More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
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IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
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Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5359",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Cell Culture Technology",title:"New Insights into Cell Culture Technology",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The book "New Insights into Cell Culture Technology" focuses on many advanced methods and techniques concerned with cell culture. The contributing authors have discussed various developments in cell culture methods, the application of insect cells for the efficient production of heterologous proteins, the expansion of human mesenchymal stromal cells for different clinical applications, the remote sensing of cell culture experiments and concepts for the development of cell culture bioprocess, continuous production of retroviral pseudotype vectors, and the production of oncolytic measles virus vectors for cancer therapy. This book is an original contribution of experts from different parts of the globe, and the in-depth information will be a significant resource for students, scientists, and physicians who are directly dealing with cells.
["Culture" is essential for human life and also the life of a cell. - Sivakumar Gowder]',isbn:"978-953-51-3134-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3133-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4846-3",doi:"10.5772/62590",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-insights-into-cell-culture-technology",numberOfPages:202,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9b8c3dd4179c45c938b6f24a4efa94c5",bookSignature:"Sivakumar Joghi Thatha Gowder",publishedDate:"May 10th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5359.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20096,numberOfWosCitations:37,numberOfCrossrefCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:76,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:149,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 29th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 21st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 25th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 23rd 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"118572",title:"Dr.",name:"Sivakumar Joghi",middleName:null,surname:"Thatha Gowder",slug:"sivakumar-joghi-thatha-gowder",fullName:"Sivakumar Joghi Thatha Gowder",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/118572/images/2492_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Sivakumar Gowder received his academic training and carried out his research in institutions of high academic ranking in India and the US (University of Madras -Chennai, India; All India Institute of Medical Sciences -New Delhi, India; UT Southwestern Medical Center -Dallas, TX, US; LSH Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, US and University of Pittsburg School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, US). Before working for Qassim University, he worked as a faculty member at the Medical Universities in West Indies. Sivakumar has won prizes and awards in different levels of his academic career. He has developed his own research methods and techniques relevant to his research disciplines and has published several journal articles and book chapters. Sivakumar has also edited many books. Currently, he serves as an author and editor of books; editor in chief for an international journal; editorial member and reviewer for journals; fellow and advisory board member of international organizations and external examiner of doctoral thesis work for international universities. Sivakumar has also served as an invited speaker and chairperson for international conferences.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"8",institution:{name:"Qassim University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"414",title:"Cytology",slug:"cytology"}],chapters:[{id:"53566",title:"History of Cell Culture",doi:"10.5772/66905",slug:"history-of-cell-culture",totalDownloads:6326,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"From the ancient Romans, through the Middle Ages, to the late of the nineteenth century, the Aristotelian doctrine of spontaneous generation was one of the most basic laws. Even the invention of the microscope and investigations of Leeuwenhoek and Hook did not disprove the Aritostelian doctrine. Finally, in the eighteenth century, the spontaneous generation doctrine was laid by Louis Pasteur. Moreover, in the first decade of the eighteenth century, nucleus was observed in plant and animal tissues, and Virchow and other scientists presented the view that cells are formed via scission of preexisting cells. In the first decade of the twentieth century, Ross Harrison developed the first techniques of cell culture in vitro, and Burrows and Carrel improved Harrison's cell cultures. In mid‐twentieth century, the basic principles for plant and animal cell cultures in vitro were developed, and human diploid cell lines were established. On the basis of knowledge about the cell cycle and gene expression regulation, the first therapeutic proteins were produced using mammalian cell cultures. The end of twentieth century and early twenty‐first century brought the progress in 3‐D cell culture technology and created the possibility of the tissue engineering and the regenerative medicine development.",signatures:"Magdalena Jedrzejczak-Silicka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53566",authors:[{id:"186478",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Jedrzejczak-Silicka",slug:"magdalena-jedrzejczak-silicka",fullName:"Magdalena Jedrzejczak-Silicka"}],corrections:null},{id:"54632",title:"Process Optimization for Recombinant Protein Expression in Insect Cells",doi:"10.5772/67849",slug:"process-optimization-for-recombinant-protein-expression-in-insect-cells",totalDownloads:4653,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Insect cells can be used for the efficient production of heterologous proteins. The baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS) in Spodoptera frugiperda cells and the stable transformation of Drosophila melanogaster S2 cells are widely used for this purpose. Whereas BEVS is a transient expression system for rapid protein production, stable D. melanogaster cell lines are compatible with more complex processes modes. This chapter describes the setup of both systems, including steps for the generation of expression vectors and comprehensive optimization approaches. The genetic elements available in each system are described, as well as the use of different cloning and transfection methods and advanced process monitoring to achieve robust protein expression in larger-scale bioreactors.",signatures:"Jan Zitzmann, Gundula Sprick, Tobias Weidner, Christine Schreiber\nand Peter Czermak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54632",authors:[{id:"178577",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Czermak",slug:"peter-czermak",fullName:"Peter Czermak"}],corrections:null},{id:"53862",title:"The Challenge of Human Mesenchymal Stromal Cell Expansion: Current and Prospective Answers",doi:"10.5772/66901",slug:"the-challenge-of-human-mesenchymal-stromal-cell-expansion-current-and-prospective-answers",totalDownloads:2388,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the field of cell therapy, allogenic human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs) are often used in clinical trials, creating a demand for cell mass production using efficient dynamic bioreactor systems. As an advanced therapy medicinal product (ATMP), such cells should meet certain special requirements, including