\r\n\t
\r\n\tComputer graphics are not entirely an original topic, because it defines and solves problems using some already established techniques such as geometry, algebra, optics, and psychology. The geometry provides a framework for describing 2D and 3D space, while the algebraic methods are used for defining and evaluating equality related to the specific space. The science of optics enables the application of the model for the description of the behavior of light, while psychology provides models for visualization and color perception.
\r\n\t
\r\n\t3D computer graphics (or 3D graphics, three-dimensional computer graphics, three-dimensional graphics) is a term describing the different methods of creating and displaying three-dimensional objects by using computer graphics.
\r\n\tThe first types of graphic interpretations were put in the plane (two-dimensional 2D). Requirements for a universal interpretation led to a three-dimensional (3D) interpretation content. From these creations have arisen applied mathematics and information disciplines of graphic interpretation of content - computer graphics. It relies on the principles of Mathematics, Descriptive Geometry, Computer Science and Applied Electronics.
\r\n\t
\r\n\t3D computer graphics or three-dimensional computer graphics use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data (often in terms of the Cartesian coordinate system) that is stored on a computer for the purpose of doing the calculation and creating 2D images. The images that are made can be stored for later use (probably as animation) or can be displayed in real-time.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tObjects within the 3D computer graphics are often called 3D models. Unlike rendered (generated) images, data that are ""tied"" to the model are inside graphic files. The 3D model is a mathematical representation of a random three-dimensional object. The model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or can be used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations. With 3D printing, models can be presented in real physical form.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tComputer graphics have remained one of the most interesting areas of modern technology, and it is the area that progresses the fastest. It has become an integral part of both application software, and computer systems in general. Computer graphics is routinely applied in the design of many products, simulators for training, production of music videos and television commercials, in movies, in data analysis, in scientific studies, in medical procedures, and in many other fields.
ADHD is a neurobiological disorder that encompasses the specifics of neurotransmitter metabolism brain, and the interaction of the neuroanatomical and neurotransmitter systems. It is a developmental disorder of psychomotor skills that is manifested by impaired attention, motor hyperactivity and impulsivity [1]. Disorders of neurotransmitter metabolism in the brain with discrete neurological changes can lead to behavioral difficulties and other psychological problems. Behavioral disorders, secondary psychological problems, and interaction disorders with mild neurological symptoms may occur with this disorder [2]. To make a diagnosis, the symptoms must be frequent and severe than in children of comparable developmental level, and they must cause significant difficulties in the child’s daily functioning [3]. It is a behavioral disorder that makes it difficult for a child to focus on daily requirements and routines. These children and adolescents usually have difficulty organizing, focusing, making realistic plans, and thinking before they do something. The group of authors considers that ADHD is a developmental disorder of lack of behavioral inhibition, which manifests itself as a developmentally inappropriate degree of inattention, excessive activity and impulsivity, and complicates self-regulation and organization of behavior in relation to the future [4]. The main symptoms of ADHD are developmentally inappropriate for the age of the child and these are developmentally inappropriate levels of poor attention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. The degree of intensity of symptoms can vary according to the age of the child. Symptoms are manifested in the form of inattention of the child, the child does not perform its tasks, cannot organize, easily distracted, loses school and other things, “forgetful”, avoids prolonged exertion.
The clinical picture in boys and girls differs in some aspects of the symptoms. Boys are more motor hyperactive and girls are more inattentive, as if “dreaming”; and their hyperactivity manifests itself as emotional and verbal (in the form of chatter, crying, etc.).
Data on the frequency of this disorder in developmental age differ depending on the applied methodology, age of the respondents, urban or rural region, number of persons providing data on the child’s behavior (only parents, only teachers or both parents and teachers and others). Symptoms of hyperactivity are manifested in such a way that the child fidgets, gets up and leaves the bench, cannot play or do a task in peace, talks a lot, runs and climbs excessively, is always ready to “go” and others. Symptoms of impulsivity in a child are manifested by the child not being able to wait his turn, interrupting others when they speak, giving hasty answers, behaving intrusively and the like. Due to the symptoms, these children achieve poorer success in school, they have difficulties in mastering the school program, although they are most often of normal intellectual potential. Most adolescents who had ADHD as children still have difficulties in schooling, social interactions, and often emotional problems. Some adolescents may show irritability, poor school performance, disorganized learning, and poor communication with peers. ADHD always appears in early development, usually in the preschool period, and is most often noticed when a child starts school. This disorder usually lasts during schooling, and in some it continues into adulthood. Many people may experience improved activity and attention. Children with ADHD are often careless and impulsive so they are prone to accidents and injuries. These children often break the agreed rules and often have disciplinary difficulties. In relationships with adults, children with ADHD are often socially disinhibited, without caution and reserve, reckless behavior. Other children often avoid them, and are considered unpopular among peers, so they are often isolated.
