\r\n\tWith a history of over 50 years since their introduction into therapy and formulation of medicinal products, hydrogels remain a challenge for researchers in the field. \r\n\tVersatile, with high-water content, tunable properties, and mild processing conditions, hydrogels advanced from simple chemically or physically crosslinked networks to complex double network composites or even more sophisticated new developments as shape memory and self-healing hydrogels. \r\n\tIncreasing knowledge in hybrid or composite hydrogel materials, controlled release of sensitive drugs, or several drugs from the same hydrogel matrix could be achieved. Parallel to targeted efforts aimed to maintain drug micro- or nanoparticle’s distinct three-dimensional structure, synergistic hybrid materials with more than one type of polymer was developed.
\r\n
\r\n\tBut one of the most challenging tasks remains further and continues to improve the clinical translation of these innovative hydrogels. That is what this book intends to provide the reader: a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art, recent advances, new perspectives, and applications of the hydrogels as valuable platforms for targeted delivery. Driven by the need to ensure proper patient compliance, ease of administration, along with the possibility to modulate release and degradation profiles after administration, numerous non-topical hydrogel formulations had been reported. Smart and supramolecular hydrogels, stimuli-reactive materials, that quickly respond in mild conditions, represent today an attractive approach for minimally invasive treatments.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe book will also represent an invitation to discover “new” off-the-shelf hydrogels with highly tunable properties, with low complexity of formulation (environmentally friendly processing), but with adequate features to fulfill clinical requirements and provide desired delivery platforms for therapy.
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1. Introduction
Photodetectors, which can capture, identify and visualize the optical signals, have been indispensable devices in modern integrated electronics and communication technology [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Nowadays, various photosensitive materials have been investigated as the functional materials in photodetectors. For example, gallium nitride (GaN) is commercially for ultraviolet light detection (UV, <400 nm), Si for visible–near-infra (NIR, 400–1100 nm), InGaAs for NIR–mid-IR (MIR, 1–5 μm), and HgCdTe for MIR–far-IR detection (FIR, >5 μm) [2]. However, the ultra-miniaturization and integration of photodetectors with multi-materials are challenging, which require complex nanomanufacturing process and exorbitant production costs. In addition, there are some inherent disadvantages. For example, poor flexibility is a common problem in these conventional semiconductor materials, which restricts their application potential in flexible and wearable electronics. Some specific materials (e.g., HgCdTe) are environment toxic and cannot operated at room temperature [1]. The development trend for high-performance detection and different application scenarios prompts scientists to continue to pursue new materials with novel physical properties.
Two-dimensional (2D) materials have attracted tremendous attention in the past few decades [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Among them, 2D Transition-Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDs) are considered to be promising for next-generation optoelectronics due to the strong light-matter interaction, weak interlayer van der Waals (vdW) interaction, flexible characteristics and the ease of integration with current silicon-based optical electronics [13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. Group-10 noble TMDs (NTMDs) are outstanding representatives in the TMDs family [18, 19, 20]. The reintroduced new materials are generalized formulated by Group-10 noble elements (Pt, Pd, and so on.) and chalcogens (S, Se, or Te). Unlike traditional TMDs, the d-electrons in NTMDs are fully occupied their d-orbitals resulting in the highly hybridized Pz orbits and strong interlayer interactions [21, 22]. Therefore, NTMDs exhibit relatively small and widely tunable bandgaps compared with traditional TMDs (such as MoS2 and WS2). For example, PtS2 shows a layer-dependent bandgap from 1.6 to 0.25 eV [21], while PtSe2 changes from a typical semiconductor state (1.2 eV in 1 L PtSe2) to semi-metal state when the thickness increases to over 5 layers [23]. Combining with the high mobility (>1000 cm2V−1S−1, larger than most other TMDs and comparable for that of BP) and environmental stability, NTMDs has great potential in photodetectors applications [21, 23, 24, 25]. Moreover, the unique puckered pentagonal structure of PdS2 and PdSe2 inherently provides them with anisotropic properties [26, 27, 28] and may promote the development of polarized photodetectors.
