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La serie de almojarifazgo percibido en Veracruz sobre los movimientos de los navíos con España y América permanece casi constante. Nada hace pensar en una modificación radical de la eficacia de las obligaciones fiscales.
(Chaunu [1], p. 542)
1. Introduction
The maintenance of the Spanish trading system with America in large part was based on the collection of a series of taxes levied on the value of goods traded there, such as the breakdown, the duty of tonnes, the Admiralty, the market or the almojarifazgo. Each of them took on a specific function within the system. The breakdown was the source of funding for the navies protecting the Convoys of the Race of the Indies. The right of tons financed the expenses of the University of Mareantes de Sevilla, while the Admiralty did the same with the salary of the admirals of Castile and the lonja with the Consulate.
Of all these taxes, the almojarifazgo, or income of the sea, was the only one that was not collected for a specific purpose, but rather, financed the bureaucracy and expenses of the Castilian Crown in general, both in America and in the Metropolis. Its origin dates back to the time of the Arab domination of the peninsula. With the conquest of the city of Seville in 1248 by Ferdinand III the Holy, this tax was increased by the Hacienda Real and was later regulated by Alfonso X. From the outset, the system of collection of this tax varied from port to port and was carried out through the lease of this tax by third parties.
To better understand what colonial taxation was in general we must highlight a recent work on taxation, coordinated by Pilar Martínez, Ernest Sánchez and Matilde Souto [2], in which they study the works of Bartholome Yun, on taxation within the context of the nation state [3]. More specifically, for the almojarifazgo we highlight the research essays of Emiliano Gil, who has also worked on the history of the port of Veracruz and its trade [4, 5, 6, 7], by Manuel Moreyra Paz-Soldán [8], by Manuel J. Ayala [9] or Luis Salas Almela, about the almojarifazgo in Seville and Sanlúcar de Barrameda [10, 11]. There is, as can be seen, a sparse historiography about the almojarifazgo for the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries for the New Spain viceroyalty. The same is not true of other taxes, such as Ernest Sánchez’s studies on New Spain [12], Guillermina Valle on its management and the Consulate of Mexico [13] or Yovana Celaya on tax administration in the seventeenth century [14], or the breakdown of the classic study of Guillermo Céspedes [1, 15]. On the contrary, the eighteenth century has been studied more deeply, not only in New Spain, but in other American areas that began their expansion in that century, as is the case of Río de la Plata. Most use other tax sources or vessel registrations [16].
2. The tax
In 1497, after the discovery of America, the Catholic Monarchs extended the collection of the almojarifazgo to the trade of goods sent to that continent, exempting from the payment of this and any other rights to intercolonial trade and to all products Americans exported from the new territories annexed to the metropolis without exception ([17], pp. 209–210; [18], p. 105).1 Initially, the collection of this tax was intended for the financing of the colonial administration, although the Crown initially imposed it to justify the high costs of its policy.
The exact date of its implementation in America is unknown to us, but the advance of the conquest and colonization of the new colonies was matched by the implementation of the Real Caja. In this way, the Caribbean islands were the first to see the Castilian fiscal power deployed, having been the first territories discovered and conquered, later to New Spain and then to Central and South America. We have news that in 1528 the almojarifazgo was already collected in the viceroyalty of New Spain and in 1543 in that of Peru [19].
From the Caja Real of February 28, 1543, ([17], pp. 210–211), the collection of this duty was extended to all products imported from Europe, with export and intercolonial trade remaining free of charge. At the same time, this Real Cédula introduced another tax in America on the value of goods, the alcabala, which taxed the first sale of items in American markets. The collection rates of the almojarifazgo were established in 2.5% of the goods declared from Seville and 5% for entry into the Americas (p. 21; [18], pp. 105–106).
As can be seen, the Caja Real of 1543 did not change the system established in 1497. The novelty was based on how to raise the almojarifazgo, a portion in the port of departure and the rest in the arrival port, when it was previously collected in its entirety in the Sevillian port. To this 7.5% of almojarifazgo we must add 10% of first sale alcabala, which in fact was taxed on goods at 17.5% of their value at destination. In cases where products imported from the metropolis were re-exported to other American ports, the Caja Real re-taxed them with another 5% [20].
This tax was applied once certain American agricultural products began to be exported, which was the beginning of a much bulkier trade to Europe. After a series of consultations with the king, held between 1559 and 1566 ([21], p. 218), and after consulting the Council of the Indies. The king decided to reorganize the collection of almojarifazgo. The Caja Real was issued on 29 May 15662 and the Real Provisión of December 28, 1568.3 The Crown sought an expansion of its revenue in American trade, as it was hardly exposed to the fiscal pressure of the time, and also because it obtained great benefits and privileges.
The Real Cédula of 1566 doubled the percentages that they charged as almojarifazgo for intercontinental trade, looking at a 5% departure from Seville, previously it was 2.5%, with 10% entry into ports enabled for trade with America. In addition, Andalusian wines, which constituted one of the most exported products to the American colonies, were also traded with an additional 10% in both Seville and America.4
The Real Provisión of 1568 imposed the almojarifazgo for the first time on intercolonial trade, which in New Spain began to be applied within the general reform of Viceroy Martín Enríquez ([22], pp. 217–228) and in Peru by the Bachelor Lope García de Castro (1564–1569) under the viceroy Francisco de Toledo. The instructions for developing the new contributory system, as established by Moreyra ([8], p. 17) and Borah ([21], p. 218), did not reach the major ports until 1571.
According to this Provisión, goods exported to other colonial ports were required to pay the Caja Real 2.5% of the declared value, at the port of departure, as stipulated for export trade to Europe. Goods introduced or imported from colonial origin had since then paid 5% of their value at the port of destination. Whereas, European products re-exported between the same American colonies paid the Royal Treasury 5%, not on their declared value at the port of destination, but on the price difference between the latter and the port of origin manifested in the vessels’ records. In order for the collection of the almojarifazgo to be carried out faithfully, the Crown necessarily extended the elaboration of records for intercolonial traffic.5 With this Real Provisión, the circuit was closed for collecting the rights of almojarifazgo of Indian trade until the end of the eighteenth century.
The imposition of these new tariffs was by no means accepted by those most directly affected by merchants. In New Spain the merchants maintained a relationship with Viceroy Enríquez, who in turn sent them to Castile, in which they explained the possible consequences of the new collection on trade due to such a substantial increase in taxes ([22], pp. 221–222). In the Peruvian viceroyalty the opposition of traders and the Real Audiencia to the new almojarifazgo was such that its application had to be delayed until 1566 reducing it to 1% instead of the stipulated 5% ([8], p. 17). Also, as a result of these protests, the tariff on Sevillian wines was reduced to 7.5% ([17], p. 212).6
In fact, the economic repercussions of the increase in almojarifazgo in American trade were very different from the alarmist relations of traders on both continents.