product specifications requiring a production process compatible with good manufacturing practice (GMP). The development of processes in which the cells are the product therefore remains a significant challenge. This chapter describes the requirements at different steps in the upstream and downstream phases of such dynamic processes. Potential solutions are presented and future prospects are discussed, including the selection of media and carriers for the strictly adherent growing cells, allowing efficient cell adhesion and detachment. Strategies for dynamic cultivation in bioreactors are described in detail for fixed‐bed and stirred‐tank reactors based on GMP requirements and the integration of process analytical technology (PAT). Following cell harvest, separation and purification, the formulation and storage of the product are also described. Finally, the chapter covers important cell quality characteristics necessary for the approval of ATMPs.",signatures:"Christiane Elseberg, Jasmin Leber, Tobias Weidner and Peter\nCzermak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53862",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53862",authors:[{id:"178577",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Czermak",slug:"peter-czermak",fullName:"Peter Czermak"}],corrections:null},{id:"54229",title:"Remote Sensing of Cell-Culture Assays",doi:"10.5772/67496",slug:"remote-sensing-of-cell-culture-assays",totalDownloads:1392,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter describes a full system developed to perform the remote sensing of cell-culture experiments from any access point with internet connection. The proposed system allows the real-time monitoring of cell assays thanks to bioimpedance measurement circuits developed to count the number of cell present in a culture. Cell-culture characterization is performed through the measurement of the increasing bioimpedance parameter over time. The circuit implementation is based on the oscillation-based test (OBT) methodology. Bioimpedance of cell cultures is measured in terms of the oscillation parameters (frequency, amplitude, phase, etc.) and used as empirical markers to carry out an appropriate interpretation in terms of cell size identification, cell counting, cell growth, growth rhythm, etc. The device is capable of managing the whole sensing task and performs wireless communication through a Bluetooth module. Data are interpreted and displayed on a computer or a mobile phone through a web application. The system has its practical application in drug development processes, offering a label-free, high-throughput, and high-content screening method for cellular research, avoiding the classical end-point techniques and a significant workload and cost material reduction.",signatures:"Pablo Pérez, Andrés Maldonado-Jacobi, Antonio J. López, Cristina\nMartínez, Alberto Olmo, Gloria Huertas and Alberto Yúfera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54229",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54229",authors:[{id:"44568",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Yúfera",slug:"alberto-yufera",fullName:"Alberto Yúfera"},{id:"188134",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria",surname:"Huertas Sánchez",slug:"gloria-huertas-sanchez",fullName:"Gloria Huertas Sánchez"},{id:"188429",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrés",surname:"Maldonado-Jacobi",slug:"andres-maldonado-jacobi",fullName:"Andrés Maldonado-Jacobi"},{id:"188430",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Pérez-Garcí",slug:"pablo-perez-garci",fullName:"Pablo Pérez-Garcí"},{id:"188431",title:"BSc.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Martinez",slug:"cristina-martinez",fullName:"Cristina Martinez"},{id:"188432",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Antonio",surname:"López-Angulo",slug:"antonio-lopez-angulo",fullName:"Antonio López-Angulo"},{id:"204698",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Olmo",slug:"alberto-olmo",fullName:"Alberto Olmo"}],corrections:null},{id:"54399",title:"Model-Based Design of Process Strategies for Cell Culture Bioprocesses: State of the Art and New Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/67600",slug:"model-based-design-of-process-strategies-for-cell-culture-bioprocesses-state-of-the-art-and-new-pers",totalDownloads:1876,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Production processes for biopharmaceuticals with mammalian cells have to provide a nearly optimal environment to promote cell growth and product formation. Design and operation of a bioreactor are complex tasks, not only with respect to reactor configuration and size but also with respect to the mode of operation. New concepts for the design and layout of process strategies are required to meet regulatory demands and to guarantee efficient, safe, and reproducible biopharmaceutical production. Key elements are critical process parameters (CPPs), which affect critical quality attributes (CQAs), quality by design (QbD), process analytical tools (PAT), and design of experiment (DoE). In this chapter, some fundamentals including process and control strategies as well as concepts for process development are discussed. Examples for novel model-based concepts for the design of experiments to identify suitable fed-batch-feeding strategies are shown.",signatures:"Johannes Möller and Ralf Pörtner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54399",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54399",authors:[{id:"171203",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralf",surname:"Pörtner",slug:"ralf-portner",fullName:"Ralf Pörtner"},{id:"187742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Johannes",surname:"Möller",slug:"johannes-moller",fullName:"Johannes Möller"}],corrections:null},{id:"53581",title:"Concepts for the Production of Viruses and Viral Vectors in Cell Cultures",doi:"10.5772/66903",slug:"concepts-for-the-production-of-viruses-and-viral-vectors-in-cell-cultures",totalDownloads:3466,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The industrial-scale manufacturing of viruses or virus-like particles in cell culture is necessary for gene therapy and the treatment of cancer with oncolytic viruses. Complex multistep processes are required in both cases, but the low virus titers in batch cultures and the temperature sensitivity of the virus particles limit the production scale. To meet commercial and regulatory requirements, each process must be scalable and reproducible and must yield high virus titers. These requirements are met by establishing a cell culture process that matches the properties of the virus/host-cell system and by using serum-free cell culture medium. This chapter focuses on two case studies to consider the different aspects of process design, such as the reactor configuration and operational mode: the continuous production of retroviral pseudotype vectors in a retroviral packaging cell line and the production of oncolytic measles virus vectors for cancer therapy.",signatures:"Tanja A. Grein, Tobias Weidner and Peter Czermak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53581",authors:[{id:"178577",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Czermak",slug:"peter-czermak",fullName:"Peter Czermak"},{id:"188151",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Tanja",surname:"A. Grein",slug:"tanja-a.-grein",fullName:"Tanja A. 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1. Introduction
In congested electromagnetic environments, the radio frequency (RF) signals a receiver receives may include multiple time-frequency overlapped signals transmitted from multiple emitters. Traditional RF signal processing techniques may have difficulty separating and processing these multisource signals.
