\r\n\tOver the years, the concept of maintenance became more comprehensive, reducing fault occurrence and increasing industrial system availability. Besides, reliability, safety, and criticality requirements were associated with the system or equipment under analysis. Maintenance strategies or schemes can be classified as corrective (run-to-break), preventive (time-based), and predictive (condition-based maintenance). Corrective maintenance is only performed after an occurrence of a fault. Therefore, it involves unexpected breakdowns, high costs, changes in the production chain, and it could lead to catastrophic events. Preventive maintenance and interventions occur based on a scheduled maintenance plan or the equipment's mean time between failures. Although it is more effective than corrective maintenance, unexpected failure may still occur by preventing most failures. Additionally, the process cost is still high, especially the costs associated with labor, inventory, and unnecessary replacement of equipment or components.
\r\n\tOn the other hand, predictive maintenance analyses the equipment condition so that a possible fault can still be identified at an early stage. Predictive maintenance aims to identify a machine anomaly so that it does not result in a fault. Such maintenance involves advanced monitoring, processing, and signal analysis techniques, which are generally performed non-invasively and, in many cases, in real-time. In the case of machines or processes, these techniques can be developed based on vibration, temperature, acoustic emission, or electrical current signal monitoring. It should be noted that monitoring such signals or parameters to verify the operating condition is called condition monitoring. Condition monitoring aims to observe the machine's current operational condition and predict its future condition, keeping it under a systematic analysis during its remaining life. In this sense, a fault condition can be detected and identified from systematic machine condition monitoring. A diagnosis procedure can be established, whereby properly investigating the fault symptoms and prognosis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book will aim to merge all these ideas in a single volume, aggregate new maintenance experiences, apply new techniques and approaches, and report field experiences to establish new maintenance processes and management paradigms.
\r\n\t
Linearly arranged chemical structure in chromosome is known as DNA. It is a double helix made up of two strands of genetic material spiraled around each other. Each strand has a sequence of bases. There are four types of bases namely adenine, guanine, cytosine and thiamine which are very unique to each individual just like their actual fingerprint. The nitrogen base adenine always binds with thymine and cytosine also always binds with guanine. Thus, the DNA profiling unique to each individual is collectively known as DNA fingerprinting [1].
DNA determines individuality or uniqueness of each human being except in uniovular twins. The chances of complete similarity are one in 30 billion to 300 billion i.e., half the population of world [2].
“DNA fingerprinting”, is a fingerprinting of exclusive type as there is no specific method to modify it known as it remains the same in all body parts. In every DNA of there is about 0.1% differences but among every individual person, 99.9% are identical but as the DNA sequence is just like a fingerprint [3]. It was once thought that there are many bases of nucleotide which were consuming time to detect in olden days but now scientist have introduced some techniques which were quicken in the identification process. This (DNA fingerprinting) technique is one of them it is like an individual’s bar-code. DNA present in every cell of an individual person has histone proteins which are found tightly bound to the DNA present in chromosome [4]. DNA fingerprinting in Forensic Science had a tremendous impact. Forensic genetic science is an intersection between science and crime. It helps the police/judicial to aid justice. It is an important tool for court outcomes and all the serious and unsolved mystery cases. The police investigation progress clearly depends on forensic science services; Forensic genetic science in its own way requires understanding the importance, scope, and limitation of DNA fingerprinting. It made the court to accepts as pivot evidence [5, 6, 7]. When other methodologies failed, DNA fingerprinting was kept as the last resort and it played a supportive role when strong evidence in support is needed. In both at small-scale and large-scale disasters. In Criminals identification it provides an approach to the victim in an impressive way. For Victims and Criminals identification it became a gold standard. The National Laboratories of National Research Council of USA had issued on February 2009, in a Forensic Science major report showed with the exception of nuclear DNA analysis, no Forensic method thoroughly shown to have the capacity to consistently demonstrate a connection between evidence and a specific individual or source with a high degree of certainty [8, 9, 10]. Therefore, Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs) have been identified. These are non-coding sequences and do not have any regions with unravel information about genome. Absence of genetic material in these regions, hence helpful in identifying an individual person [11, 12].
DNA profiling is also known as DNA fingerprinting, Typing, DNA Genetic typing, Genetic Fingerprinting, Genotyping or Identity testing. It is DNA base pair sequence method of isolation and identification. The technique of DNA fingerprinting was first developed by Dr. Alec Jeffery’s from Britain in 1984 [13, 14, 15]. He discovered a minisatellite region close to the human myoglobin gene. He noticed that these minisatellites are not useful for genetic transformation as genes and have repetition. Jeffreys also documented that minisatellites have unique pattern in each person [16, 17, 18, 19]. He isolated this sequence and used it as a probe to investigate human DNA. He found that the minisatellite probe result was a complex band pattern for each individual [20].
In India, initially it was done at Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad by Dr. Lalji Singh. Now there are various centers where DNA fingerprinting is carried out. In Maharashtra it is carried out at Sate Forensic Science Laboratory, Vidya Nagar, Kalina, Mumbai – 400 098 (Phone 022–2667075).
Using this technique FBI formally concluded the participation of Mr. Bill Clinton in Monica Lewyninskey case. In India more than 79 cases have been solved by using this technique including important case of Dhanu and Shivarasan alleged assailant of Late Prime Minister Shri. Rajiv Gandhi, Tandori case, Madhumati murder case etc.
In living persons:
Blood: The blood should be collected from peripheral vein with EDTA as an anti-coagulant in two tubes and should be transported to the laboratory as early as possible at −20°C [21].
Vaginal swabs/smear: It is to be air-dry and put it in clean autoclave glass/plastic container.
In dead bodies:
On the basis of priority all required biological samples must be taken in order as mentioned below.
Skeletal muscle/Tissue: On duty doctor should collect the least putrefied part of the muscle or tissue and must send it without any delay to avoid further putrefaction [22].
Hard (Tough) Tissue: Dead bodies in which the putrefaction has already present, collect hard tissues where putrefaction rate is comparatively less. Muscle tendons, foot, heel skin, scalp skin, palm skin, stomach wall is observed to have lesser degree of decomposition [23].
Tooth: On duty doctor must send complete set of teeth present in deceased body [24].
Scalp hairs with roots: Small quantity of scalp hairs along with roots should be sent. One important precaution must be taken i.e., hairs must not be cut but should be plucked [25].
