Coronavirus confirmed infections and total deaths in the United States.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2175",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Risk Management - Current Issues and Challenges",title:"Risk Management",subtitle:"Current Issues and Challenges",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Every business and decision involves a certain amount of risk. Risk might cause a loss to a company. This does not mean, however, that businesses cannot take risks. As disengagement and risk aversion may result in missed business opportunities, which will lead to slower growth and reduced prosperity of a company. In today's increasingly complex and diverse environment, it is crucial to find the right balance between risk aversion and risk taking. To do this it is essential to understand the complex, out of the whole range of economic, technical, operational, environmental and social risks associated with the company's activities. However, risk management is about much more than merely avoiding or successfully deriving benefit from opportunities. Risk management is the identification, assessment, and prioritization of risks. Lastly, risk management helps a company to handle the risks associated with a rapidly changing business environment.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0747-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5131-9",doi:"10.5772/2568",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"risk-management-current-issues-and-challenges",numberOfPages:598,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c6406ba890ef4569efd8298e1121685d",bookSignature:"Nerija Banaitiene",publishedDate:"September 12th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2175.jpg",numberOfDownloads:190341,numberOfWosCitations:88,numberOfCrossrefCitations:65,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:123,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:14,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:276,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 22nd 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 20th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 18th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 17th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 16th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"139414",title:"Dr.",name:"Nerija",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitiene",slug:"nerija-banaitiene",fullName:"Nerija Banaitiene",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/139414/images/system/139414.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nerija Banaitiene is an Associate Professor at the Department of Property Management and Construction Economics of the Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania. She has worked in several national and international research projects on retrofit of public buildings and innovation in construction sector SMEs. She has published more than 20 articles in journals such as European Journal of Operational Research, Omega, International Journal of Environment and Pollution, International Journal of Strategic Property Management, and Technological and Economic Development of Economy. Her current research interests focus on the areas of project management, risk management in construction projects, multiple criteria analysis and its applications in building life cycle assessment for decision making.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Vilnius Gediminas Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"439",title:"Operation Management",slug:"business-management-and-economics-business-administration-operation-management"}],chapters:[{id:"38969",title:"Biometric Solvency Risk for Portfolios of General Life Contracts (II) The Markov Chain Approach",doi:"10.5772/48374",slug:"biometric-solvency-risk-for-portfolios-of-general-life-contracts-ii-the-markov-chain-approach",totalDownloads:2186,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Werner Hürlimann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/38969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/38969",authors:[{id:"143082",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",surname:"Hurlimann",slug:"werner-hurlimann",fullName:"Werner Hurlimann"}],corrections:null},{id:"38968",title:"Boundary-Value Problems for Second Order PDEs Arising in Risk Management and Cellular Neural Networks Approach",doi:"10.5772/49936",slug:"boundary-value-problems-for-second-order-pdes-arising-in-risk-management-and-cellular-neural-network",totalDownloads:2588,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Rossella Agliardi, Petar Popivanov and Angela Slavova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/38968",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/38968",authors:[{id:"143248",title:"Prof.",name:"Angela",surname:"Slavova",slug:"angela-slavova",fullName:"Angela Slavova"}],corrections:null},{id:"38970",title:"Selecting a Response Plan Under Budget Constraints",doi:"10.5772/50202",slug:"selecting-a-response-plan-under-budget-constraints",totalDownloads:3999,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"A. 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Preliminary racial data on the coronavirus pandemic indicates that African Americans are much more likely to experience infections, hospitalizations, and death from the virus in comparison to other racial groups. Of the 25,152,433 cases of COVID-19 infections and 419,827 deaths due to this infection in the United States as of January 26, 2021 (Table 1), the percentage of African Americans (12.2%) and Hispanics (20.8%) experience coronavirus infections (Table 2) near their representative percentages in the general population (13.4% and 18.5%, respectively) (Table 3). In addition, African Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians are among the highest proportion of individuals with laboratory-confirmed COVID-related hospitalizations per 100,000 population (564, 524.2, and 645.7, respectively) compared to whites (261.9) (Table 4). Finally, a higher percentage of African Americans (15.6%), specifically and uniquely, experience death from this infection at a much higher percentage than they are represented in the general population (Table 5).