3. Exemptions and reductions in the collection of almojarifazgo
Despite the mandatory charge of tax on all products, there were always exemptions at certain ports for political or economic reasons. Of course, there was no almojarifazgo on any of those products for the service of the Crown, both in America and in the Iberian Peninsula, as well as ammunition, bastimentos and equipment for the boats of the Carrera de Indias ([17], pp. 215 and 218).7 Its application was initially carried out on the ships that were escorting the convoys and then extending to all those who participated in Indian Ocean traffic.
From early on, the personal belongings of travelers were exempt from tax, as long as they were not sold at the destination. The royal officers were tasked with enforcing these rules. In the case of the sale of any belonging, it was penalized with the collection of double the percentage of the respective almojarifazgo. When there were intermediaries of third parties, the goods were seized along with half of the assets of the complainant, which were distributed to third parties between the Crown, the judge and the complainant.8
Another article partially exempt from the payment of the almojarifazgo were books, continuing an ancient privilege established by the Catholic Monarchs (1480) that exempted from tax on all books introduced in Castile by sea and by land ([18], p. 106; [17], p. 218).9 In America they were taxed by the avería, as was done with the importation of azogue. For the former there was a second customs office in Veracruz, that of the Inquisition, in order to filter those not in accordance with the governing doctrines of the Catholic Church of the time ([23], p. 75).
Certain ports also saw the almojarifazgo reduced in order to boost their trade. The Crown’s policy of creating a monopoly trade capitalized by a single port of exit and another of entry meant that the rest of the colonies, with exceptions, were kept away from the trade routes until the Free Trade Decree of 1778. This gap was filled by smuggling with foreigners and by a few trade contacts that the Colonies maintained with each other. To this end, the Crown would grant reductions in the tax, especially leaving port, during certain periods to boost “legal” trade. This privilege was only directed to products exported to the metropolis according to Antúnez ([17], pp. 213–214), Lorenzo ([19], pp. 371–372) and Haring ([18], p. 107), referring to the documents of February 2, 1561 and May 8, 1577.
These reductions are also found in several Venezuelan ports at the end of the sixteenth century. Specifically, tax rates for intercolonial trade were halved. Cumaná obtained this privilege in 1589, Margarita in 1592, Caracas in 1592 and 1597, Río Hacha (New Kingdom of Granada) in 1596 and Nueva Andalucía in 1597 ([19], pp. 371 and 372; [18], p. 107; [24], p. 39). Cartagena would receive permits to reduce the collection of taxes by 1535, 1539 and 1540, in this case for goods that encouraged local agriculture and livestock ([25], p. 62).10
Puerto Rico received this benefit in 1567, 1606, 1611, 1625, 1632 and 1636 ([26], pp. 224–225; [19], pp. 371–372). Specifically, the almojarifazgo was reduced in half to give incentive to the island’s trade in leather and sugar. The Cuban port of Havana was also granted this right for the years 1569, 1577, 1589 and 1595 ([19], pp. 371–372).
4. Evaluation of the value of goods and revenue
Royal officers calculated the tax on merchandise value from the prices at the port of origin or destination within thirty days of being shipped or landed ([17], pp. 235 and 236; [27], pp. 479–481).11 The source for his calculation was the records of the vessels or affidavit produced by the merchant. As noted by Antúnez ([17], p. 233) and Lorenzo ([19], pp. 378–379) in reference to the accounting of the Caja Real de Veracruz,12 they included, with day, month and year, the goods they transported and their value, declaring bale to bale and crate by crate. This statement was not systematically verified, nor was purchased and sale invoices required, unless there was evidence of fraud or reporting.
This non-verification of the declared was a privilege of Indian traders and shippers ([28], p. 165). Very rarely were they checked by the royal officers. To avoid this, there were the respective consulates who with their donations and petitions to the Crown managed to wipe out the most jealous official and obtain greater privileges for their trade. The delays that would result from such inquiries in the loading and unloading of fleets and vessels were in their favour, as this delay would create increments in their profits and in the collection of taxes. In order to grant these privileges, the Crown issued a certificate in 1586, urging its officials not to open the loaded bales and to speed up the dispatch of fleets and vessels ([17], 1797, pp. 237–238).
This privilege was met with the opposition of some royal officials. Thus, we can see how in 1596 the Casa de la Contratación objected to royal officials investigating the contents of bales and loaded crates. The same situation was repeated in 1604, but this controversy ended in 1609 with a certificate prohibiting the inspection of what was stated in the records ([17], p. 241). A relationship of two officers from the Real Caja de México of this time confirms this situation.
As can be gleened from the text, this privilege favoured fraud in legal trade. The amounts reported as evasion by the two New Spain officers may be exaggerated, but the reality was that the omission of goods or their undervaluation in the registers amounted to between 75 and 80% of what was traded in the fleets ([19], p. 378). One way of circumventing fiscal control was the loading and/or unloading of goods out of port or the exchange between ships on the high seas, claiming that they were registered on other vessels or could not be because of the haste of departure of the fleet or vessel.
The existence of this fraud would not be understood without the participation of the same royal officers and even the authorities, since many of them bought their positions from the Crown, particularly in the seventeenth century, and needed to make them profitable in order to compensate the expenditure made to attain them.
To curb tax evasion, the Crown drafted a number of rules. Merchants or travellers often did not declare goods they brought to America in order to pay for their journey with their sale, or to concel their existence from the Caja Real, in order to pay less almojarifazgo tax. From this moment on, they had to be declared in the corresponding register of the vessel. Thus, in 1574 all undeclared goods were obliged to pay the almojarifazco on arrival as if they had actually been registered, including those rescued from shipwrecked vessels ([17], p. 216).13
In 1624 the Consulate and the Hacienda Real changed the system of collection of the almojarifazgo, in a clear attempt to prevent fraud in the records. From this year a fixed value was imposed for each crate or bale loaded, according to weight and goods contained within. This measure contributed even more to enhancing fraud, as traders did not load declared goods, but rather goods of higher value. In addition, the need to weigh bales before being loaded on the ships lengthened the loading period and, therefore, that of their departure. This system of capacity was replaced in 1695 by that of palmeo ([17], pp. 246–247).