In this chapter, we first discuss the structural, electronic and optical properties of NTMDs. Then we focus on the NTMDs based photodetectors. Wafer-scale NTMDs films with high-quality and large-scale monocrystalline NTMDs nanosheets have been fabricated, which are appropriate for optoelectronic applications. NTMDs and their heterostructure based photodetectors show many advantages such as high-performance, ultrawide spectra detection, long-term environment stability, and anisotropic characteristics. NTMDs have great potential for large-scale imaging and flexible devices, which could be the next-generation optoelectronic core materials.
2. Structural and electronic properties of 2D NTMDs
The atomic coordination of monolayer TMD usually is either trigonal prismatic phase (2H or D3h) or octahedral phase (1 T or D3d), as shown in schematics in Figure 1a and b [22, 29, 32]. In 2H phase, the d orbitals in transition metal centers split into three degenerated d orbitals (dz2, dx2−y2,xy and dxz,yz) and there is usually an energy bandgap (~1 eV in TMDs) between the first two degenerated d orbitals. While in 1 T phase, the centers of transition metal have two degenerated d orbitals (dz2,x2−y2 and dxz,yz,xy) [22, 29, 32]. Therefore, the thermodynamically favored phase is highly influenced by d electrons count in the transition metals. For NTMDs, the noble metal atoms have abundant d electronics and the d2sp3 hybridization is preferred, which lead to the full-filled d-bands. Most NTMDs have thermo-dynamically favored 1 T phase, such as PtSe2, PtS2, PtTe2 and PdTe2 (See Figure 1c) [30]. The strong interlayer hybridization of adjacent chalcogen atoms makes the widely tunable electronic energy band structure with the layer numbers. Here we use PtS2 and PtSe2 as examples. Both of them are 1 T favored phase, where the bandgap is about 1.17 and 1.6 eV in monolayer PtSe2 and PtS2, respectively (Figure 1e and f) [21]. With the increase of stacked layers, the interlayer hybridization would be stronger, with lead to the rapidly decrease of energy gap. According to theoretical calculations, the energy gap in bi-layer PtSe2 is only 0.3 eV, while the stacked layered increase beyond 4 layers, the energy level of valence band maximum (VBM) will exceed that of conduction band minimum (CBM) and PtSe2 undergoes a transition from semiconductor to metallic state (Figure 1h) [31]. Similarly, as shown in Figure 1i, the energy bandgap in bulk PtS2 decreases to 0.25 eV from 1.6 eV.
Figure 1.
Crystal and electronic structure of NTMDs. (a) and (b) schematic images of 2H and 1 T lattice phase in TMDs, reproduced with permission [29]. (c) Thermodynamically favored 1 T-phase structural schematic of PtSe2, reproduced with permission [30]. (d) Puckered pentagonal structure of PdSe2, reproduced with permission [26]. (e) Energy band structure of monolayer PtSe2, reproduced with permission [23]. (f) Energy band structure of monolayer PtS2, where bands mVB-2 were highlighted spanning the Brillouin zone by black dots. (g) Calculated electronic band structures of monolayer PdSe2 by the optPBE method. (h)-(j) evolution of energy bandgap as a function of the number of layers of PtSe2(h), PtS2(i) and PdSe2(j). (h) Is reproduced with permission [31]. (f) and (i) are reproduced with permission [21]. (g) and (j) are reproduced with permission [26].
Apart from conventional TMDs materials with hexagonal structures, PdS2 and PdSe2 consist of pentagonal rings with the puckered vertical conformation (Figure 1d) [26]. In each layer, a Pd atom binds to four chalcogen atoms other than six chalcogen atoms, while every two neighbor chalcogen atoms bind each other with a covalent bond. The unique pentagonal structure not only provides the materials with anisotropic properties, but also can realize the transition of topological quantum phase and the spin-orbit coupling enhancement. In 2017, Akinola O., et al. experimentally and theoretically prove that monolayer PtSe2 has 1.3 eV indirect band gap and semi-metal state in the bulk (Figure 1g and j) [26].