Confirmed cases | 25,152,433 |
Deaths | 419,827 |
Coronavirus confirmed infections and total deaths in the United States.
CDC|Updated: Jan 26 2021 12:16 PM.
Hispanic/Latino | 20.8 | 1,998,031 |
American Indian/Alaska Native, Non-Hispanic | 1.3 | 126,045 |
Asian, Non-Hispanic | 3.6 | 344,630 |
Black, Non-Hispanic | 12.2 | 1,171,902 |
Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, Non-Hispanic | 0.4 | 35,183 |
White, Non-Hispanic | 55.8 | 5,353,940 |
Multiple/Other, Non-Hispanic | 6 | 571,110 |
Percent of coronavirus infections by racial groups (as of January 26, 2021).
CDC|Updated: Jan 26 2021 12:16 PM. Data from 18,807,907 cases. Race/Ethnicity was available for 9,600,841 (51%) cases.
Non-Hispanic white | 60.1% |
Hispanic and Latino (of any race) | 18.5% |
Black or African American | 13.4% |
Asian | 5.9% |
Two or more races | 2.8% |
Native Americans and Alaska Natives | 1.3% |
Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders | 0.2% |
2019 U.S. Census Bureau estimates.
US Census Bureau April 1 2020 Estimates (web). United States Census Bureau. April 2020.
Retrieved January 26, 2021.
Overall | 380.3 |
White | 261.9 |
Black | 564 |
Hispanic/Latino | 524.2 |
Asian/Pacific Islander | 214.6 |
American Indian/Alaskan Native | 645.7 |
Percent of laboratory-confirmed Covid diagnosis hospitalizations per 100,000 by racial groups (as of January 16, 2021).
COVID-NET: COVID-19 Associated Hospitalization Surveillance Network, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. WEBSITE. Accessed January 26, 2021.
Hispanic/Latino | 13.1 | 30,338 |
American Indian/Alaska Native, Non-Hispanic | 1 | 2,349 |
Asian, Non-Hispanic | 4.3 | 9,847 |
Black, Non-Hispanic | 15.6 | 36,207 |
Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, Non-Hispanic | 0.2 | 532 |
White, Non-Hispanic | 61.5 | 142,411 |
Multiple/Other, Non-Hispanic | 4.2 | 9,686 |
Percent of coronavirus deaths by racial groups.
CDC|Updated: Jan 26 2021 12:16 PM. Data from 298,564 deaths. Race/Ethnicity was available for 231,370 (77%) deaths.
While this appears to be an alarming health outcome regarding African Americans, it is, in fact, not surprising, nor even new information, considering the historical context of racial health disparities and the marginal health of African Americans in the United States. In a co-authored article entitled, “The Color Line and the Health of African Americans” [1], I noted that one of the first examinations of African American health was in the W.E.B. DuBois classic study of the Philadelphia Black population of the late 1880s,
The leading causes of death for African Americans generally and historically reflects the leading causes of death for the entire United States population [6]. In 2017, these included diseases of the heart, cancer, stroke, homicide (specific to Blacks only), and unintentional injuries [7]. Moreover, the health status of African Americans identifies a higher prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and sexually transmitted infections, i.e., HIV infections, when compared with whites [6, 7]. The projected deaths from coronavirus in 2020, with estimates in the hundreds of thousands to millions and its predominance among African Americans, will undoubtedly catapult it into the top five of leading causes of death for African Americans [8].