Initially, the payment method of the almojarifazgo was in merchandise, from the same products traded, but from 1568 it was collected in cash with no exception. In 1620, it was converted back to the more primitive form of payment, suggesting that both ways of complying with the Real Caja were used in parallel for many years ([17], pp. 214–215).14
The Crown did not allow the payment of this tax to be postponed,15 although the reality was another by allowing royal officials to trust in Seville and America. Payment was made in advance of the sale of the goods, withholding them in case of non-payment. Nevertheless, the major cash-flow problems that the established commercial system originated in traders made delay, installments and credit in paying the tax, function on a daily basis. For the Sevillian case they had to wait for the return voyage to be able to pay the almojarifazgo. At other times, traders anticipated 5% of the total goods tax, and the rest was paid on the return of the fleet or vessel. It could also happen that the payment was deferred for 4 years, paying 70% of the total the first year and the rest in the following three.
These “illegal” forms of payment of the tax were not condoned by the Crown, hence between 1550 and 1627 five Real Cédulas were issued to combat it,16 in which for the first time they sanctioned those officials who transgressed the rules with the payment of 4% penalty.
How was almojarifazgo charged in Veracruz? There were usually two officers of the Caja Real, a treasurer and an accountant, and, in very rare cases, an agent appears. Their attitude was solidary and collegiate, as can be assumed, before the Court of Auditors of Mexico. Once the boats arrived at port, the masters handed over the records to the royal officers. With the records in hand, they authorized the unloading of the merchandise, which was stored in the warehouses of the Caja Real as a guarantee of future payment of the tax. In order to have independence and be able to calculate the value and tax of the declared goods, the officers had to agree and remained isolated to evaluate them. The value of the merchandise was calculated, as we have already mentioned, according to the value it had in the port thirty days after its arrival, taking into account the average price of its wholesale value ([17], pp. 235–236; [19], p. 380).17 To carry out this calculation and check or set the prices, they had at hand the regulations of the almojarifazgo and were accompanied by three witnesses, not merchants.
Once the value of the goods had been established, it was sent to Mexico for consideration by the Caja Real de México. This was composed of the viceroy, hearers, prosecutor of the Real Audiencia and officials of the Caja de México. The calculation of what traders had to pay for almojarifazgo was then calculated. Once the tax was calculated, it was again sent to Veracruz for the royal officers of that port to effect the payment. This system was created by Viceroy Enríquez in 1573 after consultation with all those involved in the New Spain trade, including royal officers, and accepted by the Crown in 1593. For the reforms of Viceroy Martín Enríquez see García-Abasolo ([22], pp. 226–227). For the acceptance of the conditions by Enríquez, Real Cédula of January 17, 1593, go to Antúnez ([17], pp. 239–240) and Lorenzo ([19], p. 380).
But the value of the goods calculated according to existing prices in the port of Veracruz was fictitious, since very few were sold in that port. Veracruz was only a distribution point and Mexico was in charge of its sale and redistribution to the rest of the New Spain territory. That is why in 1576 Viceroy Enríquez ordered that the price of merchandise be calculated according to the highest, medium and lowest value that had occurred in its sale, taking into account that it was produced on credit ([22], pp. 227–228). When this calculation was made, they took into account shipping costs and damage to goods during transport or from storage in the port warehouses.
The fact that the real market of unloaded goods in Veracruz was the capital of the viceroyalty influenced its collection of almojarifazgo. The merchants resided in the latter city, negotiated the goods there and paid their taxes. The officers of the Veracruz caja had to record these payments as made in the same port,18 along with all the data of the vessels. For each period of accounts of each royal-service officer four relationships were established: 10% almojarifazgo for entry of vessels from Seville; 5% for the entry period from the American colonies; a 2.5% departure fee bound for the first; and a 2.5% departure tax to colonies. They included, in addition to the paid almojarifazgo, the type and name of the boat, its master, the origin and destination of the same and the date of entry or departure from the port. Sometimes they also recorded the person who paid the tax at the Caja, but this was done very rarely.
5. Fundraising
During the period between 1587 and 1650, notwithstanding gaps in documentation,19 a total of 5,433,564.8 pesos were collected at the Caja de Veracruz, as an almojarifazgo, of which 4,957,826.4 pesos were collected (91.2%), and the remaining 475,738.4 pesos for exports (8.8%).20 From these two quantities and their evolution we estimate that the total value of the goods of the trade of Veracruz was 72,836,207 pesos, of which 53,798,475 belong to imports and 19,037,732 pesos to exports. The port’s trade balance, as can be seen, was negative at 19,037,732 pesos. This was compensated with the export of numerary, already studied by Hamilton ([29], pp. 47–56) and Eufemio Lorenzo Sanz ([19], pp. 252–253) and which we present a comparison in Table 1.
Years
Hamilton
Lorenzo
1571–1575
5,250,848.60
6,961,106.70
1576–1580
4,452,950.00
7,071,426.70
1581–1585
7,638,402.80
10,010,691.00
1586–1590
6,315,767.20
6,003,871.10
1591–1595
9,812,990.50
6,174,575.60
1596–1600
7,974,421.90
9,231,595.60
1601–1605
5,901,535.90
1606–1610
7,542,324.20
1611–1615
6,060,319.70
1616–1620
8,759,988.50
1621–1625
8,847,808.80
1626–1630
4,270,502.30
1631–1635
2,722,946.40
1636–1640
4,649,319.60
1641–1645
2,188,833.70
1646–1650
2,223,195.50
Total
94,612,155.60
45,453,266.70
Table 1.
New Spain exportations of silver from private owners, merchants and assets of deceased persons.
Source Hamilton and Lorenzo Sanz.
Export superiority over import was substantial, with exports not reaching 10% of what was traded. However, during the seventeenth century the trend changed compared to the sixteenth century and exports have a higher share in Veracruz trade, 9.1% versus 7.58%, respectively. The reasons for this dispute are that import trade from Seville, the fleets, was mainly composed of European manufactures of high value and quantity; while exports, raw materials for the most part of lower value, are compensated by the silver output. As we know, American colonial trade was characterized by a monopoly on European manufactures and by the lack of a local industry that generated its own merchandise.
6. Evolution and stages of global revenue
At the beginning of the reign of Philip II, the almojarifazgo raised in the port of Seville amounted to between 54,000 and 62,000 pesos per year. By the middle of the seventeenth century, this reached 600,000 ([18], p. 109). In Veracruz, between 1568 and 1571, 322,899 pesos were raised ([30], p. 1)21; while in the mid seventeenth century (1646–1650) the figure reached 291,246 pesos ([30], pp. 18–19).22 The fact that the quantities were so unequal between the two centuries does not mean that there was a commercial or revenue superiority between one and the other. The characteristics of the evolution of the collection of the almojarifazgo in the Caja de Veracruz contradict this difference by its irregularity, which was influenced by the fleets. Thus we see that it was in the first 15 years of the seventeenth century that almost 40% of what was collected was concentrated. A symptomatic fact of this tax irregularity can be seen in the annual average, which we have set at 89,899.45 pesos, compared to the total collection (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Almojarifazgo Real Caja de Veracruz (1573–1659). Annual distribution (in common gold pesos). Data extracted from Table 3 annexed at the end of the present work.