Blood of deceased should be taken.
Bones: In cases of completely skeletonized bodies and if no other tissues are present, send the longer bones such as humerus, femur etc. Occasionally portion of muscle or tendon may be present on long bones, do not remove them, send it with bones as it may contain the cells where DNA traces can be detected [26].
Scene of crime and other important evidences:
Blood stains: In homicidal, accidental or suicidal manners, blood stains present at scene of crime, scrapings of blood stain on floor, blood-stained clothes, weapons and other relevant evidences must be collected and sent for further analysis [27].
Semen stains: In sexual assault cases all wearied garments especially undergarments of both survivor and suspect, also bed garments should be collected. In addition, collect condom and other important circumstantial evidences [28].
Type of biological evidence and accurate preservatives for particular evidence:
Biological evidence | Important biological and other evidences | Preservative |
---|---|---|
Blood |
| 4% EDTA solution |
Tissue/muscle piece/scalp skin etc. | Sample must be kept in clean sterile plastic or glass container add the correct preservative as suggested. (Samples should be kept in ice) | DMSO or normal physiological saline or 4% ETDA solution or keep the tissue as it is in −20°C refrigerator |
Teeth | Air dry all the teeth available. Keep samples in dry clean and sterile plastic or glass container and then handover it. Must Keep any tissue stuck up to teeth as it is. | No preservative |
Scalp hair | Air dry the sample, put in dry clean and sterile plastic or glass container | No preservative |
Bone | Air dry and rap in clean brown paper. Do not grind it or apply any chemical on it. If the issue or tendon is stuck up to the bone keep as it is. Do not separate or disturb it. | No preservative |
Blood-stained clothes and scrapping, etc. | Clothes must be air dried and should be kept in clean brown paper. Avoid packing damp clothes. New sharp blade must be used for scrapping the blood stains from the wall or floor. Take care that paint on the wall should not get mixed with blood. Keep all scrapped blood stain material on clean white paper and then place it in the packet [30]. | No preservative |
Semen stains | Clothes must be air dried and should be kept in clean brown paper. Avoid packing damp clothes. Take sterile, clean and dry piece of cloth, make condom inside out put all the material on cloth. Condom also must be dried first and then to be packed it in brown packet. | No preservative |
Vaginal swabs/smear | Air dry and put it in clean autoclaved glass/plastic container. | No preservative |
Apart from material mentioned above; perspiration, oil, urine (when concentrated) and feces are also can be used to analyze DNA; as all these contain nucleated cells.
All samples collected and preserved as indicated above should be delivered to laboratory without undue delay preferably within 48–72 hours after collection [31, 32, 33].
Blood samples in cases of paternity disputes and in cases where they are used as control samples for identification purpose should be collected in the presence of judicial officer.
The sample should be sealed and the specimen of seal on paper should be sent along the sample for verification.
The identification card and the forwarding note should be filled, certified and sent to the lab along with samples.
In person who had blood transfusion within 3 months preceding the date of collection. The samples are not useful.
Collected and preserved material can be forwarded to the laboratory by executive magistrate or senior inspector of police.
The technique essentially involves [34, 35] (Figure 1):
Isolation of DNA from nuclei.
Fragmentation of DNA by treating with restriction endonucleases.
Gel electrophoresis of the fragments after alkalinization.
Blotted on to sartorious nitrocellulose filter.
P32 labeled probe hybridization.
Autoradiographed at room temperature on to an X-ray plate.
Bands appearing on the X-ray plate as dark lines are the permanent Band Patterns where the probe had attached.
Steps in DNA fingerprinting technique.
The various techniques in use at present are [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]:
Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP):
Using Multi locus probes (MLPs)
Single locus probes (SLPs)
Variable Number Tandem Repeat (VNTR) sequences.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
This was first Forensic DNA analysis technique adopted for analysis. This kind determines variation in the length of a defined DNA fragment. The pattern looks like a very simple super market bar code.
Basic requirement of DNA fingerprinting is nucleated cells. DNA is present in the nucleus of cell, so it can be only extracted from body fluid or tissues having nucleated cells. All the samples should be frozen at −20°C before use. Isolation or extraction varies according to the type of biological evidence present; the amount of evidence and the kinds of cells present.
DNA molecules are segregated by following steps:
Cell membranes are broken down and different cellular organelles are fragmented.
DNA molecules are detached by using soap and salt solution.
DNA molecules are separated from remaining proteins.
RNA and polysaccharide are detached with the help of enzymes.
The secluded DNA is passed through ultraviolet spectrophotometry for measuring its quantity.
DNA is completely broken-down by using enzymes named as restriction endonucleases. Restriction endonucleases identifies the unique sequence and cut the double stranded DNA at several fragments. It is known as ‘restriction fragments length polymorphism’ (RFLP). RFLP’s are product of dissimilarities present in DNA molecule. This dissimilarity in restriction fragment length is because of variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) [41].
Fragmented DNA molecules are run on agarose gel electrophoresis. The different restriction fragments are separated varying in length in between 0.5 to 25 kb which varies from one individual to another. The length of smaller fragments is less so naturally it moves for longer distance as compared with larger fragments. The gel is later stained with ethidium bromide for 40 minutes which tightly binds to DNA and fluoresces under ultraviolet light.
By using capillary transfer technique of southern DNA is transferred from the agarose gel to nylon membrane. With this technique it creates mirror image replica of fragment distribution. Commonly vacuum blotting of transfer technique is applied because it takes less time. DNA is then fixed by hit at 80°C or cross-linked by the cation of UV irradiation [42].
With application of hybridization technique, pairing of two single stranded DNA is done to convert it double stranded DNA. It involves the addition of probe to the nylon membrane. DNA is created with specific technique hence it goes to specific programmed locus on an exact chromosome. Normally, probe is also labeled with radioactive marker like P32. Firstly, probe identifies its matching sequence, then it hybridizes with it. Due to presence of radioactive marker, hybridized fragment turns into radioactive. Generally, four probes are used to analyze four different DNA regions at same time.