As a result of this pervasive deficit in health status and health outcome among African Americans, a “Task Force on Black and Minority Health” was established in 1984 by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services that resulted in the landmark “Heckler Report” in 1985 [9, 10]. This report by Secretary Heckler marked the first convening of a group of health experts by the U.S. government to conduct a comprehensive study of racial and ethnic minority health and elevated minority health to a national stage [10]. The term ‘racial health disparity’ was coined shortly thereafter [11, 12], which is defined as differences in the incidence, prevalence, mortality and burden of diseases and other adverse health conditions that exist among specific populations in the United States [13]. In 2000, Congress passed The Minority Health and Health Disparities Research and Education Act (Public Law 106–525) to address “the significant disparity in the overall rate of disease incidence, prevalence, morbidity, mortality or survival rates.” The Act created the National
More research, and obviously data, is needed to fully understand the factors that cause the overall racial health disparities, in general, and racial disparities in coronavirus cases and deaths, in particular. But, to do so, we must first understand ‘what is race’ and how is it related to health? [15] Earlier research on racial differences in health had been dominated by a genetic model that views race as primarily reflecting biological homogeneity, and Black-White differences in health as largely genetically-determined [15, 16]. More recent, rigorous, and comprehensive examinations of racial differences in health suggest, however, that race is a societally constructed taxonomy that reflects the intersection of particular historical conditions with economic, political, legal, social, and cultural factors, as well as mistrust of the medical care system and racism pertaining to biases in the quality of medical care received [15, 16, 17]. Macrosocial factors and position within social statuses also most often affect health through intermediary mechanisms and process such as health behavior, mistrust of the medical care system, stress, quality of medical care received, and a broad range of social, psychological, cultural, and religious resources [17]. Therefore, to understand the complex relationship between race and health, these factors have to be considered, which are known as ‘social determinants of health’ [18, 19, 20, 21]. Thus, it is more correct to view race as a proxy variable for, or an influence of, many aspects of the health care experience that subsequently impact health outcome, rather than a direct influence on health outcome [14, 22].
‘Health equity’ -- the absence of health disparities in controllable or remediable aspects of health, i.e., social justice -- arises from having access to the social determinants of health, specifically those related to wealth, power and prestige [23, 24]. In the case of the coronavirus pandemic, the racial disparities in deaths reflect racial differences in the way that African Americans live, work, and exist as a result of their ‘second-class citizenship’ with respect to their lower socioeconomic status in comparison to other racial groups.
As noted, the health status of African Americans identifies a higher prevalence of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and sexually transmitted infections, i.e., HIV infections, when compared with whites. Higher rates of coronavirus among African Americans may be due to being more likely to have comorbidities, which has been noted as a significant risk factor for coronavirus death [6, 7].
Minority racial groups are more likely to experience multidimensional poverty than their White counterparts [25]. Higher rates of coronavirus among African Americans may be due to being less likely to have basic resources or access to basic resources to provide protection against the virus, i.e., masks, gloves, sanitized wipes, etc.
The nation is largely segregated, leaving racial groups exposed to different health risks and with variable access to health services based on where they live [26]. Higher rates of coronavirus among African Americans may be due to being more likely to co-exist around others in their respective densely-populated neighborhoods and communities who are at higher risk from contracting the virus. And, there may be limited facilities to seek care in these neighborhoods and communities that have less resources.
As of 2018, most groups of color remained more likely to be uninsured compared to Whites. Moreover, despite the larger coverage increases for groups of color, the relative risk of being uninsured compared to Whites did not improve for some groups [27]. For example, Blacks remained 1.5 times more likely to be uninsured than Whites from 2010 to 2018 [27]. Higher rates of coronavirus among African Americans may be due to being more likely to be uninsured and, therefore, less likely to receive medical care after contraction of coronavirus.
U.S. Census Data from 2010 revealed that whites have the country’s highest homeownership rate, while those identifying as being African American had the lowest homeownership rate, by almost half [28]. Higher rates of coronavirus among African Americans may be due to being more likely to live in densely-populated apartments and other multi-person dwellings, rather than single-family homes, which reduces the ability to self-isolate and increases the exposures for contracting the virus.
12.4 percent of African-American college graduates between the ages of 22 and 27 were unemployed in 2013, which is more than double the rate of unemployment among all college graduates in the same age range, 5.6 percent [29]. African American unemployment rates are typically double that of whites. African-American men working full-time earn only 72 percent of the average earnings of comparable white men and 85 percent of the earnings of white women [30]. Moreover, a national review of 2015 data on white-collar employment showed that white men are 61.3% of executives nationally and 81% above parity when compared with their 33.8% representation in non-management professionals [31]. African American men and women still represent a very low percentage of the professional white-collar workforce (less than 8%), given their overall representation in the population [31]. Higher rates of coronavirus among African Americans may be due to being more likely to work in customer service, technical, and support staff positions or in the ‘gig economy’ i.e., Uber and Lyft, which require more interaction with the public and increases the exposures for contracting the virus, rather than in more professional positions, which are more likely to allow the ability to work from home.