According to data from the annual collection of the almojarifazgo, in Veracruz we have established five different stages in Table 2.
Importation
Exportation
Quinquennios
Flotas
Sueltos
Total
Flotas
Sueltos
Total
Total
1573–1593
558,836.50
46,539.30
605,375.80
23,112.60
14,150.50
37,263.10
642,638.90
1594–1598
120,030.50
15,740.30
135,770.80
30,075.20
5,179.30
35,254.40
171,025.20
1599–1615
2,241,184.20
108,384.40
2,349,568.60
135,022.90
24,437.20
159,460.10
2,509,028.70
1616–1635
1,048,877.90
95,120.80
1,143,998.70
185,191.90
19,394.10
204,586.00
1,348,584.60
1636–1650
507,808.50
215,304.00
723,112.60
30,905.00
8,269.80
39,174.80
762,287.40
Total
4,476,737.60
481,088.70
4,957,826.30
404,307.60
71,430.80
475,738.40
5,433,564.80
Table 2.
Evaluation of the collection of the almojarifazgo tax at the port of Veracruz (1573-1650) by the tendency in homogeneous periods.
In common gold pesos. In the concept “Sueltos”, the name used in the handling of documentation. Included is the revenue from colonial, African and Sevillian commerce that were not connected to fleets, but rather ships that carried official documentation.
6.1 First stage of boom: (1587–1593)
After the epidemic of yellow fever, which ravaged New Spain during the years 1576 and 1580 and which left a lull in the economy of the viceroyalty ([22], pp. 67–86), there was a boom23 in the collection of the almojarifazgo and, therefore, of trade at the port of Veracruz.
In these 8 years the amount paid for this right amounted to 642,638.9 pesos, 11.83% of the total collected. Although fleet traffic was not constant, there was no arrival in 1587, 1589 and 1592, nor of departure in 1587, 1588, 1589 and 1593. 581,949.1 pesos, 90.56% were raised for this concept; while trade on the side lines only totaled 60,689.8 pesos (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Almojarifazgo Caja Real de Veracruz (1573–1650). Distribution by quinquenios (in common gold pesos). Data extracted from Table 2.
At the time, The New Spain economy suffered a series of manufacturing shortages that, as we have explained above, were filled from Seville, such as Andalusian wine and oil. These imports were mostly intended for the population of European origin. The evolution of this traffic conditioned the development of intercolonial traffic, since Veracruz acted as a re-exporter of the leftover fleets towards the area of influence of its trade, the Caribbean.
6.2 First stage of crisis: (1594–1598)
The European policy of the Castilian Crown conditioned the evolution of commercial traffic between the two continents and between the same colonies. Thus the wars of the late sixteenth century with Holland and France, allied with England, would influence the traffic and the collection of almojarifazgo. Fleets suffered harassment by these countries and by pirates, some English. During this period we see how the volume and value of what was negotiated between Seville and Mexico was reduced, leading to a short term crisis.24 After the signing of the Treaty of Vervins (1598), this trend would change.
At this stage, collection is reduced to 171,025.2 pesos, 3.15% of what was entered in the Caja for the whole period, a quarter of the amount established in the previous stage. Of this figure 150,105.8 pesos came from intercontinental trade goods, 87.77%, 120,030.5 pesos from imports and 30,075.3 exports. The trend of intercolonial trade in the collection of these years is slightly higher than the previous ones, from 9.44 to 12.23%, 20,919.4 pesos, a third below that.
While the tax charge for inbound fleets and intercolonial trade was reduced, exports of the former saw a 30.13% increase over the previous stage, constituting the beginning of a phase of export expansion of Veracruz to the metropolis in the fleets, that would last until 1616.
6.3 Second stage of boom: (1599–1615)
The political problems that interfered with the normal development of intercontinental trade disappeared from 159925 the collection of almojarifazgo collected by the Caja de Veracruz shows an upward trend. The influx of fleets to New Spain was steadily reduced, except in 1607 when there was the presence of a Dutch fleet on the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula26, and instead an armadilla was sent with the necessary azogues for the New Spain mines and some merchandise.
The reality could well be another: the saturation of the markets. Already in 1606, there was a significant reduction in fleet tax collection compared to the previous year, from 240,837.9 pesos in 1605 to 69,643.5 pesos in 1606 and to 2,962.3 pesos in 1607. The Mexican Consulate argued that the dangers of navigation were a cause of this decrease.
In these 17 years a total of 2,509,028.7 pesos, 46.18% of the total were entered into the Caja. Of this amount, 94.7%, 2,376,207.1 pesos corresponded to intercontinental fleet trade, while the remaining 5.3% was collected from intercolonial trade.
Although the margin of share of intercolonial trade in income was less than in the previous stage, 5.3% versus 12.23%, the average annual value of intercolonial trade, increased by double, or 7813 pesos versus 3486.6. During these years, fleet trade eclipsed non-fleet commerce, even if the latter was prosperous.
6.4 Second stage of crisis: (1616–1635)
The saturation of colonial markets led to a reduction in imports from the metropolis. This fact caused Sevillian merchants to opt for cut-offs of colonial markets in order to be able to place their products. This undersupply favored alternative ways to alleviate manufacturing shortages, such as smuggling, the emergence of an indigenous industry capable of competing with imported products in fleets, or sourcing them through the Manila Galleon.27
This was reflected in the collection of almojarifazgo in Veracruz, which at this stage is reduced to 53.75% compared to the previous, 1,348,584.6 pesos, 24.82% of the total collected, of which 1,234,069.8 pesos correspond to intercontinental trade or 91.51%, and 114,514.9 pesos to intercolonial trade.
This decline in tax revenues was more noticeable in imports, which fell to 1,048,877.9 pesos; while exports on the other hand increased by 37.15%. This increase would confirm the good health of the New Spain economy.
6.5 Crisis: (1636–1650)
The depression produced in the previous stage was worsened by the changes in frequency of fleets, from annually to every two years.28 There were no entry fleets in the port of Veracruz in 1637, 1639, 1641, 1643, 1645 and 1649, nor were there departures between 1634 and 1638 and in 1640, 1642, 1644 and 1646. These absences would significantly lower the income of the port Caja, which in those fifteen years accounted for only 762,287.4 pesos, which represented 14.03% of the total and a reduction of 43.47% less.