The instantaneous frequency function of an FMRF signal can be approximately modeled by low-order polynomials. Chirplet transforms and polynomial chirplet transforms have been investigated to process multisource FMRF signals [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. These approaches separate and process multisource cochannel FMRF signals effectively; however, their implementations are expensive due to high dimensional transforms.
With a first-order polynomial approximation of the phase function of an FMRF signal, the short-time Fourier transform approach provides a simple and low-cost implementation for instantaneous frequency estimation. Unlike chirplet and polynomial chirplet transforms which need to perform transforms from time to high dimensional frequency and chirp spaces, the short-time Fourier transform approach creates spectrograms and only needs to perform time to frequency transforms. Using fast Fourier transforms, the short-time Fourier transform for a local window with size W only needs OWlogWcomputations, which are much lower than utilizing chirplet or polynomial chirplet transform approaches [14, 15].
Spectrograms are created by a fixed window size Fourier transform. For a low-frequency component, it needs a large window to capture enough changes for this low-frequency component. However, for a high-frequency component, it needs a small window to have a high time resolution. The constant window size for spectrogram cannot satisfy these conflict requirements. To address this issue, a natural extension is to perform Fourier transforms with changeable window sizes. For high-frequency components, small window sizes are used to perform transforms while large window sizes are used for low-frequency transforms. This extension leads to the wavelet transforming with constant weights in the window, creating a scalogram. The weight functions could also be other functions that lead to different wavelet transforms. For instance, choosing a Gaussian function creates Gabor or Morlet wavelet transform.
Spectrograms or scalograms provide the time-frequency representation of a multisource FMRF signal. Separating this multisource FMRF signal into each independent source component needs further processing. The ridge points of spectrograms or scalograms over some thresholds generate the points for instantaneous frequency functions. In this chapter, a connected graph will be introduced to extract instantaneous frequency functions when they are not crossed with each other. When the instantaneous frequency functions are crossed with each other, a projection-pursuit approach is described to separate and extract these instantaneous frequency functions.
2. A FMRF signal model and its spectrogram
In this section, an FMRF signal model with a single source is introduced, and a Sincfunction for its spectrogram is derived from this model with short-time Fourier transforms. Then, this FMRF signal model and its spectrogram computation are extended to multiple component FMRF signals.
2.1 An FMRF signal model with a single component
A single component FMRF signal is described by the following model,
st=A0expiφt+ntE1
where φt is the instantaneous phase function of this FMRF signal and nt represents additive white noises.
Another function to describe an RF signal is its instantaneous frequency function ft. The frequency function ft and phase function φt have differential and integral relations are shown as follows,
ft=ddtφtandφt=φ0+∫ftdtE2
It is shown in Eq. (2) that the frequency function ft of an RF signal represents its phase function φt with only a constant phase uncertainty φ0. Due to this reason, in this chapter, we will focus on applying the frequency functions to analyze and process FMRF signals.
The instantaneous frequency function ft is a one-dimensional manifold imbedded into a two-dimensional time-frequency space. Without noises (nt=0), a single component FMRF signal and its time-frequency manifold are shown in Figure 1, where the left side is an FMRF signal, and the right side is its time-frequency manifold.
Figure 1.
An FMRF signal (left) and its time-frequency manifold (right).
Since the time-frequency manifold of an FMRF signal is the representation of this FMRF signal, we can use time-frequency manifolds to classify or recognize RF signals. Also, the time-frequency manifolds of an FMRF signal provide an estimation of its instantaneous frequencies.
2.2 Sinc() function of the time-frequency image or spectrogram of a single component FMRF signal
The time-frequency image or spectrogram of an FMRF signal st is the magnitude of the short-time Fourier transform of st,
Iωt=∑τ=0W−1A0expiφt+τe−jωτ+nI(ωt)E3
where W is the window size of this short-time Fourier transform.
Expanding φt+τ by its first-order Taylor series around t in a local window, we have
φt+τ=φt+c1tτ+Oτ2E4
where c1t=dφtdt, which is the instantaneous frequency of st at time t, and the first-order Taylor expansion in (4) is a linear approximation to the phase function φt in its local window.
Under the linear approximation of a phase function, the time-frequency image or spectrogram of st can be derived from (3) and (4),
Thus, we have approximated the spectrogram of an FMRF signal
Iωt≈∣A0sinWc1t−ω/2sinc1t−ω/2+nIωt∣E5
Eq. (5) shows that when noises nIωt are low, at a given time t, the spectrogram of an FMRF signal is a Sinc() function in the frequency direction. This Sinc() function reaches its maximum at the instantaneous frequency c1t.
The spectrogram of the FMRF signal in Figure 1 is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 shows the Sinc() patterns in the vertical (frequency) direction.
Figure 2.
An FMRF signal and its time-frequency image (spectrogram).