Loosely bound probes are removed by washing it with 0.05% SDS. Subsequently membrane is wrapped in the saran wrap and kept in the X ray cassette along with X ray film and exposed to 80°C. The probes are exposed depending on its specific activity and exposure time ranges from few hours to days (maximum 10 days). X ray films are then developed and fixed in the respective reagent and finely washed in water and dried. Finally developed autoradiograph is the DNA pattern of that particular individual seen as black bands. These black brands are radioactive hybridized unique fragmented sequences. X-ray film shows unique band pattern known as AUTOROD. This unique band pattern is nothing but the DNA fingerprint of that individual whose biological material is tested. It also serves as permanent unique record of that individual (Figure 2) [43, 44].
DNA fingerprint band pattern.
The probe used detects variations at several genetic regions simultaneously. The Band Pattern produced on X-ray plate produced a strip of 30–40 dark bands. The MLP Method was originally described by Sir Jefferys. He used three minisatellite regions turned 33.5, 33.6, 33.15 after previously cloning and characterizing them.
33.5 and 33.15 contain repeats of a similarly version of the core sequence and consequently produce similar but not identical DNA fingerprints. Probe 33.6 is comprised of a shortened derivative of the core and hybridizes to a new set of resolvable hypervariable fragments per individual in the 4–20 kbs range, 33.6 detects 6 additional and 33.5 detects two additional hypervariable fragments, 33.15 detects 15 fragments [45].
Further modification of this method led to the development of SLPs which analyze only single hypervariable location in human DNA. These play a very major role in Forensic practice as they have far greater detection sensitivity than the MLPs. Each SLP detects just two bands (One maternal and one paternal). It is so sensitive that it identifies even a single hair root. Results can also be obtained from degraded DNA, often found in Forensic samples as SLP detects the remaining, non-degraded alleles among the DNA fragments. As they detect only two bands/SLP, using single SLP reduces the probability to 1/10000 population as compared to 1 in 02 MLP. Using multiple SLPs is therefore the practice now a days. SLPs are human specific. MLPs detect DNA fingerprint in all vertebrates. 80% of Forensic work depends on SLPs [46].
This method uses set of probes which detect specific variable number tandem repeats of a sequence. These also remember the minisatellite in that they consist of a repeated sequence with the number of copies of the sequence varying from one person to the other. However, where there are usually many minisatellites of a given type in a genome, there is only one VNTR of each type. These probes therefore produce simpler banding patterns. Several VNTR probes are used. Each of which recognizes one VNR site to characterize a DNA sample. After the frequencies of the various bands produced by each VNTR probe have been established for each ethnic group. This can be used to calculate the probability of any particular combination of patterns occurring in each individual [47].
This is general technique routinely used for increasing amount of a specific section of DNA in a sample. This is called DNA amplification. PCR more often referred to as molecular Xeroxing.
It was devised by Kary Mullis and his colleagues in 1985 in Henry Elrichs Laboratory at the Caus Corporation in California. It is test tube method of copying simultaneously the two complementary strands that make a gene sequence. In this method millions of similar DNA fragments can be synthesized within hours. Primers are used to amplify specific segment of DNA. Primers finds the DNA ends that can be duplicated. After heating DNA sample, there is detachment of two strands. Then two new strands which matches to the both original strands are produced by enzymatic action of DNA polymerase. DNA polymerase is originally obtained from
This was the first system among the PCR based variation in DNA sequence, is detected using specially designated to be complementary to and thus target, a particular sub region within this locus. The original probe detected 6 common DQ alpha alleles that in combination, determine 21 possible genotypes.
The final results are seen as series as blue dots on a paper like strip. A comparison of the pattern of the dots between typing strips indicates whether two samples may have originated from the same source [50].
Commonly known as poly marker with all advantages of PCR. This increases power of discrimination. Several markers at different loci were analyzed at the same time (procedure known as multiplexing).
Each of the fine additional markers contains less individual variation than DQ A1. power of discrimination increases from 1:200 to 1: 2000. Disadvantages of PM loci are that is often difficult to interpret from samples containing DNA from more than one contributor because of low power of discrimination per locus [51].
Also known as Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AMP-FLPs, AFLPs, AMFLPs). In D1 S 80 analysis, fragment in the range of 100 s of base pairs are amplified, about on order of magnitude smaller than fragments normally analyzed in RFLP typing.
In D1 S80, PCR amplified sections are efficiently purified before DNA analysis. In RFLP technique complete DNA is analyzed and then important sections of DNA molecule are distinguished with help of molecular probes.
D1 S80 loci are found as distinct alleles and easily compared with allelic ladder which is run on the same gel [52, 53].
This is similar to D1 S80, except that repeat units are shorter. For Forensic purpose loci selected usually have tandem repeat unit of 2–5 bp and it can be repeated up to dozens of times. The number of alleles varies from 5 to 20 bp depending on the locus. The size of DNA fragment produced by amplification of STR loci is in the range of 200–500 bp (base pair). Due to above specifications STRs is an ideal for degraded DNA. Also, PCR amplification of many different loci performed simultaneously in same test tube saves material, time and most important sample. STR loci also can be analyzed manually by silver stain by using fluorescence to detect the bands either during or after separation [54].
For tooth pulp tissue an Amelogenin locus is used which detects the variation of length in male and female. In female gene one of part contain a small detection (6 bp) in nonessential DNA and gives a shorter product by amplification with use of PCR. When this region analyze female with 2 X chromosomes will show one band and male with both X and Y chromosomes show two bands (one is same size as female the other one is slight larger) [55].
STRs found on Y-chromosomes are amenable to typing small degraded samples of DNA and can be analyzed on the same instrumental platform. Male specific information thus obtained.
Can be helpful for non-sperm containing samples comprised of both male and female contributions such as mixtures of blood or male saliva deposited on female victim.
Information from Y-STRs can also be successful where only incomplete separation has been achieved using a differential extraction produced, particularly where only a few sperm are present among many non-sperm cells.
Sometimes detect male profile where only single female profile was evident using standard automated STR typing.
Also helpful in determining number of male donors by eliminating any information contributed by female resources [56].
Mitochondria in human cells contain an autonomous circle of DNA that codes for some protein that control function like cellular respiration. The mitochondrial genomes are about 16.5 kb and of interest to Forensic scientist and contain a non-coding hyper variable control region.
Mitochondrial DNA sequences are highly variable between unrelated individuals. Complete 16,569 nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial DNA have established for a reference individual [57].