The prevalence of ADHD is between 5 and 7% for children and between 3 and 5% for adults [5]. According to systematic review and meta-analysis, prevalence of ADHD among school-aged children and adolescent vary from 2.2% to 17.8% worldwide [6]. According to epidemiological studies, ADHD in children is thought to continue in 50–80% of cases in adolescence and adulthood. This high prevalence is of concern because this disorder negatively affects all neurodevelopmental areas and the psychosocial interactions of affected individuals. The risk may increase if symptoms such as aggression and irritability or comorbidities, such as behavioral disorders, are present.
In researching this problem, there are certain challenges in estimating the incidence of ADHD, such as are ways to assess ADHD, diagnostic methods, source of information about the disorder, agreement among respondents assessing ADHD symptoms, conducting assessments in one or more settings, age range of respondents, geographical location and characteristics of the community from which respondents originate [5].
Many studies indicate that ADHD is more common in boys [7]. The prevalence in boys and girls varies in different studies, and generally is more likely to be diagnosed and treated in boys than in girls [8]. The ratios from the clinical samples are higher than the ratios from the population samples. Research in this area of developmental psychiatry is extensive with a steady increase in the number of authors and professional literature dealing with this issue.
The term “comorbidity” was introduced into medicine by Feinstein in 1970 to denote those cases in which a particular clinical entity exists simultaneously in a patient during the clinical course of his underlying disease [9]. Psychiatric disorders may coexist with somatic disorders and/or other psychiatric disorders when referring to “psychiatric comorbidity”.
Different causes can lead to comorbidities, which can be accidental or the result of a combination of different risk factors; or two disorders may have the same or overlapping risk factors when one disorder causes the other; or there may be a multiform manifestation of one of the two basic disorders when the third - independent – occurs disorder. Due to insufficient knowledge of the etiopathogenesis of psychiatric disorders, modern classification systems (DSM and MKB) apply a descriptive, categorical system that classifies psychiatric symptoms and behaviors into a large number of different diagnoses.
The disadvantage of classification systems is that they poorly recognize the specifics and needs of child and adolescent psychiatry. The diagnostic process in developmental psychiatry is based on descriptive facts that determine the type of disorder, with the use of comorbidities to correct the shortcomings of this diagnostic process and to bring the diagnostic categories closer to the real clinical situation. These specifics are: symptomatic, developmental, environmental and prognostic. In developmental psychiatry, there are specific limitations in the external manifestation of symptoms, as well as in the possibility of insight into the existence of dependent symptoms. In child and adolescent psychiatry, there is the possibility of uneven development of basic developmental lines such as cognitive, emotional and social, especially during early childhood. In childhood, there is a clear dependence on past and current environmental conditions. Their interaction largely determines the manifestation of mental disorder at this age.
ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in child and adolescent psychiatry and one of the most researched disorders in child psychiatry. Previous research indicates the existence of high comorbidity between ADHD and other psychiatric disorders in childhood. The presence of comorbidities largely depends on: case definition, assessment methodology, and control group. Studies have shown a high comorbidity between ADHD and behavioral disorders in the form of opposition and defiance, depression and anxiety. Some mechanisms for comorbidity include shared risk factors, distinct subtypes and weak causal relationships [10].
A 2015 study by Masi et al. showed more than 2/3 of patients with ADHD have a psychiatric disorder associated. The most common comorbid diagnoses with ADHD during early childhood are oppositional defiant disorder, enuresis and language disorder, and anxiety and tics in the mid-school years. In adolescence are observed mood disorder and substance use disorder. Many children with ADHD have a specific learning disorder [11]. The same study estimates that oppositional defiant disorder is concomitant with ADHD in 25–75% of the cases, conduct disorder about one third of cases, 6–30% of ADHD children have major depression, more than 20% of bipolar disorder co-occur with ADHD; 87% of disruptive mood dysregulation disorder children had ADHD concomitantly; the prevalence of PTSD in children with ADHD is 5.2%; chronic tics disorder with ADHD is 55%; 85% of children with autistic spectrum disorder show a clinical picture of ADHD [11].
