoxicity and developmental abnormalities. Direct translocation of NPs from maternal circulation across the placental barrier into growing fetus has been recognized as the major factor involved in NP-induced fetotoxicity. Accumulation of NPs in the fetus can cause structural and functional abnormalities in various fetal tissues, including the central nervous system (CNS) which is the main target of metallic NPs. Oxidative stress, induction of inflammatory responses, alterations in gene expression, DNA damage, necrosis, and apoptosis are the mechanisms associated with NP-induced neural fetotoxicity.
Rodents, primarily mice and rats have been commonly used for gestational translocation of NPs [15]. Mice have been commonly used for mammalian embryo toxicity studies [64, 65, 66]. Although rabbits have been used in fewer studies, rabbit placentae bear closer resemblance to human placentae than that of other rodents. Therefore, rabbits should be the preferable animal model to study gestational particle exposure [15]. Other nonmammalian species like drosophila and zebrafish have also been used in
The developing brain is highly vulnerable to nanomaterials [18] due to the incomplete development of BBB in the fetus [68]. The CNS shows considerable plasticity in the early stages of development and therefore highly susceptible to the toxic effects of NP [69]. The placenta is a multifunctional organ forming a barrier between maternal and fetal tissues. In utero exposure to NPs is one of main routes of exposure during the development of the nervous system [70]. Neurodevelopmental studies have shown that both male and female offspring show differential phenotypes after prenatal insults by NPs [18].
Among various NPs, many studies have been reported on the neurotoxicity of TiO2 NP. Injection of TiO2 NP into pregnant mice resulted in altered expression of genes associated with brain development and function of the central nervous system in embryos [71]. The effects of TiO2 seem to continue on the developing brain even during lactation [72]. The effects of titanium dioxide nanomaterials in pregnant mice include reduced size of the placenta and disrupted anatomical structure of the fetal brain and liver. Toxicity to the brain cells was reported to be caused due to necrosis [63]. One study showed that TiO2 NPs administered subcutaneously to pregnant mice resulted in an increased number of apoptotic cells in the olfactory bulb of the brain and damage to cranial nerves [58]. A subsequent study showed that the mice fetuses that were exposed to TiO2 NPs prenatally exhibited an increased level of dopamine and its metabolites in the prefrontal cortex and neostriatum. This demonstrates that prenatal exposure to TiO2 NPs might affect the development of the central dopaminergic system in mouse offspring [73]. In utero exposure of mice to TiO2, NP has been shown to cause changes in the genes associated with the brain development and functions of central nervous system in the embryo [71]. Accumulation of TiO2 NP in the placenta may interfere with the development of nervous system of the fetus by impairing the transport of nutrients to the fetus [74].
Injection of silica (Si) NPs to pregnant mice resulted in their accumulation in the brain of the embryo [54]. Other studies have reported that ZnO and TiO2 NPs causes neurotoxic effects in fetus after passing through the placenta [71, 75]. Injection of cobalt-chrome (CoCr) NPs into pregnant mice has been reported to cause neurodevelopmental abnormalities, like reactive astrogliosis and increased DNA damage in the fetal hippocampus [76].
Here, we briefly enumerate some of the effects of NPs in offspring associated with prenatal exposure. The effects of prenatal exposure to nanoparticles include neurobehavioral alterations in the offspring [77]. Other effects of prenatal exposure include accumulation of NP in the hippocampus [58, 78, 79]. These NPs in the fetal brain cause disturbances in the CNS homeostasis. The accumulated NP has been reported to cause psychiatric disorders such as autism, schizophrenia, and depression in offspring [80]. Exposure of pregnant mice to aluminum NP has been shown to induce neurodevelopmental changes which persisted during adulthood. This was accompanied by an anxiety-like behavior and impairment of cognitive function in offspring exposed to aluminum nanoparticles during in utero life [20]. Prenatal exposure to TiO2 NPs has been shown to impair the antioxidant status, cause oxidative damage to nucleic acids and lipids in the brain of newborn pups and enhanced the depressive-like behaviors during adulthood. Prenatal exposure to TiO2 NP has been associated with depressive behavior in adults [81]. In the case of ZnO NP, the depressive behavior has been attributed to their neurotoxic effects on neural development [82].