2.3 Spectrograms of multisource and cochannel multisource and cochannel FMRF signals
The multisource and co-channel FMRF signals received by a receiver is modeled as
xt=nt+∑k=1Kskt=nt+∑k=1KakexpiφktE6
where, K is the number of sources for the FMRF signal, and n(t) is the noises of the receiver.
Similar to (4), a linear approximation in a local window is used to approximate the phases for the multisource FMRF signal,
φkt+τ=φkt+c1,ktτ+Oτ2E7
where c1,kt is the instantaneous frequency for the component signal skt.
An equation to compute the spectrogram for the multisource FMRF signal is derived by substituting (7) into (6),
Iωt=∣∑k=1KAksinWc1,kt−ω2sinc1,kt−ω/2+nIωt∣E8
where, nIωt is the spectrogram noises. (8) shows that when noises nIωt are low, the spectrogram of this multisource FMRF signal is the magnitude of the summation of multiple Sinc() functions.
A multisource and cochannel FMRF signal is shown in Figure 3. The right side of Figure 3 shows the spectrogram of this FMRF signal where the Sinc() function patterns are distributed in the frequency direction.
Figure 3.
A multisource and cochannel FMRF signal and its spectrogram. The left is the FMRF signal, the middle is its instantaneous frequency function, and the right is its spectrogram.
3. A scalogram as an extension of spectrogram
It is shown in Section 2 that the spectrogram of an FMRF signal created by short-time Fourier transform (STFT) demonstrates Sinc() patterns. In this section, we will show that the wavelet transforms with a uniform window is a direct extension of the STFT, so the scalogram generated by wavelet transforms is a direct extension of the spectrogram.
3.1 Scalogram computaion of a single component FMRF signal
Define a rectangle window function
Rt=1,0≤t<10,otherwiseE9
For a window size W, we have
RtW=1,0≤t<W0,otherwiseE10
With the help of the window function RtW, the STFT in (3) is written into the following format,
Iωt=∑τ=−∞∞A0expiφt+τRτWe−jωτ+nI(ωt)E11
The computation of spectrograms in (11) is the same as that in (3). They both give the same STFT for spectrogram computations by a uniform distributed weight function RtW with a fixed window size W.
When the window size W in (11) is chosen to be changed by W=cω as frequency ω changes,
Iωt=∑τ=−∞∞A0expiφt+τRτcωe−jωτ+nI(ωt)E12
where c is a constant.
Eq. (12) is a wavelet transform with a mother wavelet Rτce−jτ, and 1ω is the scale of the wavelet transform. A uniform distributed weight function is discussed in this chapter. R can be a different weight function. If R is chosen to be a Gaussian function, (12) will give Gabor or Morlet wavelet transform.
To distinguish scalogram from spectrogram, we change Iωt to Wωt to show that the scalogram is generated by a wavelet transform. The scalogram of an FMRF signal is calculated by the following equation.
Wωt=∑τ=−∞∞A0expiφt+τRωτce−jωτ+nW(at)E13
(11) and (13) show the close relationship between STFT and the wavelet transform. The scale in the wavelet transform is inversely proportional to the frequency while the scale STFT is fixed. In other words, the wavelet transform can be treated as an adaptive STFT where the window size of the STFT (referred to as scale in the wavelet transform) adapts to the frequency change of the STFT. When the frequency is high, the window size is small so as to catch the high resolution in time. When the frequency is low, the window size is large so as to obtain a high resolution in frequency. In this sense, a wavelet transform usually creates a higher performance than an STFT due to the wavelet’s adaptive properties.
Similar to the derivation of the spectrogram calculation by summation in (3), the scalogram calculation can also be derived using wavelet transforms. Writing (13) into a summation format creates the following expression,
Wωt=∑τ=0αω−1A0expiφt+τe−jωτ+nI(ωt)E14
The scalogram calculated by (13) is further simplified by substituting the FMRF signal of (4) into (14),
Wωt≈∑τ=0αω−1A0ejφtejc1t−ωτ+nIωtE15
The ejφt in (15) does not depend on τ. Thus, (15) can be written into another form,
If noise term e−jφtnIωt is denoted as nWωt, the wavelet transform in (16) becomes,
Wωt=∣A0sinαωc1t−ω2sinc1t−ω2+nWωt∣E17
Eq. (17) shows that similar to the spectrogram Iωt, the scalogram Wωt also demonstrates the Sinc() properties near the instantaneous frequency c1t. The difference is that the Sinc() function of the spectrogram Iωt oscillates in an equal period while the scalogram Wωt oscillates in an increasing period as frequency increases.
The comparison between spectrogram and scalogram is shown in Figure 4. In Figure 4, the frequency of the FMRF signal is chosen as 10 kHz in the local window. For the spectrogram, the window size is chosen as 20. For the scalogram, the window size is selected to change from 18 to 22. At the center frequency 10 kHz, the mask size of the scalogram is the same as the window size for spectrogram 20. Figure 4 shows that the Sinc() function oscillates with the same frequency in the frequency direction for spectrogram. However, the oscillation frequency for the scalogram increases from low frequency to high frequency.
Figure 4.
The Sinc() function for spectrogram and Scalogram.
3.2 Scalogram computaion of a multisource FMRF signal
Similar to the computation of a single source FMRF signal, the scalogram computation of a multisource FMRF signal is given by replacing the fixed-size window summation in (8) with the frequency-dependent window summation,
Wωt=∣∑k=1KAksinαωc1,kt−ω2sinc1,kt−ω2+nWωt∣E18
Eq. (18) shows that the scalogram of each component of a multisource FMRF signal is a Sinc() function in the local frequency direction, which is similar to the spectrogram.