Researchers examined 2000 U.S. Census data to find that Black households were much less likely to own a car than were white households, identifying a growing gap between car ownership in white and black households that spanned income levels [32]. 19% of African Americans reported living in a household without access to a vehicle [31]. 4.6% of White Americans reported living in a home without access to a vehicle [32]. Higher rates of coronavirus among African Americans may be due to being more likely to use public transportation, i.e., subways and busses, to get to work, which reduces the ability to socially-distance and increases the exposures for contracting the virus.
The Pew Research Center 2014 US Religious Landscape Survey indicated that 47% of Blacks attend religious services at least once a week in comparison to 34% of whites [33]. Higher rates of coronavirus among African Americans may be due to being more likely to comingle in public spaces with many other individuals, rather than practice social distancing, particularly at the advent of the spread of the coronavirus and prior to public health messaging to stay at home and to avoid large gatherings.
Morbidity and mortality rates among African American may be influenced by the healthcare seeking behaviors of this population. Eley et al. findings confirm the importance of social relationships in influencing African American health-seeking behaviors and offer characterization of the nature of influence across different types of relationships: family, culture and upbringing, and peers [34]. For African American men, beliefs about masculinity and manhood that are deeply rooted in culture play a role in shaping the behavioral patterns of men in ways that have consequences for health [35]. Men are socialized to project strength, individuality, autonomy, dominance, stoicism and physical aggression, and to avoid demonstrations of emotion or vulnerability that could be construed as weakness [35]. These norms can translate into African American men “toughing it out” through fewer encounters with the health care system, delayed attention to symptoms, poor medication compliance, and an unwillingness to talk openly about health concerns [36]. For African American women, the literature on the reasons why individuals may miss healthcare appointments suggest that socioeconomic reasons may play a major factor [37]. African American women are more like to be single, employed, and the sole provider of her children in comparison to white women [38]. Pavik et al. indicated that full-time employment (not being able to get off work) is a reason for missing a breast examination appointment [39]. Taplin et al. noted that those attending a clinic more than 45 minutes from the breast cancer screening center was negatively associated with subsequently obtaining a breast mammogram [40]. Blankton et al. suggested that lack of transportation is the main reason for missed healthcare appointments [41]. Higher rates of coronavirus deaths among African Americans may be due to racial differences in healthcare seeking behavior as a result of sociocultural and/or socioeconomic issues.
In the United States, the more vulnerable segments of the population were also the most unwitting subjects of medical experimentation, but African Americans, including children, bore a disproportionate burden and suffered the most brutal, invasive, and perilous of the medical experiments [5]. The infamous Tuskegee Syphilis Study from 1932 to 1972 is most illustrative of this and may resonate the most with respect to African American’s lack of trust in the medical care system [5]. Medical mistrust is thought to affect health care–based decisions and has been linked to poor health outcomes [42]. Previous work has demonstrated that medical mistrust is not significantly associated with failure to receive needed medical care; however, medical mistrust can serve as a barrier to optimal health [43]. Higher levels of medical mistrust have been found to be associated with failure to take medical advice, failure to keep follow-up appointments, and postponement of receiving needed care [43]. Higher rates of coronavirus deaths among African Americans may be due to mistrust in the medical care system, in general, and physicians, in particular, which may specifically impact compliance with healthcare instructions and more broadly, with public health messaging.
Finally, satisfaction with medical care is increased when physicians are attentive, give patients the chance to relay information in their own way, provide more information, and share control of the termination of the medical interaction [53, 54]. In general, practitioners who use a more companionable communicative style characterized by warmth, empathy, genuineness, and a nonjudgmental attitude rather than a controlling, authoritative style received more favorable evaluations by patients. According to Auslander et al., ineffective communication can be caused by a lack of sensitivity to the cultural values, norms, and environmental contexts of patients of races or ethnicities other than those of the provider [54]. African Americans are less likely to be satisfied with the medical care that they do receive, which, again, may directly impact their use of health care services [55]. In a study of the impact that physicians trained at international medical schools (IMGs) in comparison with physicians trained at United States medical schools (USMGs) have on the satisfaction with medical care and health care-seeking behaviors of an oversampled racial cohort of urban and rural elders, Howard et al., found that for African Americans, perception of IMGs is directly related to issues of cultural competency, communication, and ageism [55]. Higher rates of coronavirus deaths among African Americans may be a result of dissatisfaction with the medical care system that dampens their pursuit of needed medical care services.