Pups from mice exposed to Al2O3 before and during pregnancy have been shown to have higher levels of Al accumulation in the hippocampus [20]. Similarly, in the case of Sprague Dawley rats the pups of dams exposed to silver NP showed the accumulation of silver in the brain, lung, liver, and kidneys [78]. Subcutaneous injection of TiO2 NP to CD-1 pregnant mice caused the accumulation of TiO2 NPs in the brain and testis of offspring [58]. However, exposure of Sprague Dawley rats to Zn NPs before mating and during lactation caused no accumulation of these NPs in the brain of offspring [83]. Prenatal exposure of mice to TiO2 NPs causes anatomical alterations in cerebral cortex, olfactory bulb and regions associated with the dopamine systems in the offspring [84].
Studies of Mohammadipour et al. [85] and Gao et al. [72] showed that in pregnant rats treated with TiO2 NPs significantly decreased hippocampal cell proliferation, impaired learning, and memory, and affected synaptic plasticity in the hippocampal dentate gyrus area in newborn rats. Similarly, the study of Zhou and his collogues [86] showed that maternal exposure to TiO2 NP results in inhibition of hippocampal and dysfunction of the rho/NMDAR signaling pathway in offspring. Maternal CB-NP exposure induced the long-term activation of astrocytes resulting in reactive astrogliosis in the brains of young mice [87]. TiO2 NP injection to pregnant mice has been reported to cause symptoms akin to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and neurodevelopment disorders in neonates, without the detectable presence of NP in the placenta [88]. Another study indicated that nano-TiO2 can cross the blood-fetal barrier and placental barrier, thereby delaying the development of fetal mice and inducing skeletal malformation [89].
Various hypothesizes have been proposed from time to time regarding the toxicity of NP. Nanoparticles can directly cross the placenta and cause damage to the fetus because of their high surface reactivity. Because of their small size, NPs can easily reach the brain and are taken up by the brain cells, such as neurons and glia. Mechanisms of NP uptake by cells include pinocytosis, endocytosis dependent on caveolae and lipid raft composition, clathrin-dependent endocytosis, and phagocytosis [90]. Due to their high surface reactivity, the nanoparticles can cause the generation of reactive oxygen species [91] and inflammation [92]. The metal ions of the NP have been proposed to contribute to their toxicity [93, 94]. The neurotoxic effects can either result in the direct alteration of the structure or activity of the neural system or lead to subsequent effects due to glial activations and glial-neuronal interactions [95]. The nanoparticles may also exert their toxic effects due to their limited elimination/excretion from the brain.
Oxidative stress has been implicated as one of the major mechanisms of NP toxicity. Consequences of oxidative stress include mitochondrial membrane damage and dysfunction, which in turn leads to cell death [96]. Inflammation caused by the production of cytokines appear to be a second mechanism by which the NP exerts their cytotoxic effects [97]. ZnO NPs have been shown to induce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the brain of mice, accompanied by an impairment of cAMP/CREB signaling pathway. The degree of inflammation correlated with the age of the mice [56]. NPs interact with enzymes, potential apoptotic, or necrotic factors and induces inflammatory processes [12]. NP show properties similar to that of viruses and cause damage to DNA affecting cell proliferation [90]. NP can reduce mitochondrial function [98] and generate cellular morphological abnormalities [99] Cui et al. [81] postulated that prenatal exposure to NP resulted in an impairment of antioxidant capabilities in the brain of newborn pups.
Accumulation of NPs along the endosomal pathway may affect the morphology and functioning of the BBB. The interaction of the NP with biological macromolecules like DNA, lipids, and proteins may lead to the generation of oxidative stress, conformational changes in the macromolecules, mutations, alterations in membrane permeability, activation of various signaling pathways, alterations in the functions of enzymes, and exposure of new protein epitopes [100]. Genotoxic effects of NP include chromosomal aberrations, DNA strand breaks, oxidative DNA damage, DNA adducts, and micronucleus formation [101, 102]. Interactions of NP with microglia and astrocyte may activate NF-κB signaling and result in the release of mediators of inflammation and apoptosis [103]. On the other hand, oxidative stress induced mitochondrial DNA damage results in Nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation, which subsequently regulates inflammatory responses by activating caspase-1 and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) release [104].