4. Connected graph approach for spectrogram and scalogram
Both spectrogram and scalogram are two-dimensional images and both have similar Sinc() function properties. Their image processing techniques are also similar. Therefore, only the spectrogram processing technique is introduced in this chapter to demonstrate the connected graph approach for FMRF signal processing. The scalogram processing is a straightforward extension.
4.1 Sparse cloud point representation of spectrograms
By binarizing a spectrogram, we can create a sparse cloud point representation (a binary image) of this spectrogram and call it the sparse time-frequency map. Thresholding and local maximum in the frequency direction can be used to create this sparse time-frequency map
Mωt=Iωt,ifIωt>Iω−1t,Iω−1tandT0,otherwiseE19
An FMRF signal, its spectrogram, and its sparse time-frequency map is shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows that the nonzero points in the sparse time-frequency map created from the spectrogram of an FMRF signal form the time-frequency manifold that represents this FMRF signal. Since the nonzero pixels are a very small portion of the entire image of pixels and the connected graph approach, we are using only performs on these nonzero pixels, this connected graph approach has a very low computational cost.
Figure 5.
An FMRF signal, and its spectrogram and sparse time-frequency map.
4.2 The spectrogram and sparse time frequency map of a Noisy FMRF signal
We have discussed the spectrogram and sparse time-frequency map with no noises as shown in Figure 5. The spectrogram and its sparse time-frequency map for a noisy FMRF signal is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Spectrogram and sparse time-frequency map of an FMRF signal with different noise levels: the top is for signal to noise ratio (SNR) = 6DB, and the bottom for SNR = 0 DB.
Figure 6 shows that the spectrograms and time-frequency maps for very noisy FMRF signals are similar to those without noises in Figure 5. The difference is that the time-frequency maps for noisy signals add some extra noise pixels. These noise pixels will be removed by the connected graph approach, however.
4.3 A graph approach for extracting time frequency manifolds
Figures 5 and 6 show that the sparse time-frequency map of an RF signal includes the points on the time-frequency manifold of this RF signal. A connected graph approach is used to extract this time-frequency manifold.
The graph to represent the sparse time-frequency map consists of nodes and edges. Each node ni of the graph, corresponding to a nonzero pixel of the sparse time-frequency map, is represented by three variables. The first two variables x and y represent the pixel position for this node. The third member is a list of its neighbor nodes that are used to build connected graphs. A node ni is defined with C++ as
Two nodes are connected if they are neighbors. For the node ni, its neighbor nodes are found by checking the distance between two nodes. nj is the neighbor of ni if ni.x−nj.x∗ni.x−nj.x+ni.y−nj.y∗ni.y−nj.y< Threshold Distance.
Each node is connected to its neighbors but disconnected to non-neighbor points. With this graph, the connected components can be found. Obviously, some connected graphs are the time-frequency manifolds as the FMRF signal, while others could be noises. Usually, small connected graphs are noises and can be removed.
The time-frequency manifolds for a two-source FMRF signal are extracted and shown in Figure 7, where two connected graphs are displayed for the time-frequency manifolds (red and blue) for two FMRF signals components.
Figure 7.
A two-source mixed FMRF signal and its time-frequency manifolds. These time-frequency manifolds are extracted by the connected graph approach from the sparse time-frequency map shown in the bottom right of Figure 5.
Figure 7 shows that each individual component (red and blue) of the two-source cochannel and co-duration FMRF signals can be extracted using the connected graph approach.
4.4 Issues for the graph techniques
If the two components in a two-source FMRF signal are not connected to each other in their sparse time-frequency map, the connected graph approach is capable of extracting, separating, and classifying them, as is shown in Figure 7. However, when two or multiple components are connected to each other, as shown in Figure 8, the connected graph approach may not work well.
Figure 8.
A time-frequency manifold connected two source co-channel and co-duration FMRF signal, its time-frequency manifolds, spectrogram, and extracted manifolds.
Figure 8 shows a two-source FMRF signal, its time-frequency manifold, spectrogram, and the time-frequency manifolds extracted by the graph approach. One of these two source signals is a linear frequency modulation signal with a negative sweep rate (frequency decrease), and the other one is a nonlinear frequency modulation signal with a positive sweep rate (frequency increase). These two source FMRF signals are overlapped in both time and spectral space and form pulse-in-pulse signals. As is demonstrated in Figure 8, the connected graph approach cannot separate these two connected time-frequency manifolds. This inseparable problem causes serious issues for classifications and other RF signal processing. In the next section, a projection pursuit approach will be discussed to address this issue.
5. Projection pursuits approach for pulse-on-pulse FMRF signal processing
When the time-frequency manifolds of two FMRF components are crossed with each other, the spatial distance-based neighbor point definition has problems. These problems and their possible solutions are shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
Spatial neighbors and string neighbors. Spatial neighbors are defined by spatial distances and string neighbors are defined by both spatial distances and strings.
In Figure 9, the left figure defines the neighbor points in the graph approach by spatial distances. We call these neighbor points the spatial distance neighbor points. In this definition, the two manifolds are inseparable. Different from the spatial neighbor approach, a string neighbor point approach is used to build time-frequency manifolds. Two points are neighbors if these two points are spatial neighbors and if they are on the same string. The string neighbor approach is shown on the right side of Figure 9. Figure 9 shows that the two manifolds are separable with the string neighbor approach even though they are inseparable from the spatial neighbor approach.