Barkley states that 67–80% of children diagnosed with ADHD who have been referred for clinical treatment have at least one more diagnosis, and almost half of them have two diagnoses [5]. Two-thirds of children with ADHD have at least one other psychiatric disorder diagnosed [12].
Some conditions occur more often than others. These are most often the following conditions:
learning difficulties
oppositional-defiant behavior
conductive disorders
behavioral disorders
speech-language difficulties
epilepsy
mood disorders
anxiety disorders
sleep disorders
tics/Tourette’s syndrome
obsessive–compulsive disorder
eating disorders
The presence of comorbidities is significant because it complicates the diagnostic process, affects the course, prognosis and therapeutic process. Assessment and support in comorbid disorders are often as important as the assessment and treatment of ADHD symptoms [12].
Behavioral disorders in developmental age are characterized by persistent and repetitive patterns of dissocial, aggressive, or defiant behavior. These behaviors in their most pronounced form can have criminogenic characteristics and deviate significantly from the socially expected ones according to the age of the child. These disorders are often accompanied by an unfavorable psychosocial environment, unsatisfactory family relationships and school failure. They are more commonly observed in boys than in girls.
Opposition-defiant behavior usually occurs in younger children, who exhibit extremely defiant, provocative, and disobedient behavior, and some children also exhibit aggressive behaviors. Most authors believe that 45–84% of children and adolescents with ADHD also exhibit oppositional-defiant behavior [5]. The Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD found that about 62% of preschool children with ADHD and 59% of school children in the sample had oppositional-defiant behavior [5]. It is hypothesized that emotional dysregulation that occurs in children with ADHD may affect the occurrence of comorbidities for oppositional-defiant behavior, anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, and other conditions, and it has also been observed that these children often have more psychopathology and social problems in the family [5]. These children are also at higher risk of taking various psychoactive substances, rejection from peers, poorer school achievement, rejection and the development of anxiety and depression in adolescence.
Many children with oppositional-defiant behavior also have conductive disorder, which is manifested by recurrent antisocial, aggressive, or defiant behavior. Study by Pliszka included 1035 children and adolescents at a psychiatric clinic and reported that 167 children and adolescents with ADHD were also diagnosed with oppositional defiant or conductive disorder [13]. Research demonstrated that 30–50% children with ADHD fulfill criteria for conduct disorder or oppositional defiant disorder [14]. These children are also at higher risk of substance abuse, antisocial activities, rejection from peers, school failure, anxiety and depression. The families of these children show more psychopathology and social problems.
These specific developmental disorders of school abilities include a group of disorders that are characterized by significant difficulties and impairments in mastering school skills, such as reading and arithmetic. These learning disabilities are not a direct result of other disorders such as mental retardation, neurological diseases, uncorrected vision or hearing disorders, or emotional disorders; although they may co-exist with them. Developmental disorders of school ability often exist in comorbidity with ADHD.
These disorders are thought to have arisen from abnormalities in cognitive processing that are mainly the result of some biological dysfunction; and are more common in boys than in girls. These children experience academic failure, often irregular schooling, difficulties in social adjustment and this is more pronounced in the later years of primary school or secondary school.
Specific learning difficulties are more common in people with ADHD than in the general population [15]. A meta-analysis of previous research has concluded that the prevalence is 45% [16]. These children have greater learning difficulties than children who have only specific learning difficulties.
Children with ADHD and specific learning difficulties have a problem processing perceived information, difficulty reproducing words, sentences and letters, auditory discrimination, difficulty reproducing drawings (visual-motor discrimination), stringing letters, decoding letters or words [2]. Children with this comorbidity will have lower academic achievement, poorer grades in school, will drop out of high school more often, and will continue their education after high school less often than their peers without ADHD [5].
The main disorder in mood disorders is a change in mood or affect, in the sense of the presence of low mood or excessively good mood. A change in mood is usually accompanied by a change in the overall level of functioning. Most of these disorders show a tendency to recur. The onset of individual episodes is often associated with certain stressful events.
Children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD often have mood disorders at the same time, most commonly having major depressive disorder, depressive episodes, and bipolar disorder. Arnold et al. conducted a Longitudinal Assessment of Manic Symptoms and concluded that 60% of the sample met the criteria for ADHD, 6.3% met the criteria for bipolar disorder, 16.5% had both ADHD and bipolar disorder. 17.5% do not have either of these two disorders [17]. Otherwise, the results of research in this area are uneven, so in population samples the prevalence is 0–2%, while in clinical samples it is 11–30% [18]. A special problem is the diagnosis, differential diagnosis and treatment in children who have ADHD and mania. ADHD is more common in children, especially in boys, compared with bipolar disorder, which occurs in 1.8% of children and adolescents, and is somewhat more common in boys [19]. Comparing the symptoms of mania and ADHD, a high percentage of grandiosity is noticeable in mania (85%), while in ADHD it is only 6.7%. Elevated mood and bold behaviors occur in a high percentage in mania (87% and 79%, respectively), and in a very low in children with ADHD. Results from regression analyses suggest cognitive predictors of executive functioning impairment in ADHD and mood predictors for inhibition in pediatric bipolar disorder [20].