Mitochondrial DNA circle is a genetic element that lacks a homogenous counterpart in the genome and it can be described as hemizygous. Mitochondrial DNA is haploid hence these genes survive for many generations and transfer to many generations intact, without change and retain its uniqueness. Up to thousands of copies of mitochondrial DNA genome present in small, old, badly degraded sample, and if no results obtained with any other systems. Mitochondrial DNA is commonly used to type the dead cells in hairs, shafts of bone and teeth.
Detection of allele specific sequences difference was in the form of Dot blot. This is constructed in such a way that a particular sequence was either present (signal on) or (signal of) each dot is represented for one allele.
In length-based system – PCR products are run on a gel through capillary and they are visualized as bands, similar to RFLP or as peaks on automated equipment [58].
The samples have to be in good condition to be analyzed.
Fragments isolated/identified by this method are in the ranges of 2 to 20 kbps.
It is susceptible to contamination.
Most PCR loci have fewer alleges than the VNTR areas utilized in RFLP.
Some of PCR loci are functional genes.
It is technically easy.
The reports can be given in short time.
It permits analysis of extremely tiny amounts of DNA.
Homicide: In homicidal cases, blood stains on clothes and weapon can be compared with the blood of victim. Also, hair roots present on weapon may be compared with the blood of suspected criminal and victim. In sexual assault cases, identification of accused by analysis of semen samples obtained from the vagina of the survivors of rape, blood stains or hair found at the scene of crime or on clothes.
Disputed paternity: The DNA samples of child are compared with that of alleged father and similarity is noted. With this technique paternity can be confirmed 100%.
Maternity testing: This technique is also used for maternity testing specially in cases where the child is exchanged, misplaced, stolen or kidnapped from the hospital.
Identification of mutilated remains: As in cases of accidents, mass disasters, bomb blasts, burnt bodies, putrefied bodies etc. The DNA fingerprint obtained from such remains can be compared with previous prints if available or with that of close blood relative of the disease which can establish link between family members.
Extortion cases: Saliva samples from envelope, face mask, nasal secretion, saliva from cigarettes butts etc.
To acquit a falsely implicated person of any crime.
Identification of bodies in exhumation cases.
For tracing pedigree and for establishing familiar relationship.
Diagnosis of inherited disorders: DNA fingerprinting is used in diagnosis in inherited disorders in prenatal and newborn babies.
Migration of population: DNA fingerprinting can be used in determining how the races migrated from one region to another by comparing the DNA fingerprint. Thus, it helps for study of history and confirmation of races.
DNA fingerprinting can be proved for one’s innocence as well as a guilty person. Most of the errors can be made during the samples collection. If the DNA samples have not been contaminated only then DNA evidence is completely conclusive. The advancement in molecular genetics avoids the types of contamination but sometimes lack of suitable tests might leads to the wrong perception. Allowing the trained person to educate about standardized tools and technologies of DNA fingerprinting [59]. Collection of profiles DNA of previous culprits’ cases, victim, offenders and as well as the witness of the crime scene is known as DNA database. United State America (USA) has the major DNA databank known as Combined Index DNA System (COIDS). Combined Index DNA System (COIDS) is used for identification. Forensic Science DNA Database also contains evidence of persons DNA pieces who have been involved in a crime (victim, offender, crime affected, witness of the crime scene and crime suspect related). There is also human remains and missing person database. Databank of DNA is much useful in solving with its help many old cases are resolved. Country likes U.S.A and Great Britain which has DNA database, but they totally do not dependent on this technique to cracking out all the crime scene. Gattaca (1997) dystopian American science fiction film written and directed by Andrew Niccol in which Ethan Hawke (as Vincent Freeman) who becomes a cosmonaut. But due to his genetic problem, he would not get some essential benefits like insurance, etc. For becoming superhuman he found genius Genetic Engineer who can transform him completely. He knew that a hair like structure known as DNA creates overall personality of human being. He is aware that if his genetic defect is exposed, people will know about his true identity. Moral of this movie states that DNA databank is unsafe [60].
As most of the People are afraid by computer systems hackers who exploit the systems and easily gain someone’s personal information and as a result get profit through black-mailing. Databank is the heart of whole this mechanism, any hacking or tempering of data by the corruption and dishonesty person such as DNA finger print experts can ruin an individual’s life.
Sometimes wrong interpretations are identified in fake or synthetic DNA identification. The limitation to believe in DNA evidence as truthfulness in these fake DNA’s and causes incorrect perceptions. In one of the, A Canadian physician (DNA fraud case), Dr. John Schneeberger alleged that he raped one of his patients in 1992 and at the crime scene semen left as a DNA evidence. Police investigated the case and matched the Schneeberger bloods with crime scene semen, never showing a match results drew totally different.
In another case, police identified the DNA samples from the same woman on different crime scenes in Austria, Germany, and France among them robberies, burglaries, and murders. Only after the DNA sampled from the burned body of a male asylum seeker in France exactly matched with that of the “woman”. Investigators had serious query about DNA traces, then after careful investigation they found that these DNA traces was already present on cotton swab. These Cotton swab found at the scene of crime was manufactured by an Austrian Company. The Product description of cotton swab mentioned that swabs were sterilized but were not DNA free. The technique for differentiating false DNA and original DNA was afterwards developed by a company in Israel.
In India many cases were solved by DNA fingerprinting. Rajiv Gandhi former Prime Minister of India was killed in bomb blast. His body remnant and accused suicidal bomber remnant were also confirmed by DNA fingerprinting in 1991.
In 1995, Naina Sahani was murdered by husband Sushil Sharma, he chopped her body in to pieces and burnt in tandoor. Even from burnt body remnants, DNA fingerprinting was done and confirmed that it was of Naina Sahani. Naina Sahani case was solved with conviction to the accused.
Priyadarshini Mattoo was raped and murdered by IPS Officer’s son in 1996.Trial court in 1999 acquitted him, but due to this it became sensitive case. In 2006, accused was convicted to death sentence due to DNA fingerprinting. The traces found on victim’s undergarments matched with accused. This were possible due to DNA technology only.
United States Supreme court in its recent judgment clarified that in serious life-threatening offenses, investigating officer can take cheek swab for DNA analysis as routine procedures like taking photograph or simple fingerprint.
For Forensic analysis DNA database is very useful. Familial DNA Database Searching for matching of crime scene stain with near relative helps reaching up to accused. In 2004, US first familial DNA search was done in Craig Harman’s case. He was convicted due to partial match with his brother’s DNA.