Challenges exist to reversing the current trend in coronavirus deaths among African Americans due to a myriad of historic, consistent, and pervasive societally-induced deficits within African American life. However, these are only a few of the possible factors that cause the overall racial health disparities and, in particular, influence the disproportionately high rate of coronavirus deaths among African Americans. Only a qualitative research assessment of the lives of these unfortunate individuals as well as analysis of the corresponding data will begin to provide the answers as to why these outcomes are occurring.
In general, the provision of widespread testing and monitoring for COVID-19 in African American communities would facilitate early detection among the symptomatic and asymptomatic infected; self-isolation and quarantine of both the symptomatic and asymptomatic infected will reduce the spread of the virus. Hospitalizations and adverse treatment outcomes could possibly be reduced by earlier treatment of the flu- and pneumonia-like symptoms before illness progression to the need for extensive medical stays and subsequent use of ventilation for lungs.
However, due to social determinants of health that convolute the relationship between race and health, substantial funding is necessary to promote health equity in the African American community during the coronavirus pandemic. For instance, due to the level of poverty, lower socio-economic status, and uninsured among African Americans, COVID-19 testing, vaccinations, as well as medical treatment for those suffering from coronavirus must be cost-free for these specific sub-groups of the African American community.
Further, not all adverse healthcare seeking behaviors can be address in the African American community as it relates to this current pandemic. But certainly, those healthcare seeking behaviors related to socio-economic factors, i.e., not being able to get off of work during traditional business hours, not having treatment facilities in proximity to poor, minority communities, and not having transportation to travel to these facilities, can be addressed. More COVID-19 testing and vaccination sites can be placed in African American communities and along or near major mass transportation routes. Hours of operation for testing and vaccination sites can be expanded to accommodate those African American workers with jobs that have less flexible schedules, i.e., customer service, technical, and support staff positions.
Finally, given the high level of mistrust of the medical system by African Americans, it is critical to build public health campaigns driven by leaders in the African American communities, and have oversight provided by community consortiums to ensure ethical, fair and safe practices in the administration of these tests and vaccines in order to enhance compliance that will facilitate the eradication of the coronavirus pandemic.
The author states that there is no conflict of interest.
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Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"716",title:"Clinical Use of Local Anesthetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8e4b699b914aa5fa2cf49f0ce8c42b9",slug:"clinical-use-of-local-anesthetics",bookSignature:"Asadolah Saadatniaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/716.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88079",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Asadoliah",middleName:null,surname:"Saadatniaki",slug:"asadoliah-saadatniaki",fullName:"Asadoliah Saadatniaki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"66259",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85270",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:7489,totalCrossrefCites:53,totalDimensionsCites:135,abstract:"An antioxidant is a substance that at low concentrations delays or prevents oxidation of a substrate. Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"65331",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83731",title:"Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids as Potential Natural Antioxidants",slug:"flavonoids-and-phenolic-acids-as-potential-natural-antioxidants",totalDownloads:2724,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:"For centuries, aromatic herbs and spices have been added to different foods to improve the flavor and organoleptic properties. The use of aromatic plants and spices in phytotherapy is mostly related to different activities of their essential oils, such as antimicrobial, spasmolytic, carminative, hepatoprotective, antiviral, and anticarcinogenic activities. Furthermore, many studies point to strong antioxidant activities of aromatic plants and their essential oils. Knowing that phenolic compounds are the most responsible for the antioxidant activity, the amount of total phenolic contents and content of flavonoids have also been determined. In order to examine the antioxidant properties of five different extracts of Laurus nobilis L. leaves, various assays which measure free radical scavenging ability were carried out: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, hydroxyl, superoxide anion, nitric oxide and hydroxyl radical scavenger capacity test, and lipid peroxidation assay. In all of the tests, only the EtOAc extract showed a potent antioxidant effect.