Most of the resulting damage of the nervous tissue is usually irreversible [18]. NPs have been reported to disrupt the cytoskeleton of cells of the CNS and thus cause cell death. NPs been shown to regulate the expression of neuronal channels and other proteins involved in excitability and neurotransmission [105]. Microglia, account for ~20% of the glial cells in the brain. They are a type of glial cells, which are the resident innate immune cells in the brain and regulate neuroinflammation [106]. Choi et al. [107] demonstrated that low levels of SiNPs can alter microglial function by changing the expression of proinflammatory genes and cytokine release. Excessively activated or uncontrollable microglia can cause nerve toxicity by inducing proinflammatory factors, such as interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, prostaglandin E2, and interferon-γ (Figure 3) [18].
Mechanism of nanoparticles (NPs)-induced neurotoxicity. Supraphysiological levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induce oxidative damage to the cellular macromolecules such as lipids, protein, and both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. ROS-induced protein peroxidation may result in loss of catalytic activity of many enzymes including the antioxidant enzymes. NPs-mediated genotoxic stress in turn, can drive apoptosis mainly through the intrinsic mitochondrial apoptotic cell death pathway in neuronal cells. Mitochondrial dysfunction activates inflammasomes, which triggers the release of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 via caspase-1 activation. Moreover, ROS-induced activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway may trigger proinflammatory responses, which is one of the key factors associated with NPs-induced neurological inflammation.
Autophagy (autophagic flux) is a highly regulated cellular process which by eliminating long-lived proteins and damaged organelle components through the lysosomal mechanism maintains cellular homeostasis [18]. NPs have been demonstrated to be autophagic inducers [108]. Autophagy has been found to be correlated with increased DNA strand breaks and other defensive mechanisms [109]. NPs have been reported to induce autophagy through the generation of ROS and lysosomal-dependent mechanism [18]. Autophagy induced by NPs can have protective or detrimental effect on cells. During intracellular oxidative stress, imbalance and excessive ROS generation decline in autophagy-lysosome degradation function results in autophagic flux impairment, which leads to significant accumulation of the substrate of autophagy within the cell and may even trigger cell death through mitochondrial pathway [110].
The brain has a limited capacity to excrete NPs [111]. Therefore, NPs that bypass the blood brain barrier and reach the fetal brain during embryonic development result in neurodevelopmental toxicity in growing fetus and psychiatric disorders in offspring. Compelling evidence from animal studies on nanotoxicity during pregnancy shows that cautions must be taken by pregnant women when using NP-based products or medicine. Deeper understanding of interaction of NPS with the biological system and the underlying mechanism on neurotoxicity will help in the development of safety guidelines on the use of engineered NPs in medicine and commercial products without health hazard. However, there is a need to study the effects of long-term exposure to NP with realistic routes and levels of exposure to identify the chronic effects of NP to fetal nervous system.
“The authors thank the Deanship of Scientific Research and RSSU at King Saud University for their technical support.”
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Important global efforts have been made to eliminate malaria leading to significant reduction in malaria cases and mortality in Africa by 42% and 66%, respectively. Early diagnosis, improved drug therapies and better health infrastructure are key components, but this extraordinary success is mainly due the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual sprayings (IRS) of insecticide. Unfortunately, the emergence and spread of resistance in mosquito populations against insecticides is jeopardising the effectiveness of the most efficient malaria control interventions. To help establish suitable resistance management strategies, it is vital to better understand the distribution of resistance, its mechanisms and impact on effectiveness of control interventions and malaria transmission. 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The purpose of this article is to outline the scope of low health literacy as a concept and explore some appropriate interventions that researchers and healthcare professionals may use to reduce its negative impact on health outcomes such as mortality. 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Despite the availability of information on the escalating adverse economic and health effects of NCDs globally, specific strategies designed to address the growing burden of NCDs in low-resourced countries remain substandard. Research engines like EBSCOhost, Science Citation Index, CINAHL database, PsycINFO, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, published and unpublished abstracts and a hand search of reference lists and table of contents of relevant journals and books were searched from January 2011 to June 2019. In total, 84 studies met the inclusion criteria. Most studies confirm that low-resourced countries compared with high-resourced countries battle to implement NCDs prevention strategies; fail to record data on the risk factors of NCDs; medical records and surveillance data are unavailable. Due to a lack of knowledge and skill, low-resourced countries show no urgency to implement a systems approach for NCDs management. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"},selectedSubseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/34565",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"34565"},fullPath:"/chapters/34565",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()