The projection pursuit approach is used to create string neighbor points. This approach is implemented in the following two steps:
Step 1. Create a graph for the time-frequency map by the spatial distance approach.
For each nonzero pixel, create a node ni . For M nonzero pixels, i=0∼M−1. The x, y member of a node ni is the location of the pixel. The neighbor point set Ni of this node are generated by the spatial distance approach.
Step 2. Refine the neighbor points of each node ni with the string approach.
At the location of each node ni, draw K lines l1,l2,……lK with an increment angle 0, 180K,2∗180K,……K−1∗180K to the horizon axis. Compute the projection to l1,l2,……lK for each node of the neighbor nodes Ni. For each lii=1∼K,add the top M (< number of nodes in Ni) highest projections as the score Si. Choose lm so that its score Sm is largest. Then remove the neighbor nodes that have low projection values to lm. After all the removing operations, the remaining neighbor nodes are the string neighbor nodes.
The above two steps are used to create string neighbor nodes. After the string neighbor nodes of the graph are created, the same connected graph approach discussed in Section 4 is used to create connected graphs and build the time-frequency manifolds for the FMRF signals.
The test results for the projection pursuits approach are shown in Figure 10. The right side of Figure 10 shows two-time-frequency manifolds extracted by the projection pursuits approach. The red line is the down sweep linear frequency modulation component of this two-source FMRF signal while the white curve is the time-frequency manifold of the down sweep nonlinear frequency modulation component. It is shown from these test results that the projection pursuit approach is capable to separate and extract the time-frequency manifolds of complicated multisource FMRF signals (Figure 10).
Figure 10.
A two-source mixed FMRF signal and its time-frequency manifolds extracted by graph and projection pursuits.
6. Computational complexity analysis
Both spectrogram and scalogram approaches involve three components to perform their FMRF signal processing: transformation from an FMRF signal to a two-dimensional image, binarization of the image, and graph projection pursuit for creating the manifold of the FMRF signal.
Assume that the length of the signal to process is N. For the spectrogram approach, the transform from the FMRF signal to the spectrogram takes 0(NlogW) operations for a wind size W. The image size is W*(N/W) = N. Thus, the binarization takes 0(N) operations. Since the projection pursuits approach only processes a small fractional number of points in the image, its computational cost is much lower than 0(N). Putting the implementation of these three components together leads to the computational complexity 0(NlogW) for the spectrogram approach. Thus, the computation cost for the binarization and graph pursuits approach could be ignored when compared to the transform to create the spectrogram.
For the scalogram approach, since the transform from the FMRF signal to its scalogram image has a higher computational cost than the spectrogram approach and the same methods as the spectrogram approach are used for the binarization and graph projection pursuit, the computational complexity for the scalogram approach is the same as the computational complexity of the scalogram generation from the FMRF signal.
7. Conclusion
In this chapter, we introduce the spectrogram generation of an FMRF signal by using short-time Fourier transforms. Then, the spectrogram computation approach is extended to the scalogram computation by replacing the fixed size masks with frequency dependent masks.
Both spectrograms and scalograms are images, and a projection pursuits approach is introduced to process these images for separating and processing multisource cochannel and co-site FMRF signals.
It is shown that the projection pursuits method is very efficient, and its computational cost can be ignored when compared to the spectrogram or scalogram generation. Also, the projection pursuits approach is robust. It can separate and extract both non-connected and connected time-frequency manifolds for FMRF signal processing.
\n',keywords:"connected graph, time-frequency manifold, multisource signal separation, projection pursuits, spectrogram, wavelet, scalogram",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80741.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80741.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80741",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80741",totalDownloads:43,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 10th 2022",dateReviewed:"January 23rd 2022",datePrePublished:"March 7th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"March 6th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In high-density radio frequency (RF) signal environments, receivers usually acquire signals from multiple sources. These RF signals may be co-channel and co-duration, which cause significant difficulties for processing them. Time-Frequency analysis combined with a projection pursuits graph approach provides an effective way to detect, separate, and classify these multiple source RF signals. Time-frequency analysis includes a spectrogram approach and a scalogram approach. The feature points on the instantaneous frequency function of a frequency modulation radio frequency (FMRF) signal can be extracted from either the spectrogram or scalogram of this FMRF signal. With the projection pursuits graph approach, these feature points are grouped into time-frequency functions to represent the multiple components for the separation, detection, and classification of this multisource FMRF signal.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80741",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80741",signatures:"Bingcheng Li",book:{id:"11150",type:"book",title:"Recent Advances of Wavelet Transform and Their Applications",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances of Wavelet Transform and Their Applications",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11150.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-739-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-738-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-740-3",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. A FMRF signal model and its spectrogram",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 An FMRF signal model with a single component",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Sinc() function of the time-frequency image or spectrogram of a single component FMRF signal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Spectrograms of multisource and cochannel multisource and cochannel FMRF signals",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. A scalogram as an extension of spectrogram",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Scalogram computaion of a single component FMRF signal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Scalogram computaion of a multisource FMRF signal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Connected graph approach for spectrogram and scalogram",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Sparse cloud point representation of spectrograms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 The spectrogram and sparse time frequency map of a Noisy FMRF signal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 A graph approach for extracting time frequency manifolds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.4 Issues for the graph techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Projection pursuits approach for pulse-on-pulse FMRF signal processing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Computational complexity analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mann S, Haykin S. Adaptive chirplet transform: An adaptive generalization of the wavelet transforms. Optical Engineering. 