Comparing the symptoms between these two diseases in childhood, it is noticed that irritability is very pronounced in mania, and occasionally exists in ADHD; euphoria is excessive in mania, and situational in ADHD; children with ADHD have low self-esteem, while mania has a pronounced grandiosity; manic children have a reduced need for sleep, while children with ADHD resist going to bed but then sleep well; children with mania have a rapid flow of thought, while ADHD does not. In comorbidity, treatment preference is given to symptoms of high mood and therapy is primarily focused on mania (mood stabilizers or antipsychotics); while ADHD symptoms are treated secondarily, after mood stabilization.
One of the mood disorders that occurs in child psychiatry is depression. Studies in this area indicate that the prevalence of depression in children with ADHD is 18%, and another 15% had both comorbid anxiety and depressive disorder [21]. The presence of depression worsens the symptoms and functioning of children with ADHD, and also significantly worsens the prognosis and therapeutic process in these children.
Adolescents who have a comorbidity of ADHD and depression have more pronounced difficulties in social functioning, get depression at an earlier age, have a higher rate of suicidal behavior, more frequent recurrence of depressive episodes compared to adolescents who suffer only from depression. Also, these adolescents have more frequent family dysfunction, more frequent conflicts in family relations, they have experienced more negative life events and traumatic experiences compared to adolescents who have only ADHD.
The prevalence of anxiety disorders in the general pediatric population is between 4% and 20%, while the prevalence of anxiety disorders in children with ADHD is 25% [22]. Clinical and epidemiological studies have shown that one-third of children with ADHD have some of the anxiety disorders at the same time. While some authors believe that there is no statistically significant difference between girls and boys in ADHD comorbidity and anxiety disorder, other authors state that 17.6% of girls and 17.9% of boys have comorbid ADHD disease with anxiety or depressive disorder [8]. Children suffering from anxiety disorder have higher rates of ADHD [5].
Autism spectrum disorder refers to serious developmental disorders with specific patterns of communication and social interactions. These disorders have differences in the specificity and severity of symptoms, age of onset, level of functioning, and forms of social interactions.
Autistic children often have attention problems and information processing problems that lead to social deficits. In clinical samples, it is estimated that about 10% of children tested for ADHD have some comorbid disorder from the autism spectrum disorder [9] characterized by more pronounced hyperactivity and impulsivity. ADHD is diagnosed in the autism spectrum disorder when the symptoms are very pronounced and permanent with the prior exclusion of medical and other psychiatric conditions that may mimic the symptoms of ADHD. In the treatment of ADHD comorbidities with autism spectrum disorder, the symptoms of both disorders must be treated.
In specific developmental disorders of speech and language, there is damage to the normal patterns of speech acquisition from the early stages of development. These disorders are often accompanied by associated problems such as reading difficulties and interpersonal relationships, emotional problems, and behavioral problems.
Some children who have ADHD also have language difficulties, which are present in both receptive and expressive language. There are also difficulties in other language skills. The results of research on the frequency of these comorbid diseases are different. Recent study estimated 50% of children with ADHD have a comorbid language deficit, while 20 to 60% of children with ADHD have one or more learning disabilities or language problems [23]. Study from 2016 identified language impairments in the majority within the ADHD and reading disorder in >40% in children with ADHD [24]. A group of authors concluded in a 2013 study that children with ADHD exhibit various difficulties in pragmatic language [25].
Epilepsy is a chronic brain disease characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures, accompanied by various clinical manifestations and laboratory abnormalities. Important features of epilepsy are chronicity and recurrence of excessive paroxysmal discharge of brain neurons that manifest as epileptic seizures.
Studies in children with ADHD have shown a significant risk of developing epilepsy and other seizures in these children. A study by a group of Norwegian authors in 2013 found that children with ADHD had 2.3% risk of epilepsy, which is four times higher than the general prevalence in children of 0.5% [26]. Previous research has also found a significant association between childhood ADHD and the risk of epilepsy. Epilepsy and ADHD are strongly associated although the underlying factors contributing to their co-occurrence remain unclear [27]. The same study suggests that epilepsy and ADHD share less genetic risk factors as compared with other neurodevelopmental disorders.