The consequences of this decline in intercontinental commercial activity would affect, by half, the intercolonial exchange of the New Spain port in its exports. By contrast, imports from colonial markets increased by 126.35% because of the emergence of Venezuelan cocoa in New Spain and the ban on trade with Peru (Arcila, 1950, pp. 251–252; [31], p. 586; [32], p. 5). This activity raised this trade by 29.33%, compared to 8.49% during the previous period.
7. Conclusions
Colonial trade was taxed by several tariffs levied by the Real Caja, such as the avería, the duty of tons, the almirantazgo, the lonja, the consulado or the almojarifazgo, among the most important. The latter has served for the present study and for a later one in which we explained how the trade of the New Spain port of Veracruz functioned.
Taxes were collected by royal officials appointed by the Real Hacienda in all ports, creating Real Cajas. It was done from the ship records that merchants were obliged to keep. The information they give us is very rich. Not only does it inform the origin and destination of the boat, type and its master, but it also relates the different goods and their merchant, with their value and the tax paid. There were exemptions in the collection of almojarifazgo, either for political or economic reasons, of goods or ports, such as those of Cumaná, Margarita, Caracas, Rio Hacha, Nueva Andalucía, Cartagena, Puerto Rico or Havana. The stipulated high percentage of almojarifazgo encouraged cases of fraud and smuggling. However, the information provided by the documentation on almojarifazgo of the Real Caja de Veracruz shows us the trend of New Spain trade through the aforementioned port.
Although Veracruz was only a mere redistributor of the goods that were negotiated in the capital of the viceroyalty, all traffic with Spain and the rest of the American colonies of the Caribbean passed through their docks. This had an influence on the calculation of the value of the declared goods. At first, the average prices calculated in Veracruz were fictitious. For this reason, a different form of calculation was established in 1576, using the average price of its highest, average and lowest value of its value in Mexico.
During the period studied (1573–1650), 5,533,564.8 pesos were collected at the Real Caja de Veracruz for the concept of almojarifazgo. We have calculated that 91.2% came from import trade and the rest from export trade Table 3. This meant, according to our calculations, the value of goods exchanged at the port was 72,836,207 pesos.
Year
Input
Output
Total
Flotas
Sueltos
Total
Flotas
Sueltos
Total
1573
964.3
964.3
5084.5
161.1
5245.6
6209.9
1587
2801.6
2801.6
268.3
268.3
3069.9
1588
126,927.5
7776.1
134,703.6
4842.4
4842.4
139,546.0
1589
14,440.4
14,440.4
2233.6
2233.6
16,674.0
1590
118,482.0
7313.5
125,795.5
2899.3
2484.0
5383.3
131,178.8
1591
67,303.5
3113.1
70,416.6
8614.4
1972.0
10,586.4
81,003.0
1592
5019.3
5019.3
6514.4
800.9
7315.3
12,334.5
1593
246,123.5
5111.0
251,234.5
1388.3
1388.3
252,622.8
1594
80,333.0
3119.0
83,452.0
10,555.8
364.6
10,920.4
94,372.4
1595
39,697.5
2568.5
42,266.0
8208.8
1682.6
9891.4
52,157.4
1596
4016.3
4016.3
5744.4
1052.8
6797.2
10,813.4
1597
2500.6
2500.6
5566.3
1372.3
6938.5
9439.1
1598
3535.9
3535.9
707.0
707.0
4242.9
1599
205,662.4
4656.8
210,319.2
3975.5
1335.4
5310.9
215,630.0
1600
168,578.0
5336.6
173,914.6
11,582.5
2828.1
14,410.6
188,325.3
1601
110,862.1
9029.0
119,891.1
12,935.0
2254.3
15,189.3
135,080.4
1602
156,331.0
6337.8
162,668.8
9067.6
1886.8
10,954.4
173,623.1
1603
101,031.8
8233.3
109,265.0
10,958.5
1649.8
12,608.3
121,873.3
1604
204,846.0
7352.3
212,198.3
10,651.6
1814.6
12,466.3
224,664.5
1605
240,837.9
7054.5
247,892.4
4457.8
1516.1
5973.9
253,866.3
1606
69,642.5
6318.3
75,960.8
2348.9
1124.1
3473.0
79,433.8
1607
2,962.3
6863.6
9825.9
12,425.6
1261.4
13,687.0
23,512.9
1608
293,263.9
9188.5
302,452.4
4574.5
1762.3
6336.8
308,789.1
1609
157,472.1
5911.0
163,383.1
5533.4
916.8
6450.1
169,833.3
1610
44,837.4
5134.4
49,971.8
5094.6
826.4
5921.0
55,892.8
1611
75,833.4
7096.5
82,929.9
6607.5
1203.1
7810.6
90,740.5
1612
79,082.3
4014.5
83,096.8
7456.1
1500.4
8956.5
92,053.3
1613
100,806.3
5341.9
106,148.1
9693.1
1019.9
10,713.0
116,861.1
1614
105,920.3
5671.0
111,591.3
7308.8
919.4
8228.1
119,819.4
1615
123,214.8
4844.6
128,059.4
10,351.9
618.5
10,970.4
139,029.8
1616
52,942.0
2546.6
55,488.6
5819.8
619.6
6439.4
61,928.0
1617
63,053.3
3039.1
66,092.4
7165.0
621.2
7786.2
73,878.6
1618
72,956.8
3100.9
76,057.6
9234.9
552.8
9787.6
85,845.3
1919
116,363.5
3079.6
119,443.1
12,176.8
586.6
12,763.4
132,206.5
1620
94,834.4
4140.8
98,975.1
11,463.5
885.6
12,349.1
111,324.3
1621
86,818.0
5551.6
92,369.6
10,664.9
944.6
11,609.5
103,979.1
1622
62,353.0
2454.1
64,807.1
15,626.1
1032.6
16,658.8
81,465.9
1622–1623
56,686.0
4622.0
61,308.0
19,133.0
1192.0
20,325.0
81,633.0
1623–1624
58,622.0
6839.0
65,461.0
14,724.0
1781.0
16,505.0
81,966.0
1624–1625
5813.0
5813.0
13,611.0
1137.0
14,748.0
20,561.0
1626–1627
90,269.0
10,863.0
101,132.0
12,263.0
2155.0
14,418.0
115,550.0
1627–1628
129,885.0
8778.0
138,663.0
11,693.0
1419.0
13,112.0
151,775.0
1630–1631
77,254.0
10,067.0
87,321.0
11,140.0
1352.0
12,492.0
99,813.0
1631–1633
57,127.0
13,616.0
70,743.0
30,477.0
2969.0
33,446.0
104,189.0
1634–1635
29,714.0
10,610.0
40,324.0
2146.0
2146.0
42,470.0
1636
81,783.0
965.0
82,748.0
236.0
236.0
82,984.0
1637
11,067.0
11,067.0
754.0
754.0
11,821.0
1638
80,518.4
15,924.9
96,443.3
492.9
492.9
96,936.1
1639
4795.4
4795.4
5547.4
429.9
5977.3
10,772.6
1640
88,625.4
10,463.1
99,088.5
543.4
543.4
99,631.9
1641
8490.3
8490.3
9331.0
446.4
9777.4
18,267.6
1642
48,385.6
13,186.8
61,572.4
554.8
554.8
62,127.1
1643
20,366.0
20,366.0
5151.3
405.4
5556.6
25,922.6
1644
32,652.8
20,495.4
53,148.1
760.1
760.1
53,908.3
1645
11,531.5
11,531.5
5515.0
1140.1
6655.1
18,186.6
1646
71,670.0
28,827.5
100,497.5
307.1
307.1
100,804.6
1647
26,785.9
18,408.6
45,194.5
2812.9
553.6
3366.5
48,561.0
1648
45,783.5
15,766.9
61,550.4
1146.4
342.0
1488.4
63,038.8
1649
16,556.1
16,556.1
753.8
661.0
1414.8
17,970.9
1650
31,604.0
18,459.6
50,063.6
647.4
643.1
1290.5
51,354.1
Total
4,476,737.6
481,088.7
4,957,826.3
404,307.6
71,430.8
475,738.4
5,433,564.8
Table 3.