3. Optical properties of 2D NTMDs
The widely tunable electronic energy gap of NTMDs make them layer-dependent optical absorption [31]. As shown in Figure 2a, PtSe2 samples with thickness from 2.2 nm to 7.8 nm show broadband light absorption from 450 nm to over 3000 nm. The absorption peaks have significant red-shift with the increase of thickness, which is originates from the narrower energy gap in thicker samples. In particular, the semi-metal nature in thick PtSe2 samples allows them absorb mid-NIR and even far-NIR light. In Figure 2b, all of these samples have broadband absorption in the range from 2 to 5 μm, which is different from tradition TMDs materials. The optical polarization properties of PtSe2 were studied by polarized light imaging experiments. The optical responses of 2D PtSe2 film almost unchanged under the incident channel with different rotation angle, which indicate the in-plane isotropic absorption of PtSe2 (Figure 2c).
Figure 2.
Optical properties of NTMDs. (a)-(b) Vis-near-IR and mid-IR absorption spectra of PtSe2 with different thickness. The substrates are sapphires and the (a) inset is optical absorption spectrum of 5 nm thick Au film as reference. (c) Reflective intensity of RGB channels as the function of rotational incident angle, which reflect the in-plane isotropic absorption of PtSe2. (a)-(c) are reproduced with permission [33]. (d)and (e) calculated optical conductivity spectra of 1 L and bulk PdSe2, reproduced with permission [34]. (f) Integrated SHG intensity diagram with different rotation angle of line-polarized laser, reproduced with permission [35].
On contrary, due to the unique orthorhombic pentagonal structure, PdSe2 shows anisotropic optical response in the van der Waals plane [34]. From the calculated optical conductivity spectra in Figure 2d and e, the cut-off energy in bulk PdSe2 is lower than that in 1 L PdSe2, and the conductivity curves in xx and yy direction in both bulk and 2D PdSe2 perform very different characteristics. The anisotropic phenomenon appears at ~1.5 and 1.25 eV in bulk and 2D structure, respectively. The large anisotropy also be predicted at ~2 eV in monolayer PdSe2. Second harmonic generation (SHG) polarization diagram is also performed for observing the anisotropic properties [35]. When the polarization direction of incident light and the crystal orientation are parallel (position of 0° and 180° in Figure 2f), the intensity achieves the maximum, while at the position of 0° and 180°, the SHG signal shows significantly decrease.
4. Synthesize of 2D NTMDs
In order to realizing the practical applications of the new kind of TMDs materials, the effective synthesis methods are essential to prepare particular samples with high crystallinity quality, desirable thickness and large lateral size. Up to now, various of synthesis strategies have been conducted to a variety of high-quality NTMDs. Here we do a general review on the different fabrication methods for NTMDs. Chemical vapor transport (CVT) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) techniques are most two important methods for NTMDs which are applied to the following photodetector applications.
CVT method is a traditional crystal growth method, which is recently reintroduced for the direct synthesis of TMDs with high crystal quality [36, 37, 38]. The synthesis setup is as shown in Figure 3a [39]. Pt and Se powders with strict ratio are loaded in the quartz ampoule. After the vapor reactions with the help of a gaseous reactant under high temperature and vacuum, PtSe2 crystals are formed and deposited elsewhere. By carefully adjusting the amounts of reactants and transport, Hu et al. successfully obtained triangular-shaped PtSe2 flakes with 10–50 μm and good controllability [41]. From Figure 3d, the optical images exhibit that PtSe2 nanoflakes have controlled layer numbers from 1-layer (1 L) to 20 layers (~20 L) and the atomic force microscope (AFM) images in insets provide the thickness information. The as-grown nanoplates with monocrystalline structure, controllable thickness and large lateral size are very suitable for electronic and photonic devices. Due to the ease of growing bulk crystals by CVT, people also use this method to grow high quality single-crystalline bulk NTMDs and obtain one- to few-layer 2D flakes by peeled from the bulk NTMDs crystal.
Figure 3.