In 2009, bollywood actor Shiney Ahuja raped the maid. Maid. In court Ahuja became hostile and witnessed that she was not raped but DNA traces from her private parts matched with Ahuja. Due to DNA evidence, Court convicted him.
The public outrage sensitive Nirbhaya case, six men raped college girl with brutal way, she died during treatment. All six men sentenced to death with DNA evidence.
In Hyderabad Blasts Case (2014), first intelligence agencies searched suspected house in Zephyr Heights in Mangaluru, but the team got no evidences. Afterwards Forensic team found DNA evidences collected DNA samples from the same house. Five accused was caught and DNA evidences collected from house were matched with all five accused.
Rohit Shekhar Tiwari alleged that Shri Narayan Dutt Tiwari is his father. Shri Narayan Dutt Tiwari was Chief Minister three times of Uttar Pradesh state, and a famous political leader. At first, he denied for DNA sampling but afterwards by compulsion of Delhi High Court, DNA mapping was done and subsequently confirmed his fatherhood.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation developed the Combined DNA index system (CODIS). DNA database in United States. Supreme court in Mayland v. King Sentenced that if the officers made an arrest for serious offense, DNA samples like cheek swabs can be legally taken. The DNA samples can further be used in the Law of Court under the Fourth Constitutional Amendment and the Individual’s privacy is valid.
Thus, in USA 28 states and federal government, swabs can be taken for DNA fingerprinting from any accused as a part of normal investigating procedure. These swabs can be compared to Combined Index DNA System database to identify the person and for creating links to unsolved cases. Due to technical advances DNA is one of the confirmatory and quickest methods of Identification [61].
National DNA Database (NDNAD) in United Kingdom is based on The Criminal Justice and Public order Act. In case of certain offenses mentioned, Police are duty-bound to take the DNA samples of the arrested person. The samples are supposed to be taken before the Investigating process begins in order to make it faster [62].
A Law was passed by China which allowed Ministry of Justice and Ministry of Interior to setup DNA Banks.
The fundamental points integrated in this legislature are:
The Offenders – The accused and who are sex offenders have to provide DNA Samples willingly.
If the offender refuses to provide DNA samples, the Prosecutor can compel the person to do so.
The written and photographic samples of DNA can be preserved for 10 years.
If the accused is suspected of committing a crime for which, the punishment period is more than 5 years, are required to give non-intimate samples.
In India the DNA Technology (Uses and application) Bill is introduced some silent features are [63]:
The main goal is to establish identity in relation to many civil and criminal cases.
Establishment of supreme regulatory board of 12 members called as DNA Profiling Board.
Formation of National DNA Data Bank and various Regional DNA Data Banks.
Usually Consent of the person is required for collecting DNA samples, but if the person has done serious offenses where custody is more than seven years or death, then DNA samples can be taken without any consent. In this special circumstance the magistrate can order to take biological material for DNA analysis.
Labs are allowed to do DNA fingerprinting only after permission of DNA profiling board.
There is always conflict between the technology and ethical issues. In India article 21 gives Right of privacy in all aspects. To avoid conflicts, the court must use its powers only after balancing the interests of the parties and on due consideration whether for a just decision in the matter, DNA test is extremely needed.
Universally Right of privacy is accepted as one of the most important Basic Human Right. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 states that ‘no one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, attacks upon his honor or reputation. Everyone has a right to protection by law against such interference or attacks. Also, shall not be forced to admit the culpability.
The International Society of Forensic Genetics has laid down guidelines which are to be followed by DNA laboratories while dealing with such cases in order to adhere to the moral obligations on them. The Establishment of DNA Database has many ethical and legal concerns which are to be handled properly in order to avoid possible violation of Fundamental Human Rights [64].
DNA evidence is a reliable and confirmatory tool for victim/criminal investigation, but many experts have warned because there are few instances of man-made mistakes. It has led to the wrong consequences as the DNA evidence can be tampered. As few studies have found that DNA analysis reports can have personal variation in opinion and is likely to make mistakes. Bias may arise due to presence of trace amount of DNA in biological evidences and also burden of conviction based on report. Although the margin to biological challenges is near to nothing, the room for human mishandling the sample always cannot be over ruled here. False results can be seen in poor laboratory practices. There is a possibility that DNA at crime scene could also be replaced by another person, who was not a criminal actually. Forensic DNA fingerprinting had a tremendous positive impact in the criminal judicial system but its reliability should not be taken for granted. DNA is a God’s signatures in each and every person which discriminate every individual. DNA technology is now becoming an integral part of any investigation all across the world. It is now accepted universally in solving many mysterious cases with motto
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\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
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\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\n\\n\\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
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\\n\\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