Children with ADHD often have irregularities in EEG findings, and an increase in frontal-central theta-wave activity is most common [28].
Inorganic sleep disorders can also occur in children of any age. The most common sleep disorder in children is a sleep–wake cycle disorder, i.e. waking up during the night. This is also the most common reason that worries parents and why they seek professional help. The next most common disorder is when the child delays going to bed, cannot fall asleep when put to bed or when constantly asking for parental attention. Other sleep disorders are less common in children.
Children with ADHD often have difficulty sleeping in the form of frequent waking at night, resistance to going to sleep, they need to fall asleep for a long time. Sleep disorders are more likely to occur if children with ADHD also have some anxiety disorder compared to children who have only ADHD [29]. In observational study in a population of children with ADHD, 63% had moderate or severe sleep problems [30].
Parents of children with ADHD also report that children have difficulty sleeping, resist going to bed, sleep shorter, and often wake up at night. Parents describe these children as tired after waking up compared to children without ADHD [31]. Studies investigating event–related potential (ERP) suggest impaired ability in children with ADHD to conserve the brain oscillations phase associated with stimulus processing [32]. Children with ADHD presented more sleep disturbances when compared to children without the diagnosis. These disorders were diverse, yet inconsistent among the surveys [33].
Tic is a sudden, fast, involuntary, aimless and repetitive muscle movement, limited to a certain muscle group or accompanied by vocalization, which worsens in stressful situations and disappears during sleep. Tic disorders are divided into transient and chronic motor or vocal and Tourette’s syndrome. There is an irresistible need to repeat the action, and its prevention causes tension. Tick disorders are associated with poor self-esteem, problems in the family environment, difficulties at school. Children and adolescents with tics have a number of other problems such as speech or behavior problems, impulsivity, hyperactivity, obsessive compulsive symptoms. The prevalence of transient and simple tics is 20% in the pediatric population, and chronic motor tics and Tourette’s syndrome about 3% [34]. Children with ADHD were 4.1 times more likely to have chronic tic disorder at age 7, and 5.9 times more likely at age 10 [35]. Children with ADHD and chronic tic disorder experienced higher rates of peer problems, and poorer quality of life than those with ADHD alone. Episodes of anger and aggression have been reported in children with tic disorders and are likely to contribute to psychosocial stress and low quality of life. It is assumed that aggressive behavior in children with tic disorders is associated with comorbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder [36].
Ophthalmological examination of children and adolescents with ADHD is part of their evaluation as it is important to rule out underlaying ocular and neurological conditions that may cause behavioral aberrations. Some children with visual impairment may be misdiagnosed as ADHD. These children are not able to see adequately and in result are not able to keep their attention being focused on object of observation. To our knowledge, there are small number of studies investigating the relationship between ADHD and ocular disorders such as amblyopia, hypermetropia, astigmatism, and heterotropia. Children with amblyopia have greater risk of developing ADHD than their counterparts without amblyopia (1,8 times; hazard ratio 1.81; 95% confidence interval 1.59–2.06) with the greatest risk in amblyopic children with deprivation type, followed by strabismic type and refractive type (hazard ratio 2.14; 95% confidence interval 1.56–2.92; hazard ratio 2.09; 95% confidence interval 1.15–3.79; hazard ratio 1.76; 95% confidence interval 1.54–2.02 respectively). Also, amblyopic children with ADHD tend to be diagnosed at younger age than those without amblyopia (median 8.14 vs. 8.45 years; P = 0.0096) [37].
Large cross-sectional study on 75,171 children without any intellectual impairment reported greater prevalence of ADHD among children with vision problems (p < 0.0001). Children with vision problems were more likely to have been diagnosed with ADHD than those without vision problems (15.6% vs. 8.3%; p < 0.001). Children with vision problems were also more likely to have ever been diagnosed with ADHD (18.6% vs. 10.4%; p < 0.001) [38].
Another large-scale cross-sectional study on 116,308 children with ADHD reported significant higher prevalence of ocular disorder in children with ADHD compared to children without ADHD: amblyopia (1.6% vs. 0.9%, p < 0.001), hypermetropia (2.4% vs. 1.3%, p < 0.001), astigmatism (0.2% vs. 0.1%, p < 0.001), and heterotropia (1.1% vs. 0.5%, p < 0.001) respectively [39].