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Biljana Kaurinovic and Djendji Vastag",authors:[{id:"142369",title:"Prof.",name:"Biljana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaurinovic",slug:"biljana-kaurinovic",fullName:"Biljana Kaurinovic"},{id:"286918",title:"Prof.",name:"Djendji",middleName:null,surname:"Vastag",slug:"djendji-vastag",fullName:"Djendji Vastag"}]},{id:"65225",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83544",title:"Antioxidant Categories and Mode of Action",slug:"antioxidant-categories-and-mode-of-action",totalDownloads:2262,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Oxidative stress has received a considerable scientific attention as a mediator in the etiology of many human diseases. Oxidative stress is the result of an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants. Cells can be damaged by free radicals that are considered to play a main role in the aging process and diseases development. Antioxidants are the first line of defense against the detrimental effects of free radical damage, and it is essential to maintain optimal health via different mechanisms of action. Types of antioxidants range from those generated endogenously by the body cells, to exogenous agents such as dietary supplements. Antioxidant insufficiency can be developed as a result of decreased antioxidant intake, synthesis of endogenous enzymes, or increased antioxidant utilization. To maintain optimal body function, antioxidant supplementation has become an increasingly popular practice through improving free radical protection. In this chapter, we first elucidate the oxidative stress, and then define the antioxidant and its categories. Finally, introduce the antioxidants mode of actions for cell protection from free radicals.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Manal Azat Aziz, Abdulkareem Shehab Diab and Abeer Abdulrazak Mohammed",authors:[{id:"276717",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Manal",middleName:null,surname:"Azat Aziz",slug:"manal-azat-aziz",fullName:"Manal Azat Aziz"},{id:"286369",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulkareem",middleName:null,surname:"Shehab Diab",slug:"abdulkareem-shehab-diab",fullName:"Abdulkareem Shehab Diab"},{id:"312155",title:"Dr.",name:"Abeer Abdulrazak",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",slug:"abeer-abdulrazak-mohammed",fullName:"Abeer Abdulrazak Mohammed"}]},{id:"66504",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85468",title:"Antioxidants as a Double-Edged Sword in the Treatment of Cancer",slug:"antioxidants-as-a-double-edged-sword-in-the-treatment-of-cancer",totalDownloads:1626,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Antioxidant compounds are thought to prevent and treat diseases, especially cancer, under any circumstances. For this purpose, nature-based antioxidants nowadays are being commonly used to prevent and treat diseases. Indeed, phenolic compounds found in medicinal plants have opened a new horizon to prevent and treat diseases because of having antioxidant properties. However, some recent studies have reported that antioxidants are not absolute anticancer compounds and certain drugs have been reported to reduce levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cancer cells, i.e., their main action mechanism. It has been argued that increasing levels of ROS cause an increase in apoptosis rate and therefore can be considered an approach to treat fatal and hard-to-treat cancers. This chapter seeks to partly explain the role of ROS in progression or inhibition of cancer growth in addition to the role of antioxidants in preventing and treating this disease.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Majid Asadi-Samani, Najmeh Kaffash Farkhad, Mohammad Reza Mahmoudian-Sani and Hedayatollah Shirzad",authors:[{id:"237542",title:"Dr.",name:"Majid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi-Samani",slug:"majid-asadi-samani",fullName:"Majid Asadi-Samani"},{id:"275475",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Reza Mahmoudian-Sani",slug:"mohammad-reza-mahmoudian-sani",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Mahmoudian-Sani"},{id:"295230",title:"Dr.",name:"Najmeh",middleName:null,surname:"Kafash Farkhad",slug:"najmeh-kafash-farkhad",fullName:"Najmeh Kafash Farkhad"},{id:"295231",title:"Dr.",name:"Hedayatollah",middleName:null,surname:"Shirzad",slug:"hedayatollah-shirzad",fullName:"Hedayatollah Shirzad"}]},{id:"65067",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82879",title:"Diseases Related to Types of Free Radicals",slug:"diseases-related-to-types-of-free-radicals",totalDownloads:1789,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The free radicals are reactive