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\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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It is generally recognised that malignant thyroid lesions are harder than benign lesions. Different elastographic techniques are presented, with characteristics, advantages and limitations. Qualitative and semiquantitative methods are described. Comparison of the main existing techniques, static and dynamic elastographies, is presented in this chapter. Strain elastography seems to have a better diagnostic quality than shear wave elastography in the diagnosis of thyroid cancer disease. A positive elastogram, suggestive for malignancy is more useful in diagnosis than a positive grey-scale ultrasound evaluation. Elastography increases the specificity of grey scale ultrasound (US), it should be always integrated with its information and should be considered as a complement of conventional US.",book:{id:"5278",slug:"thyroid-cancer-advances-in-diagnosis-and-therapy",title:"Thyroid Cancer",fullTitle:"Thyroid Cancer - Advances in Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Dana Stoian, Timar Bogdan, Marius Craina, Mihaela Craciunescu,\nRomulus Timar and Adalbert Schiller",authors:[{id:"105871",title:"Dr.",name:"Romulus",middleName:null,surname:"Timar",slug:"romulus-timar",fullName:"Romulus Timar"},{id:"182103",title:"Dr.",name:"Dana",middleName:"I",surname:"Stoian",slug:"dana-stoian",fullName:"Dana Stoian"},{id:"182104",title:"Prof.",name:"Marius",middleName:null,surname:"Craina",slug:"marius-craina",fullName:"Marius Craina"},{id:"182105",title:"Dr.",name:"Bogdan",middleName:null,surname:"Timar",slug:"bogdan-timar",fullName:"Bogdan Timar"},{id:"182245",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela",middleName:null,surname:"Craciunescu",slug:"mihaela-craciunescu",fullName:"Mihaela Craciunescu"},{id:"183185",title:"Prof.",name:"Adalbert",middleName:null,surname:"Schiller",slug:"adalbert-schiller",fullName:"Adalbert Schiller"}]},{id:"51836",doi:"10.5772/64609",title:"Dr. Saul Hertz (1905–1950) Discovers the Medical Uses of Radioactive Iodine: The First Targeted Cancer Therapy",slug:"dr-saul-hertz-1905-1950-discovers-the-medical-uses-of-radioactive-iodine-the-first-targeted-cancer-t",totalDownloads:1817,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:'Dr. Saul Hertz spontaneously posed the question "Could iodine be made radioactive artificially?" to the MIT President Karl Compton, on November 12, 1936. MGH\'s Dr. Hertz and his MIT collaborator, Dr. Arthur Roberts, were the first and the foremost to develop the experimental data for the medical uses of radioiodine (RAI) and apply it in the clinical setting. Dr. Hertz expanded the successful use of RAI of treating hyperthyroidism, Graves‘ disease, to the treatment of thyroid cancer in 1946. Dr. Saul Hertz established the Radioactive Isotope Research Institute to diagnose and treat thyroid cancer, which he believed held the key to the larger problem of cancer in general. RAI is the first and gold standard of targeted cancer therapies.',book:{id:"5278",slug:"thyroid-cancer-advances-in-diagnosis-and-therapy",title:"Thyroid Cancer",fullTitle:"Thyroid Cancer - Advances in Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Barbara Hertz",authors:[{id:"184018",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Hertz",slug:"barbara-hertz",fullName:"Barbara Hertz"}]},{id:"41536",doi:"10.5772/33138",title:"Effect of Asbestos on Anti-Tumor Immunity and Immunological Alteration in Patients with Malignant Mesothelioma",slug:"effect-of-asbestos-on-anti-tumor-immunity-and-immunological-alteration-in-patients-with-malignant-me",totalDownloads:1678,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"1168",slug:"malignant-mesothelioma",title:"Malignant Mesothelioma",fullTitle:"Malignant Mesothelioma"},signatures:"Yasumitsu Nishimura, Megumi Maeda, Naoko Kumagai-Takei, Hidenori Matsuzaki, Suni Lee, Kazuya Fukuoka, Takashi Nakano, Takumi Kishimoto and Takemi Otsuki",authors:[{id:"34101",title:"Prof.",name:"Takemi",middleName:null,surname:"Otsuki",slug:"takemi-otsuki",fullName:"Takemi Otsuki"},{id:"48627",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoko",middleName:null,surname:"Kumagai-Takei",slug:"naoko-kumagai-takei",fullName:"Naoko Kumagai-Takei"},{id:"48630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshie",middleName:null,surname:"Miura",slug:"yoshie-miura",fullName:"Yoshie Miura"},{id:"48631",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasumitsu",middleName:null,surname:"Nishimura",slug:"yasumitsu-nishimura",fullName:"Yasumitsu Nishimura"},{id:"104888",title:"Dr.",name:"Megumi",middleName:null,surname:"Maeda",slug:"megumi-maeda",fullName:"Megumi Maeda"},{id:"104893",title:"Dr.",name:"Suni",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"suni-lee",fullName:"Suni Lee"},{id:"104894",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidenori",middleName:null,surname:"Matsuzaki",slug:"hidenori-matsuzaki",fullName:"Hidenori Matsuzaki"},{id:"104897",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kazuya",middleName:null,surname:"Fukuoka",slug:"kazuya-fukuoka",fullName:"Kazuya Fukuoka"},{id:"104898",title:"Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"takashi-nakano",fullName:"Takashi Nakano"},{id:"104902",title:"Dr.",name:"Takumi",middleName:null,surname:"Kishimoto",slug:"takumi-kishimoto",fullName:"Takumi Kishimoto"}]},{id:"62342",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79258",title:"Diagnosis of Lung Cancer: What Metabolomics Can Contribute",slug:"diagnosis-of-lung-cancer-what-metabolomics-can-contribute",totalDownloads:936,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The reprogrammed metabolism of cancer cells reflects itself in an alteration of metabolite concentrations, which in turn can be used to define a specific metabolic phenotype or fingerprint for cancer. In this contribution, a metabolism-based discrimination between lung cancer patients and healthy controls, derived from an analysis of human blood plasma by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) spectroscopy, is described. This technique is becoming widely used in the field of metabolomics because of its ability to provide a highly informative spectrum, representing the relative metabolite concentrations. Cancer types are characterized by decreased or increased levels of specific plasma metabolites, such as glucose or lactate, compared to controls. Data analysis by multivariate statistics provides a classification model with high levels of sensitivity and specificity. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) metabolomics might not only contribute to the diagnosis of lung cancer but also shows potential for treatment follow-up as well as for paving the way to a better understanding of disease-related diverting biochemical pathways.",book:{id:"6676",slug:"lung-cancer-strategies-for-diagnosis-and-treatment",title:"Lung Cancer",fullTitle:"Lung Cancer - Strategies for Diagnosis and Treatment"},signatures:"Elien Derveaux, Evelyne Louis, Karolien Vanhove, Liene Bervoets,\nLiesbet Mesotten, Michiel Thomeer and Peter Adriaensens",authors:[{id:"245903",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Adriaensens",slug:"peter-adriaensens",fullName:"Peter Adriaensens"},{id:"256560",title:"MSc.",name:"Elien",middleName:null,surname:"Derveaux",slug:"elien-derveaux",fullName:"Elien Derveaux"},{id:"256561",title:"Dr.",name:"Evelyne",middleName:null,surname:"Louis",slug:"evelyne-louis",fullName:"Evelyne Louis"},{id:"256562",title:"Dr.",name:"Liene",middleName:null,surname:"Bervoets",slug:"liene-bervoets",fullName:"Liene Bervoets"},{id:"256563",title:"Dr.",name:"Karolien",middleName:null,surname:"Vanhove",slug:"karolien-vanhove",fullName:"Karolien Vanhove"},{id:"256564",title:"Prof.",name:"Michiel",middleName:null,surname:"Thomeer",slug:"michiel-thomeer",fullName:"Michiel Thomeer"},{id:"256565",title:"Dr.",name:"Liesbet",middleName:null,surname:"Mesotten",slug:"liesbet-mesotten",fullName:"Liesbet