1992;31(6):1243-1256'},{id:"B2",body:'Mann S, Haykin S. The chirplet transform: A generalization of Gabor’s logon transforms. In: Proc. Vision Interface. 1991. pp. 205-212'},{id:"B3",body:'Daudet SK, Gribonval R. Model-based matching pursuit – Estimation of chirp factors and scale of Gabor atoms with iterative extension. In: Proc. Signal process with Adapt Sparse Structured Representation; Rennes, France. 2005'},{id:"B4",body:'Pai A, Chassande-Mottin E, Rabaste O. Best network chirplet chain: Near-optimal coherent detection of unmodeled gravitational wave chirps with a network of detectors. Physical Review D. 2008;77(062005):1-22'},{id:"B5",body:'Candes EJ, Charlton PR, Helgason H. Detecting highly oscillatory signals by chirplet path pursuit. Applied and Computational Harmonic Analysis. 2008;24(1):14-40'},{id:"B6",body:'Millioz F, Davies M. Sparse detection in the Chirplet transform: Application to FMCW radar signals. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing. 2012;60(6):2800-2813'},{id:"B7",body:'Mann S, Haykin S. The chirplet transform: Physical consideration. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing. 1995;43(11):2745-2761'},{id:"B8",body:'Peng ZK, Meng G, Chu FL, Lang ZQ, Zhang WM, Yang Y. Polynomial chirplet transform with application to instantaneous frequency estimation. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement. 2011;60(9):3222-3229'},{id:"B9",body:'Yang Y, Zhang W, Peng Z, Meng G. Multicomponent signal analysis based on polynomial chirplet transform. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. 2012;60(9):3948-3956'},{id:"B10",body:'Tu X, Hu Y, Li F, Abbas S, Liu Y. Instantaneous frequency estimation for nonlinear FM signal based on modified polynomial Chirplet transform. IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement. 2017;66(11):2898-2908'},{id:"B11",body:'Aoi M, Lepage K, Lim Y, Eden UT, Gardner TJ. An approach to time-frequency analysis with ridges of the continuous Chirplet transform. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing. 2015;63(3):699-710'},{id:"B12",body:'Lim Y, Shinn-Cunningham B, Gardner T. Sparse contour representations of sound. IEEE Signal Processing Letters. 2012;19(10):684-687'},{id:"B13",body:'Li B. Polynomial chirplet approach for frequency modulation signal separation and classification. In: Proceedings Volume 11003, Radar Sensor Technology XXIII; 110031B. 2019'},{id:"B14",body:'Li B. Graph and projection pursuits approach for time frequency analysis. In: IEEE International Conference on Radar; Atlanta, GA; May 10-14, 2021.'},{id:"B15",body:'Li B. Time-frequency manifold representation for separating and classifying frequency modulation signals. In: Radar Sensor Technology XXV, SPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing; Orlando, FL. 2021'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bingcheng Li",address:"bing.li@lmco.com",affiliation:'
Lockheed Martin, Owego, NY, USA
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Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:14,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56013",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69660",title:"Vitamin C: An Antioxidant Agent",slug:"vitamin-c-an-antioxidant-agent",totalDownloads:7826,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:"Vitamin C or ascorbic acid (AsA) is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties, found in both animals and plants. It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"56440",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70162",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6438,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"50921",doi:"10.5772/63712",title:"Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet",slug:"menaquinones-bacteria-and-foods-vitamin-k2-in-the-diet",totalDownloads:3328,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Vitamin K2 is a collection of isoprenologues that mostly originate from bacterial synthesis, also called menaquinones (MKs). Multiple bacterial species used as starter cultures for food fermentation are known to synthesize MK. Therefore, fermented food is the best source of vitamin K2. In the Western diet, dairy products are one of the best known and most commonly consumed group of fermented products.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet",authors:[{id:"184784",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Walther",slug:"barbara-walther",fullName:"Barbara Walther"},{id:"188194",title:"Mrs.",name:"Magali",middleName:null,surname:"Chollet",slug:"magali-chollet",fullName:"Magali Chollet"}]},{id:"66098",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84445",title:"Golden Rice: To Combat Vitamin A Deficiency for Public Health",slug:"golden-rice-to-combat-vitamin-a-deficiency-for-public-health",totalDownloads:3386,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) has been recognised as a significant public health problem continuously for more than 30 years, despite current interventions. The problem is particularly severe in populations where rice is the staple food and diversity of diet is limited, as white rice contains no micronutrients. Golden Rice is a public-sector product designed as an additional intervention for VAD. There will be no charge for the nutritional trait, which has been donated by its inventors for use in public-sector rice varieties to assist the resource poor, and no limitations on what small farmers can do with the crop—saving and replanting seed, selling seed and selling grain are all possible. Because Golden Rice had to be created by introducing two new genes—one from maize and the other from a very commonly ingested soil bacterium—it has taken a long time to get from the laboratory to the field. Now it has been formally registered as safe as food, feed, or in processed form by four industrialised counties, and applications are pending in developing countries. The data are summarised here, and criticisms addressed, for a public health professional audience: is it needed, will it work, is it safe and is it economic? Adoption of Golden Rice, the next step after in-country registration, requires strategic and tactical cooperation across professions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government departments often not used to working together. Public health professionals need to