Recent studies investigated relationship between ADHD and convergence insufficiency as symptoms of convergence insufficiency may overlap with those of ADHD. Within population of children with convergence insufficiency, three-fold greater incidence of ADHD is reported compared to ADHD incidence in general population. Also ADHD population had three-fold greater incidence of convergence insufficiency [40]. Children with ADHD had significant low near point convergence as well [41].
Comorbid diseases often occur in children and adolescents with ADHD. It is estimated that about 66% of ADHD patients have at least one comorbid disorder, and the most common are learning disorders, sleep disorders, oppositional defiant disorder and anxiety disorders [42]. Treating children and adolescents with ADHD who have comorbid conditions is a challenge for clinicians [43].
When it is necessary to include medications in children with ADHD, existing guidelines suggest starting with a stimulant (methylphenidate MPH or amphetamine AMP). If the stimulant does not achieve an effect then an alternative stimulant is used. If stimulants are not effective or cause more severe side effects, we include nonstimulants (atomoxetine, alpha-2 agonists, and antidepressants) [44]. Stimulants have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the treatment of ADHD, including methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine and amphetamine mixed salts, and these drugs act by blocking the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine into neurons. Side effects including insomnia, headache, changes in appetite, weight loss/gain, irritability and tics should be monitored during treatment with stimulants. Stimulants are the first line in treatment. Non-stimulants (atomoxetine, alpha-2 agonists, and antidepressants) are less effective than stimulants. Children with complicated epilepsy may be at greater risk for ADHD, and some antiepileptic medications may contribute to ADHD symptoms. Tricyclic antidepressants have been used in children with ADHD but can lower seizure threshold and should be avoided in patients with epilepsy. Methylphenidate is effective in treating the symptoms of ADHD in children and adolescents with epilepsy, but the effectiveness is less than that seen in children with ADHD without epilepsy [44].
The comorbidity of ADHD with bipolar disorder (BD) may be associated with more severe symptoms, poorer course, and poor outcome of both conditions, and treatment is further complicated if there is substance abuse [45]. The use of stimulants may be contraindicated in the presence of comorbid drug abuse. Atomoxetine may be effective in treating the symptoms of ADHD in patients with bipolar disorder when used in conjunction with mood stabilizers.
In children with ADHD comorbidities and sleep problems, sleep hygiene and cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy are important, and consideration should be given to changing the dosage and formulation of the stimulant. The use of atomoxetine and melatonin are therapeutic alternatives for children with ADHD and more severe sleep problems [46].
Psychopharmacology is the primary treatment for ADHD, and behavioral treatment is used in combination with medication or in children with minimal impairment or when medication is not possible due to contraindications or parents ‘refusal to accept medication. Most guidelines recommend a stepwise approach to treatment, beginning with non-drug interventions and then moving to pharmacological treatment in those most severely affected [47]. In large birth cohort study, where a great majority of children with ADHD used medication, only child characteristics were significantly associated with the use of medication [48]. In this study the authors concluded that the small differences between medicated and unmedicated children, might be due to strong established clinical practices where medication is offered as a treatment option, particularly for hyperkinetic conduct disorder in an egalitarian high-income society.
In a large meta-analysis that included 38 individual studies with 5111 participants aged 3 to 18 years, the authors concluded that methylphenidate may improve teacher-reported ADHD symptoms, teacher-reported general behavior, and parent-reported quality of life among children and adolescents diagnosed with ADHD [49].
Treatment of comorbid diseases in children with ADHD should be multimodal, including pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions. It is important to recognize the presence of comorbid disease in these children because comorbid diseases complicate the diagnostic and therapeutic process, as well as the outcome of the disease.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a neurobiological disorder that involves the interaction of the neuroanatomical and neurotransmitter systems. This disorder is characterized by early onset, the association of hyperactive and poorly coordinated behavior with marked inattention and lack of perseverance in performing tasks; and this behavior occurs in all situations and persists over time. Most children and adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder have comorbidities, often multiple comorbid conditions in the same person. It is estimated that about two-thirds of children with this disorder have at least one other psychiatric disorder diagnosed. Symptoms persist and lead to significant difficulties in the daily functioning of the child, such as school success, social interactions, family and social functioning. The presence of comorbidities is significant because it complicates the diagnostic process, affects the course, prognosis and therapeutic process. Assessment and support in comorbid disorders are often as important as the assessment and treatment of ADHD symptoms.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"},selectedSubseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/31397",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"31397"},fullPath:"/chapters/31397",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()