Mesotten"}]},{id:"51681",doi:"10.5772/64407",title:"The Advantages and Limitations of Ultrasound Elastography in Diagnosis of Thyroid Carcinoma",slug:"the-advantages-and-limitations-of-ultrasound-elastography-in-diagnosis-of-thyroid-carcinoma",totalDownloads:1893,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Thyroid nodules have high prevalence in the general population. Only minorities of thyroid nodules are malignant; nevertheless, still biopsies are performed in differential diagnosis of malignant and benign thyroid nodules. Conventional ultrasound is widely used in diagnosis and characterization of thyroid nodules. There are several suspicious ultrasound features that predict thyroid cancer, such as solid consistence, marked hypoechogenicity, taller-than-wide shape, irregular or microlobulated or spiculated margins, no peripheral hypoechoic halo, and micro- or macrocalcifications. However, none of these signs have high sensitivity or specificity nor high degree of confidence for diagnosis or exclusion of thyroid carcinoma. Ultrasound elastography, recently developed, promising, noninvasive technique that evaluates tissue stiffness, has become one of the main focuses in thyroid imaging. There are two ultrasound elastography methods: strain ultrasound elastography (also known as real-time elastography or qualitative elastography) and shear wave elastography (quantitative elastography and acoustic radiation force impulse imaging). The purpose of this chapter is to present the principles of thyroid application, advantages, and limitations of both ultrasound elastography techniques.",book:{id:"5278",slug:"thyroid-cancer-advances-in-diagnosis-and-therapy",title:"Thyroid Cancer",fullTitle:"Thyroid Cancer - Advances in Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Nazan Ciledag, Hidir Kaygusuz, Burcu Sahin, Elif Aktas, Fatma Gul\nBuyukbayraktar Imamoglu and Bilgin Kadri Aribas",authors:[{id:"94833",title:"Dr.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Aktas",slug:"elif-aktas",fullName:"Elif Aktas"},{id:"126791",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazan",middleName:null,surname:"Ciledag",slug:"nazan-ciledag",fullName:"Nazan Ciledag"},{id:"129156",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilgin Kadri",middleName:null,surname:"Aribas",slug:"bilgin-kadri-aribas",fullName:"Bilgin Kadri Aribas"},{id:"183420",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu",middleName:null,surname:"Savran Sahin",slug:"burcu-savran-sahin",fullName:"Burcu Savran Sahin"},{id:"183421",title:"Dr.",name:"Gul",middleName:null,surname:"Buyukbayraktar",slug:"gul-buyukbayraktar",fullName:"Gul Buyukbayraktar"},{id:"187269",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidir",middleName:null,surname:"Kaygusuz",slug:"hidir-kaygusuz",fullName:"Hidir Kaygusuz"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51523",title:"Radiation Dosimetry in Thyroid Cancer Patients",slug:"radiation-dosimetry-in-thyroid-cancer-patients",totalDownloads:2541,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Radioactive iodine is utilized commonly for ablation of remnant thyroid tissue after thyroidectomy and treatment of persistent disease and metastases in differentiated thyroid cancer patients. As it involves ionizing radiation, it is important to ensure that the patients receive optimum amount of radiation to destruct the target tissue while keeping the radiation-related side effects to minimum. In clinical practice, standard activity doses are preferred for thyroid cancer patients, assuming that biokinetics are similar in all patients. Lately, many clinicians offered to individualise the radioactive iodine therapy by calculating the optimal amount of radioactivity using patient dosimetry. Radiation dosimetry is used to calculate the minimum effective and maximum tolerated absorbed dose for a successful radioactive iodine therapy. This approach enables to administer increased amount of therapeutic activity while minimizing the related side effects. This chapter presents some of the basic principles of patient dosimetry and radioiodine biokinetics following radioactive iodine administration in differentiated thyroid cancer patients.",book:{id:"5278",slug:"thyroid-cancer-advances-in-diagnosis-and-therapy",title:"Thyroid Cancer",fullTitle:"Thyroid Cancer - Advances in Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Lebriz Uslu Beşli and Mustafa Demir",authors:[{id:"183255",title:"Dr.",name:"Lebriz",middleName:null,surname:"Uslu-Beşli",slug:"lebriz-uslu-besli",fullName:"Lebriz Uslu-Beşli"},{id:"186795",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Demir",slug:"mustafa-demir",fullName:"Mustafa Demir"}]},{id:"62305",title:"Pleural Effusions in Lung Cancer: Detection and Treatment",slug:"pleural-effusions-in-lung-cancer-detection-and-treatment",totalDownloads:1419,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In all cell types of lung cancer, pleural effusion is a possible complication of disease. Paramalignant pleural effusions [PMPE] are not a consequence of malignant disease spreading to pleura. The probability that an effusion is paramalignant is higher if the effusion is a transudative or parapneumonic effusion. Differentiating between paramalignant and malignant effusions has both therapeutic and prognostic significance. MPEs are a sign of metastatic dissemination of neoplastic disease. In pleural fluid or tissue, there are malignant cells. In PMPE, lung cancer had been previously diagnosed. Bronchoopstruction, atelectasis, infection, pulmonary emboli, air therapy, and heliotherapy result in effusion development. PMPEs equally appear in all pathohistological types of lung cancer, as MPEs are the most common in lung adenocarcinoma. Also, there are biochemical properties of PMPE and MPE. Therapeutic procedures depend on the presence of respiratory distress, biochemical properties of pleural fluid, type of primary tumour, and expected response to the therapy.",book:{id:"6676",slug:"lung-cancer-strategies-for-diagnosis-and-treatment",title:"Lung Cancer",fullTitle:"Lung Cancer - Strategies for Diagnosis and Treatment"},signatures:"Milic Medenica, Miras Medenica and Danilo Cosovic",authors:[{id:"246939",title:"Prof.",name:"Milic",middleName:null,surname:"Medenica",slug:"milic-medenica",fullName:"Milic Medenica"},{id:"247717",title:"Dr.",name:"Miras",middleName:null,surname:"Medenica",slug:"miras-medenica",fullName:"Miras Medenica"},{id:"253456",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Cosovic",slug:"danilo-cosovic",fullName:"Danilo Cosovic"}]},{id:"51576",title:"Elastography: A New Ultrasound Technique in Nodular Thyroid Pathology",slug:"elastography-a-new-ultrasound-technique-in-nodular-thyroid-pathology",totalDownloads:2230,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Elastography is a new technique for evaluating the stiffness of nodules. It is generally recognised that malignant thyroid lesions are harder than benign lesions. Different elastographic techniques are presented, with characteristics, advantages