Annual revenue from the almojarifazgo tax from the port of Veracruz (1573–1650).
In common gold pesos. The concept “Sueltos” includes the collection of colonial, African and Sevillian commerce, apart from fleets.
Based on the evolution of the collection we have established five well differentiated stages, two of boom and three of crises, the last of them being the one that was felt the most by the economic and political situation of Spain. The first boom stage, between 1588 and 1599, arises as a result of a commercial take-off following the yellow fever epidemic in New Spain (1576–1580) and is characterized by the introduction of European goods for consumption by Spaniards and their re-export to other Caribbean markets. Then there is a crisis phase, between 1594 and 1598, of reduction of collection in the course of the European wars of Spain and that will have a positive consequence in the increase in trade towards the metropolis, with an increase of 30.13%. A second moment of boom (1599–1615) appears with peace in Europe, in which a regularity is established in the predominance of the fleet trade over the rest of the Veracruz trade. Then there is a second and long stage of crisis in the collection (1616–1635) caused by the saturation of the New Spain markets and that the Sevillian traders cause more criticism by deliberately undersupplying traffic. Thus, smuggling would arise and the development of an internal, local industry, which would supply the New Spain market. The collection shows us a reduction in imports, but not exports. Finally, this crisis would be exacerbated between 1635 and 1650 because the annual fleets become biannual. This was a major disruption of incoming almojarifazgo in the port of Veracruz, especially that originated by colonial exports, which are reduced by half. The revenue of colonial imports, on the other hand, would double with an increase of 126.35%. We leave the study of the different markets, goods and their negotiated value for future work.
Acknowledgments
My acknowledgment to Maria Ruth Giesbrecht for her support and collaboration in the translation of this work.
Documentary sources
Archivo General de Indias (A.G.I.).
Audiencia de México, Leg. 351. Cartas y expedientes de oficiales reales de Veracruz.
Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 878. Cuentas de Real Hacienda de lo remitido a España desde 1568 a fin de junio de 1573 con los comprobantes del cargo.
Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 879. Cuentas de Real Hacienda desde 1587 a 1591.
Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 880. Cuentas de Real Hacienda desde junio de 1590 a diciembre de 1594.
Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 881. Cuentas de Real Hacienda desde 17 de diciembre de 1594 a fin de 1599.
Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 882. Cuentas de Real Hacienda desde 1°de enero de 1600 a 14 de octubre de 1609.
Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg, 883. Cuentas de Real Hacienda desde 14 de octubre de 1609 a 3 de septiembre de 1622.
Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 884B. Cuentas de Real Hacienda desde 6 de septiembre de 1622 a 8 de agosto de 1637.
Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 884A. Cuentas de Real Hacienda desde 6 de septiembre de 1622 a 8 de agosto de 1637.
Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 885A. Cuentas de Real Hacienda desde 9 de agosto de 1637 a 4 de octubre de 1646.
Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 885B. Cuentas de Real Hacienda desde 5 de octubre de 1646 a 27 de noviembre de 1653.
Consulado. Libro I. Libros de las Juntas y acuerdos del Consulado.