molecules with electron-rich groups produced during metabolic reactions occurring in the cells. These free radicals are collectively known as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). Lipid peroxidation products and protein carbonyls species are under the group of ROS, and nitric oxide and peroxynitrites are under the group of RNS. The malondialdehyde that reacts with LDL-C indirectly induced the risk of atherosclerosis. The protein carbonyls acts as marker of protein oxidation and exerts damage to proteins. The nitric oxide plays an important role in DNA damage, inflammation, proliferation of cancer cells, and dysfunction of apoptosis. The peroxynitrites could induce the process of lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and may exert chronic damage to all biomolecules. The aim of the present study is that the free radicals may react with biomolecules of the cells and play an important role in the development of chronic disease conditions in the humans.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Narendra Maddu",authors:[{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66259",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:7473,totalCrossrefCites:53,totalDimensionsCites:134,abstract:"An antioxidant is a substance that at low concentrations delays or prevents oxidation of a substrate. Antioxidant compounds act through several chemical mechanisms: hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), single electron transfer (SET), and the ability to chelate transition metals. The importance of antioxidant mechanisms is to understand the biological meaning of antioxidants, their possible uses, their production by organic synthesis or biotechnological methods, or for the standardization of the determination of antioxidant activity. In general, antioxidant molecules can react either by multiple mechanisms or by a predominant mechanism. The chemical structure of the antioxidant substance allows understanding of the antioxidant reaction mechanism. This chapter reviews the in vitro antioxidant reaction mechanisms of organic compounds polyphenols, carotenoids, and vitamins C against free radicals (FR) and prooxidant compounds under diverse conditions, as well as the most commonly used methods to evaluate the antioxidant activity of these compounds according to the mechanism involved in the reaction with free radicals and the methods of in vitro antioxidant evaluation that are used frequently depending on the reaction mechanism of the antioxidant.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"65225",title:"Antioxidant Categories and Mode of Action",slug:"antioxidant-categories-and-mode-of-action",totalDownloads:2252,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Oxidative stress has received a considerable scientific attention as a mediator in the etiology of many human diseases. Oxidative stress is the result of an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants. Cells can be damaged by free radicals that are considered to play a main role in the aging process and diseases development. Antioxidants are the first line of defense against the detrimental effects of free radical damage, and it is essential to maintain optimal health via different mechanisms of action. Types of antioxidants range from those generated endogenously by the body cells, to exogenous agents such as dietary supplements. Antioxidant insufficiency can be developed as a result of decreased antioxidant intake, synthesis of endogenous enzymes, or increased antioxidant utilization. To maintain optimal body function, antioxidant supplementation has become an increasingly popular practice through improving free radical protection. In this chapter, we first elucidate the oxidative stress, and then define the antioxidant and its categories. Finally, introduce the antioxidants mode of actions for cell protection from free radicals.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Manal Azat Aziz, Abdulkareem Shehab Diab and Abeer Abdulrazak Mohammed",authors:[{id:"276717",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Manal",middleName:null,surname:"Azat Aziz",slug:"manal-azat-aziz",fullName:"Manal Azat Aziz"},{id:"286369",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulkareem",middleName:null,surname:"Shehab Diab",slug:"abdulkareem-shehab-diab",fullName:"Abdulkareem Shehab Diab"},{id:"312155",title:"Dr.",name:"Abeer Abdulrazak",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",slug:"abeer-abdulrazak-mohammed",fullName:"Abeer Abdulrazak Mohammed"}]},{id:"62579",title:"Where and How in the mTOR Pathway Inhibitors Fight Aging: Rapamycin, Resveratrol, and Metformin",slug:"where-and-how-in-the-mtor-pathway-inhibitors-fight-aging-rapamycin-resveratrol-and-metformin",totalDownloads:2613,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The molecular mechanisms underlying the quality and quantity of life extension appear to sometimes be orthogonal. For example, while resveratrol has continued to prove beneficial in reducing obesity, it has had less efficacy