play a prominent role.",book:{id:"7978",slug:"vitamin-a",title:"Vitamin A",fullTitle:"Vitamin A"},signatures:"Adrian Dubock",authors:[{id:"273220",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Dubock",slug:"adrian-dubock",fullName:"Adrian Dubock"}]},{id:"62836",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79350",title:"The Role of Thiamine in Plants and Current Perspectives in Crop Improvement",slug:"the-role-of-thiamine-in-plants-and-current-perspectives-in-crop-improvement",totalDownloads:1566,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Current research is focusing on selecting potential genes that can alleviate stress and produce disease-tolerant crop variety. The novel paradigm is to investigate the potential of thiamine as a crop protection molecule in plants. Thiamine or vitamin B1 is important for primary metabolism for all living organisms. The active form, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), is a cofactor for the enzymes involved in the synthesis of amino acids, tricarboxylic acid cycle and pentose phosphate pathway. Recently, thiamine is shown to have a role in the processes underlying protection of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. The aim of this chapter is to review the role of thiamine in plant growth and disease protection and also to highlight that TPP and its intermediates are involved in management of stress. The perspectives on its potential for manipulating the biosynthesis pathway in crop improvement will also be discussed.",book:{id:"6709",slug:"b-group-vitamins-current-uses-and-perspectives",title:"B Group Vitamins",fullTitle:"B Group Vitamins - Current Uses and Perspectives"},signatures:"Atiqah Subki, Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin and Zetty Norhana\nBalia Yusof",authors:[{id:"240031",title:"Dr.",name:"Zetty-Norhana Balia",middleName:null,surname:"Yusof",slug:"zetty-norhana-balia-yusof",fullName:"Zetty-Norhana Balia Yusof"},{id:"261167",title:"Mr.",name:"Aisamuddin Ardi",middleName:null,surname:"Zainal Abidin",slug:"aisamuddin-ardi-zainal-abidin",fullName:"Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin"},{id:"261169",title:"Ms.",name:"Atiqah",middleName:null,surname:"Subki",slug:"atiqah-subki",fullName:"Atiqah Subki"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56440",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6429,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"56013",title:"Vitamin C: An Antioxidant Agent",slug:"vitamin-c-an-antioxidant-agent",totalDownloads:7817,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:"Vitamin C or ascorbic acid (AsA) is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties, found in both animals and plants. It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"69402",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency and Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-and-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1604,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D (VD) is a molecule that can be synthesized directly in the humans’ body or enter the organism with food in the form of inactive precursors. To exert its biological action, VD undergoes two-stage hydroxylation (at the 25th and 1st position) catalyzed by cytochromes P450, the presence of which has already been shown in almost all tissues of the human body. The product of hydroxylation is hormone-active form of vitamin D–1,25(OH)2D. 1,25(OH)2D binds to specific vitamin D receptor (VDR) and regulates the expression of genes involved in bone remodeling (classical function) and genes that control immune response, hormone secretion, cell proliferation, and differentiation (nonclassical functions). VD deficiency is prevalent around the globe and may be one of the key factors for diabetes development. The direct association between vitamin D deficiency and type 1 (T1D) and type 2 (T2D) diabetes has been proven. Detection of VDR in pancreas and adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and immune cells allowed implying the antidiabetic role of vitamin D by enhancing insulin synthesis and exocytosis, increasing the expression of the insulin receptor, and modulating immune cells’ functions. This chapter summarizes data about relationship between VD insufficiency/deficiency and development of T1D and T2D, and their complications.",book:{id:"7038",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",fullTitle:"Vitamin D Deficiency"},signatures:"Ihor Shymanskyi, Olha Lisakovska, Anna Mazanova and Mykola Veliky",authors:null},{id:"76108",title:"Vitamin D Metabolism",slug:"vitamin-d-metabolism",totalDownloads:498,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D plays an important role in bone metabolism. Vitamin D is a group of biologically inactive, fat-soluble prohormones that exist in two major forms: ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) produced by plants in response to ultraviolet irradiation and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) derived from animal tissues or 7-dehydrocholesterol in human skin by the action of ultraviolet rays present in sunlight. Vitamin D, which is biologically inactive, needs two-step hydroxylation for activation. All of these steps are of crucial for Vitamin D to show its effect properly. In this section, we will present vitamin D synthesis and its action steps in detail.",book:{id:"10631",slug:"vitamin-d",title:"Vitamin D",fullTitle:"Vitamin D"},signatures:"Sezer Acar and Behzat Özkan",authors:[{id:"29878",title:"Dr.",name:"Behzat",middleName:null,surname:"Özkan",slug:"behzat-ozkan",fullName:"Behzat Özkan"},{id:"348287",title:"Dr.",name:"Sezer",middleName:null,surname:"Acar",slug:"sezer-acar",fullName:"Sezer Acar"}]},{id:"50754",title:"Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites",slug:"medicinal-chemistry-of-vitamin-k-derivatives-and-metabolites",totalDownloads:1917,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin K acts as a cofactor for γ‐glutamyl carboxylase. Recently, various biological activities of vitamin K have been reported. Anti‐proliferative activities of vitamin K, especially in vitamin K3, are well known. In addition, various physiological and pharmacological functions of vitamin K2, such as transcription modulators as nuclear steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) ligands and anti‐inflammatory effects, have been revealed in the past decade. Characterization of vitamin K metabolites is also important for clinical application of vitamin K and its derivatives. In this chapter, recent progress on the medicinal chemistry of vitamin K derivatives and metabolites is discussed.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika",authors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika"},{id:"180529",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",middleName:null,surname:"Fujii",slug:"shinya-fujii",fullName:"Shinya Fujii"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"42",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. 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\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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