\n',keywords:"Almojarifazgo, tax law, trade commerce, Veracruz, New Spain",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69999.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69999.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69999",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69999",totalDownloads:446,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 7th 2019",dateReviewed:"September 24th 2019",datePrePublished:"March 12th 2020",datePublished:"June 3rd 2020",dateFinished:"November 9th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Hacienda Real during the colony taxed the commerce with several tariffs, the most important being the avería and the almojarifazgo. The latter would do so directly on traded goods. The information it gives is a rich source for interpreting colonial and intercontinental trade. The study focuses on the documentation of tax by the Real Caja de Veracruz at the New-Hispanic port of Veracruz, which served as the re-shipper of the goods negotiated in Mexico. It gives us information about incoming and outgoing ships, their destinations or origins, and the amount paid for almojarifazgo, without distinctions. The total value negotiated in the port between 1587 and 1650 has been calculated as a percentage charged on the value of the merchandise. In spite of fraud and contraband during this whole period, these calculations can be considered a source of reliable, if approximate, information of the new Spanish trade. It establishes the supremacy of imports over exports and intercontinental trade with Spain over colonial trade.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69999",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69999",signatures:"Emiliano Gil-Blanco",book:{id:"9030",type:"book",title:"Perspectives on Economic Development",subtitle:"Public Policy, Culture, and Economic Development",fullTitle:"Perspectives on Economic Development - Public Policy, Culture, and Economic Development",slug:"perspectives-on-economic-development-public-policy-culture-and-economic-development",publishedDate:"June 3rd 2020",bookSignature:"Ryan Merlin Yonk and Vito Bobek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-938-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-937-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-647-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"196259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryan Merlin",middleName:null,surname:"Yonk",slug:"ryan-merlin-yonk",fullName:"Ryan Merlin Yonk"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. The tax",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Exemptions and reductions in the collection of almojarifazgo",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Evaluation of the value of goods and revenue",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"5. Fundraising",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"6. Evolution and stages of global revenue",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.1 First stage of boom: (1587–1593)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.2 First stage of crisis: (1594–1598)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.3 Second stage of boom: (1599–1615)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.4 Second stage of crisis: (1616–1635)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.5 Crisis: (1636–1650)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Documentary sources",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Chaunu P. Serie: Filosofía y Letras, Sevilla, Sevilla y América, siglos XVI y XVII. Publicaciones de la Universidad de Sevilla; 1983. p. 65'},{id:"B2",body:'Lorenzo Sanz E. Comercio de España con América en la época de Felipe II (Tomo II). Valladolid: Institución Cultural Simancas; 1980'},{id:"B3",body:'Yun B. Imperio español, entre la monarquía compuesta y el colonialismo mercantil. Metodologías, contextos institucionales y perspectivas para el estudio de la fiscalidad y la movilización de recursos. In: Martínez P, Sánchez E, Souto M, editors. La fiscalidad New Spain en el imperio español. Conceptualizaciones, proyectos y contradicciones. México: Instituto de Investigaciones Dr. José María Luis Mora/Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas; 2015. pp. 29-67'},{id:"B4",body:'García-Abasolo A. Martín Enríquez y la reforma de 1568 en Nueva España. Sevilla: Diputación Provincial; 1983'},{id:"B5",body:'Gil Blanco E. El almojarifazgo como índice de interpretación del comercio del puerto de Veracruz, 1600-1622. Estudios de Historia Social y Económica de América. 1986;2:89-119'},{id:"B6",body:'Gil Blanco E. El tráfico del puerto de Veracruz en 1572. Estudios de Historia Social y Económica de América. 1990;7:19-26'},{id:"B7",body:'Gil Blanco E. Auge y crisis del tráfico comercial veracruzano visto a través de la cuenta de almojarifazgo, 1573-1650 (Tesis doctoral inédita). Alcalá de Henares: Universidad de Alcalá; 1993'},{id:"B8",body:'Miranda J. España y Nueva España en la época de Felipe II. México: Instituto de Historia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; 1962'},{id:"B9",body:'Ayala M. Diccionario de gobierno y legislación de Indias. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica; 1988'},{id:"B10",body:'Moreyra Paz-Soldán M. Estudios sobre el tráfico marítimo en la época colonial. Lima: Libreria e Imprenta Gil; 1944'},{id:"B11",body:'Salas Almela L. Nobleza y fiscalidad en la Ruta de las Indias: el emporio señorial de Sanlúcar de Barrameda (1576-1641). Anuario de Estudios Americanos. 2007, (julio-septiembre);64:13-60'},{id:"B12",body:'Salas Almela L. Los antepuertos de Sevilla: señorío, comercio y fiscalidad en la Carrera de Indias (s. XVI). In: Vila Vilar E, Lacueva Muñoz J, editors. Mirando las dos orillas: intercambios mercantiles, sociales y culturales entre Andalucía y América. Sevilla: Fundación Buenas Letras; 2012. pp. 105-127'},{id:"B13",body:'Tepaske JJ, Klein HS. Ingresos y egresos de la Real Hacienda de Nueva España. México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia; 1988'},{id:"B14",body:'Celaya Nández Y. La cesión de un derecho de la Real Hacienda: la administración del impuesto de la alcabala novohispana en el siglo XVII. Tres estudios de caso. In: América Latina en la Historia Económica. 2010, enero-junio. pp. 91-125'},{id:"B15",body:'Céspedes del Castillo G. La avería en el comercio de Indias. Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos: Sevilla; 1945. p. 187'},{id:"B16",body:'Hausberger B, Ibarra A. Comercio y poder en América colonial: los consulados de comerciantes, siglos XVII-XIX. Madrid, Frankfurt del Main y México: Iberoamericana/Vervuert/Instituto Mora'},{id:"B17",body:'Antúnez RA. Memorias históricas sobre la legislación y gobierno del comercio de los españoles con sus Colonias en las Indias Occidentales. Madrid: Imprenta de Sancha; 1797'},{id:"B18",body:'Hamilton EJ. The decline of Spain. In: The Economic History Review. Vol. VIII. 1938'},{id:"B19",body:'León Borja D, Szasdi Nagy A. El comercio del cacao en Guayaquil. Revista de Historia de América, LVII. 1964:57-58'},{id:"B20",body:'Vila Vilar E. Historia de Puerto Rico: 1600-1650. Sevilla: Consejo superior de investigaciones científicas, Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos; 1974'},{id:"B21",body:'Borah W. Comercio y navegación entre México y Perú́ en el siglo XVI. México: Instituto Mexicano de Comercio Exterior; 1975'},{id:"B22",body:'García de León A. Tierra adentro, mar en fuera. El puerto de Veracruz y su litoral a Sotavento, 1519-1821. México, D.F.: F.C.E. Universidad Veracruzana; 2014'},{id:"B23",body:'Martínez P, Sánchez E, Souto M. La fiscalidad novohispana en el imperio español. Conceptualizaciones, proyectos y contradicciones. México: Instituto de Investigaciones Dr. José María Luis Mora/Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas; 2015'},{id:"B24",body:'Arcila E. Hacienda y comercio de Venezuela en el siglo XVI. Caracas: Banco Central de Venezuela; 1983'},{id:"B25",body:'Borrego MC. Cartagena de Indias en el siglo XVI: contribución a la conmemoración del V Centenario del Descubrimiento. Sevilla: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos; 1983'},{id:"B26",body:'Valle Pavón G. Gestión del derecho de alcabalas y conflictos por la representación corporativa: la transformación de la normatividad electoral del Consulado de México en el siglo XVII. In: Hausberger B, Ibarra A, editors. Comercio y poder en América colonial: los consulados de comerciantes, siglos XVII-XIX. Madrid, Frankfurt del Main y México: Iberoamericana/Vervuert/Instituto Mora; 2003. pp. 41-72'},{id:"B27",body:'Fuentes García A. Los ingenios de azúcar en La Habana del siglo XVII (1650-1700): estructura y mano de obra. Revista de Historia Económica, IX. 1991, invierno;1'},{id:"B28",body:'Haring CH. Comercio y navegación entre España y las Indias en la época de los Habsburgo. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica; 1979'},{id:"B29",body:'Gil Blanco E. Interpretación del comercio de un puerto colonial novohispano durante un periodo de crisis, Veracruz (1587-1650). Estudios de Historia Social y Económica de América. 1997;14:75-123'},{id:"B30",body:'Sánchez E. La mirada fiscal sobre el comercio interno: las alcabalas novohispanas. In: Martínez P, Sánchez E, Souto M, editors. La fiscalidad novohispana en el imperio español. Conceptualizaciones, proyectos y contradicciones. México: Instituto de Investigaciones Dr. José María Luis Mora/Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas; 2015. pp. 165-187'},{id:"B31",body:'Calderón F. Historia económica de la Nueva España en Tiempos de los Austrias. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica; 1988'},{id:"B32",body:'Jumar FA. El comercio atlántico de Río de La Plata, 1680-1778. El circuito legal español. Las fuentes utilizadas y su tratamiento. América Latina en la Historia Económica. 2004, enero-junio:11-36'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Merced given in Burgos on 6 May 1497 and ratified by the Consejo de Indias. We also use as a source the book of Antúnez, Memorias histórcas…, although it is not a very reliable source, but it includes tax legislation and other issues relating to existing regulations in the tax season."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"This Real Cédula refers to the collection of the almojarifazgo from intercontinental trade and was issued on June 24, 1566, received by the Real Audiencia de México on September 21 of the same year, sent to Veracruz the following day and settled in the books of the Real Caja of the port by treasurer Rodrigo Fránquez on August 27, 1573. Archivo General de Indias (hereinafter A.G.I.). Contaduría. Real Caja de Veracruz. Leg. 878. Recop. Leyes de Indias... Book VIII. Tit. XV. Law I."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"This Real Provision establishes the almojarifazgo for intercolonial trade. Its development is produced by the Cédula of October 11, 1570. In New Spain, Viceroy Enríquez imposed it on Provision of April 6, 1571 given in Mexico City on September 30, 1571. A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 878. Recop. Leyes de Indias… Lib. VIII. Tit. XV. Law I."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 878. Transfer of Her Majesty’s Card where the scareping rights of the goods of Castile are sent to collect to X per cent and the wines to XX."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 878. The collection of the new almojarifazgo rights at two and a half percent."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"Cédula of January 25, 1567."},{id:"fn7",explanation:"Goods shipped by the Crown have been exempt from 1507. April 27, 1574, ratified by the Cédulas of September 14, 1613 and December 12, 1619. Recop. Leyes de Indias... Lib. VIII. Tit. XV. Law XXVI."},{id:"fn8",explanation:"December 15, 1531 for clergy and February 28, 1543 for the rest of the passengers. Recop. Leyes de Indias...Lib. VIII. Tit. XV. Laws XXVIII and XXIX."},{id:"fn9",explanation:"November 4, 1548 contained in the Recop. Leyes de Indias... Lib. VIII. Tit. XV. Law XXVII."},{id:"fn10",explanation:"Real Cédulas of December 8, 1533, November 8, 1539 and February 11, 1540."},{id:"fn11",explanation:"Ordenanzas of 1554 and Cédula of December 22, 1579."},{id:"fn12",explanation:" A.G.I. Contaduría, Caja Real de Veracruz, Leg. 878."},{id:"fn13",explanation:"April 21 and 27 1574.Recop. Leyes de Indias... Lib. VIII. Tit. XV. Laws VIII and XIX."},{id:"fn14",explanation:"Cédulas of December 28, 1568 and March 9, 1620. Recop. Leyes de Indias..., Lib. VIII. Tit. XV. Law I."},{id:"fn15",explanation:"Recop. Leyes de Indias... Lib. VIII. Tit. XV. Law V."},{id:"fn16",explanation:"Cédulas of April 16 and August 4, 1550, May 10, 1554, August 24, 1619 and January 23, 1627. Recop. Leyes de Indias. Lib. VIII. Tit. XV. Law V."},{id:"fn17",explanation:"Real Card of December 22, 1579."},{id:"fn18",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 878."},{id:"fn19",explanation:"Existing documentary gaps are from June 14, to December 17, 1594, from May 6, to August 31, 1601, from May 17 to November 29, 1602, from June to October 31, 1607, from July to October 1627, from August, 9 1628 to November 7, 1630, from November 4, 1632 to August 6, 1633 and from September 5, 1636 to August 11, 1637."},{id:"fn20",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Legs. 878, 879, 880, 881, 882, 883, 884B, 884A, 885A, and 885B."},{id:"fn21",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 878, branch 1, from Septembre of 1568 until June of 1571."},{id:"fn22",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Leg. 885B, branch 7, from October to December 31, 1650."},{id:"fn23",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Legs. 878, branch 3, from August 11, 1572 to June 30, 1573; 879, branches 1 y 2, from June, 1587 to June 13, 1591; y 880, branches 1 a 4, from June 30, 1590 to June 14, 1594."},{id:"fn24",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Legs. 880, branch 4, from October 20, 1592 to June 14, 1594; y 881, branches 1 to 5, from October 19, 1594 to January 1, 1600."},{id:"fn25",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Legs. 881, branch 4, from May 26, 1598 to January 1, 1600; 882, branches 1 a 11, from May 7, 1600 to October 14, 1609; and 883, branches 1 to 7, from October 14, 1609 to June 12, 1616."},{id:"fn26",explanation:"A.G.I. Consulado. Libro I. Folios. 162–165."},{id:"fn27",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Legs. 883, branches 7 a 14, from June 11, 1615 to October 14, 1622; 884B, branches 1 a 9, from September 5, 1622 to September 14, 1627; and 884A, branches 1 to 10, from September 14, 1627 to September 4, 1636."},{id:"fn28",explanation:"A.G.I. Contaduría. Caja Real de Veracruz. Legs. 884A, branch 10, from November 19, 1634 to September 4, 1636; 885A, branches 1 to 6, from August 12, 1637 to October 4, 1646; and 885B, branch 7, from October 5, 1646 hasta December 5, 1650."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Emiliano Gil-Blanco",address:"emigilblanco@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador
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One of the main challenges in drug discovery and development is the time and costs required to sustain the drug development pipeline. It is estimated to cost over 2.6 billion USD and take over a decade to develop cancer therapeutics. This is primarily due to the high numbers of candidate drugs failing at late drug development stages. Many sizable pharmaceutical and biotech companies have made considerable investments in AI. This is primarily due to recent advancements in AI, which have displayed the possibility of rapid low-cost drug discovery and development. This overview provides a general introduction to AI in drug discovery and development. This chapter will describe the conventional oncology drug discovery pipeline and its associated challenges. Fundamental AI concepts are also introduced, alongside historical and modern advancements within AI and drug discovery and development. 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I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:49,paginationItems:[{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - 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