in extending lifespan. On the other hand, rapamycin and the chemically similar rapalogs extend lifespan across genera of life from yeast, to nematodes, to mice. Caloric restriction (CR) and bioavailable small molecules, which mimic a fasted state, upregulate autophagy, catabolism of fats over anabolism of carbohydrates, and decrease oxidative stress and inflammation. CR mimics are currently being investigated to elucidate the best dosage, route of administration, timing in life, where best to inhibit in the mTOR pathway, and effects of long-term use on mTORC1 verse mTORC2 complexes. Comparisons between rapamycin, resveratrol, and metformin targets, downstream pathway effects, dosage, and clinical trials will be discussed.",book:{id:"7258",slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",title:"Resveratrol",fullTitle:"Resveratrol - Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life"},signatures:"Sage Arbor",authors:[{id:"245319",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sage",middleName:null,surname:"Arbor",slug:"sage-arbor",fullName:"Sage Arbor"}]},{id:"65331",title:"Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids as Potential Natural Antioxidants",slug:"flavonoids-and-phenolic-acids-as-potential-natural-antioxidants",totalDownloads:2719,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:74,abstract:"For centuries, aromatic herbs and spices have been added to different foods to improve the flavor and organoleptic properties. The use of aromatic plants and spices in phytotherapy is mostly related to different activities of their essential oils, such as antimicrobial, spasmolytic, carminative, hepatoprotective, antiviral, and anticarcinogenic activities. Furthermore, many studies point to strong antioxidant activities of aromatic plants and their essential oils. Knowing that phenolic compounds are the most responsible for the antioxidant activity, the amount of total phenolic contents and content of flavonoids have also been determined. In order to examine the antioxidant properties of five different extracts of Laurus nobilis L. leaves, various assays which measure free radical scavenging ability were carried out: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, hydroxyl, superoxide anion, nitric oxide and hydroxyl radical scavenger capacity test, and lipid peroxidation assay. In all of the tests, only the EtOAc extract showed a potent antioxidant effect.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Biljana Kaurinovic and Djendji Vastag",authors:[{id:"142369",title:"Prof.",name:"Biljana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaurinovic",slug:"biljana-kaurinovic",fullName:"Biljana Kaurinovic"},{id:"286918",title:"Prof.",name:"Djendji",middleName:null,surname:"Vastag",slug:"djendji-vastag",fullName:"Djendji Vastag"}]},{id:"66161",title:"Antioxidants: Natural Antibiotics",slug:"antioxidants-natural-antibiotics",totalDownloads:1573,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The aim of this current piece of writing is to draw the attention of readers and researchers toward the natural antioxidants that can take the place of synthetic antibiotics to avoid bacterial resistance and gastrotoxicity/nephrotoxicity. Antioxidants such as polyphenols, vitamins, and carotenoids are the organic compounds mainly extracted from natural sources and dominantly involved in boosting the defense system of organisms. The main public health-related issue over the globe is ever-growing bacterial resistance to synthetic antibiotics, which is being continuously reported during the last decade. Further, the pipeline of the development of new synthetic antibacterial agents to replace the resistant antibiotics in clinical set-up is gradually drying up. This scenario originated the concept to revive the interest toward natural antibacterial products due to their chemical diversity, which provide important therapeutic effect and make the microbes unable to copy them for creating resistance. Natural products, especially polyphenols had been seen in antioxidant, antibacterial, anticancer, anti-inflammation, and antiviral activities with encouraging results. In this chapter, we will focus over the role of natural antioxidants as antibacterial agents.",book:{id:"8008",slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi, Sana Nadeem, Sana Komal, Syed Ali Asad Naqvi, Muhammad Samee Mubarik, Sajid Yaqub Qureshi, Shahzad Ahmad, Ali Abbas, Muhammad Zahid, Naeem-Ul-Haq Khan, Syed Shujat Raza and Nosheen Aslam",authors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"},{id:"287649",title:"Ms.",name:"Sana",middleName:null,surname:"Nadeem",slug:"sana-nadeem",fullName:"Sana Nadeem"},{id:"287650",title:"Ms.",name:"Sana",middleName:null,surname:"Komal",slug:"sana-komal",fullName:"Sana Komal"},{id:"287652",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Samee",middleName:null,surname:"Mubarik",slug:"muhammad-samee-mubarik",fullName:"Muhammad Samee 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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