and limitations. Qualitative and semiquantitative methods are described. Comparison of the main existing techniques, static and dynamic elastographies, is presented in this chapter. Strain elastography seems to have a better diagnostic quality than shear wave elastography in the diagnosis of thyroid cancer disease. A positive elastogram, suggestive for malignancy is more useful in diagnosis than a positive grey-scale ultrasound evaluation. Elastography increases the specificity of grey scale ultrasound (US), it should be always integrated with its information and should be considered as a complement of conventional US.",book:{id:"5278",slug:"thyroid-cancer-advances-in-diagnosis-and-therapy",title:"Thyroid Cancer",fullTitle:"Thyroid Cancer - Advances in Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Dana Stoian, Timar Bogdan, Marius Craina, Mihaela Craciunescu,\nRomulus Timar and Adalbert Schiller",authors:[{id:"105871",title:"Dr.",name:"Romulus",middleName:null,surname:"Timar",slug:"romulus-timar",fullName:"Romulus Timar"},{id:"182103",title:"Dr.",name:"Dana",middleName:"I",surname:"Stoian",slug:"dana-stoian",fullName:"Dana Stoian"},{id:"182104",title:"Prof.",name:"Marius",middleName:null,surname:"Craina",slug:"marius-craina",fullName:"Marius Craina"},{id:"182105",title:"Dr.",name:"Bogdan",middleName:null,surname:"Timar",slug:"bogdan-timar",fullName:"Bogdan Timar"},{id:"182245",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela",middleName:null,surname:"Craciunescu",slug:"mihaela-craciunescu",fullName:"Mihaela Craciunescu"},{id:"183185",title:"Prof.",name:"Adalbert",middleName:null,surname:"Schiller",slug:"adalbert-schiller",fullName:"Adalbert Schiller"}]},{id:"51624",title:"Atypia of Undetermined Significance/Follicular Lesion of Undetermined Significance (AUS/FLUS): Interpretation and Algorithm for Follow-Up",slug:"atypia-of-undetermined-significance-follicular-lesion-of-undetermined-significance-aus-flus-interpre",totalDownloads:1969,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytology (TBSRTC) has proven to be an effective and robust thyroid fine needle aspiration (FNA) classification scheme to guide the clinical treatment of patients with thyroid nodules. However, a tendency of increasing diagnosis of atypia of undetermined significance/follicular lesion of undetermined significance (AUS/FLUS) is observed. This is commensurate with the incorporation of new molecular tests for classifying indeterminate thyroid nodules. Moreover, a sizable portion of AUS/FLUS is correlated with follicular variant papillary carcinoma (FVPTC). A suggestion of reclassifying noninvasive FVPTC (NI-FVPTC) or noninvasive follicular thyroid neoplasm with papillary-like nuclear features (NIFTP) as a neoplasm rather than a carcinoma would significantly change the risk of malignancy in AUS/FLUS category. We review the diagnostic criterion and subclassifying suggestions of AUS/FLUS, features indicating follicular variant neoplasm in AUS/FLUS category, and commercially available molecular tests for AUS/FLUS subgrouping. We propose a multidisciplinary approach to AUS/FLUS follow-up.",book:{id:"5278",slug:"thyroid-cancer-advances-in-diagnosis-and-therapy",title:"Thyroid Cancer",fullTitle:"Thyroid Cancer - Advances in Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Lei Zhang, Beverly Wang, Jianyu Rao and Douglas Bell",authors:[{id:"182358",title:"Dr.",name:"Lei",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"lei-zhang",fullName:"Lei Zhang"},{id:"183558",title:"Prof.",name:"Beverly",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"beverly-wang",fullName:"Beverly Wang"}]},{id:"50875",title:"A Perspective on the Current Medical Approach of Advanced Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma",slug:"a-perspective-on-the-current-medical-approach-of-advanced-medullary-thyroid-carcinoma",totalDownloads:1505,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) is a neuroendocrine tumor (NET), which originates in neural crest-derived calcitonin-producing C-cells. It occurs either sporadically or as a result of a germline mutation in the RET proto-oncogene, as in multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) syndrome type 2A including its variant familial MTC (FMTC) and type 2B. Currently, the only curative treatment for MTC is surgery, accompanied by lymph node dissection. However, the outcome is largely dependent on disease staging, with lymph node and distant metastases often identified at diagnosis, particularly in sporadic forms. Furthermore, the presence of cervical lymph node invasion at surgery predicts residual disease. The development of new treatments is strongly motivated by: (a) the low surgical cure rate when cervical lymph node metastases are present at the time of initial surgery, with 90% of patients having residual disease, (b) the high prevalence of distant metastases at initial diagnosis (lungs, bones and liver) and (c) the poor outcome in patients receiving cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents. Herein, we focus on current nonsurgical options and perspectives in the treatment of MTC with emphasis on last year’s FDA-approved tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) and other systemic therapies that need to be considered in the setting of advanced disease.",book:{id:"5278",slug:"thyroid-cancer-advances-in-diagnosis-and-therapy",title:"Thyroid Cancer",fullTitle:"Thyroid Cancer - Advances in Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Ana Valea and Carmen Emanuela Georgescu",authors:[{id:"41386",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Georgescu",slug:"carmen-georgescu",fullName:"Carmen Georgescu"},{id:"183359",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Valea",slug:"ana-valea",fullName:"Ana Valea"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1093",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218",scope:"
\r\n\tThis book series will offer a comprehensive overview of recent research trends as well as clinical applications within different specialties of dentistry. Topics will include overviews of the health of the oral cavity, from prevention and care to different treatments for the rehabilitation of problems that may affect the organs and/or tissues present. The different areas of dentistry will be explored, with the aim of disseminating knowledge and providing readers with new tools for the comprehensive treatment of their patients with greater safety and with current techniques. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This series of books will focus on various aspects of the properties and results obtained by the various treatments available, whether preventive or curative.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 30th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"267724",title:"Dr.",name:"Febronia",middleName:null,surname:"Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZpJQAW/Profile_Picture_2022-06-27T12:00:42.JPG",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. 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