Materials fabrication for large-scale films and monocrystalline nanosheets. (a) Schematic of CVT method for PtSe2 with controllable thickness, reproduced with permission [39]. (b) Schematic of CVD selenization method for scalable PtSe2 films, reproduced with permission [40]. (c) Schematic of CVD method for the controlled synthesis of NTMDs nanosheets, reproduced with permission [39]. (d) Optical images of PVT-grown PtSe2 flakes with 10–50 μm and controlled layer numbers from 1 L to ~20 L, reproduced with permission [41]. (e) Photographs of CVD-grown 2D PtSe2 polycrystal films from 0.75 to 10 nm, reproduced with permission [42]. (f) Material characterizations for PtSe2 single crystal nanosheets by CVD method, including HAADF-STEM, EDS, Raman, HRTEM and SEAD techniques, reproduced with permission [43].
CVD is a very common synthesis method in which a large number of 2D materials with scalable size, controllable thickness and high-quality crystal structure have been prepared such as graphene, TMDs, Xene, MXene, boron nitride and so on [44, 45, 46]. Recently, the CVD method also be adopted for large-scale NTMDs fabrication. Figure 3b shows a CVD selenization method for scalable PtSe2 films. The Pt film as seed were deposited on the substrate (usually the SiO2 or Si wafer) at first and placed in the center of CVD furnace. The Se powder is at the upstream side. Then the direct selenization of the Pt film happens under high temperature, low pressure and argon gas protection. In 2015, Wang et al. firstly synthesized monolayer PtSe2 nanosheets [40]. Then Han et al. obtained large area PtSe2 film (> a few cm2) with controllable thickness [42]. Figure 3e shows the photographs of as-grown 2D PtSe2 polycrystal films from 0.75 to 10 nm (corresponding to the layer numbers from 1 L to ~15 L). In 2018, Yuan et al. successfully fabricated PtSe2-PtS2 heterostructure film with wafer-scale and successfully achieved the wafer-scale photodetector application [47]. Besides, CVD method can also synthesize high-quality 2D NTMDs nanocrystals. Figure 3c exhibits a schematic of growing 2D nanosheets and through the method, Ma et al. successfully fabricated 2D PtTe2 nanoplates with tunable thickness and a large lateral size up to 80 μm [43]. From Figure 3f, the high-angle annular darkfield scanning-TEM (HAADF-STEM) image as well as the EDS mapping analysis shows the well-faceted triangular geometry and the uniformly spatial distribution of Pt and Te elements. The Raman spectrum and High-resolution TEM (HRTEM) furtherly show the high quality of nanosheets and the 6-fold symmetry SEAD pattern shows the hexagonal crystal structure. Type-II Dirac fermions are observed in the high-quality nanocrystal platform. Another advantage of the grown method is that 2D materials can be grown on arbitrary substrates, because both the pre-deposition and post-selenization process do not have strict requirements to the substrate. Till now, 2D NTMDs have been fabricated on different substrates including Si, SiO2, Sapphire, gallium nitride (GaN), fused quartz, and flexible polyimide.
There are some other synthesize ways for atomic TMDs. Mechanical exfoliation (ME) is one of the most extensively adopted approaches for 2D nanoflakes from their bulk counterparts [13]. Therefore, the as-prepared 2D flakes can maintain the intrinsic structure. Nowadays, most of mechanically exfoliated NTMDs thin flakes are from bulk crystals grown by CVT [48] and self-flux method [26, 49]. These typical nanosheets show the extraordinary electronic properties, but their small lateral size and uncontrollability during the fabrication process limit their application potential in practical devices. Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) has also been applied for 2D NTMDs, including PtSe2 [50], PdTe2 [51] and PdSe2 [52], which shows the merits of large-size monocrystalline, and controllable thickness on different substrates. For example, the high-quality PtSe2 atomic film was epitaxial grown on bi-layer graphene/6H-SiC substrate through MBE method [50]. The as-grown film had controllable thickness from single-layer to over 22 layers, which shows extraordinary thickness-dependent electronic properties and tunable bandgaps.
5. 2D NTMDs for photodetection
So far, various NTMDs based photodetectors with diverse constructions and high-performance have been reported [53]. Table 1 summarizes their characteristic parameters. The strong optical absorption capability and large carrier mobility of NTMDs provide high responsivity (R) and detectivity (D*) for these photodetectors, while the narrow bandgaps of atomic layered PtS2, PtSe2 and PdSe2 make them inherently suitable for NIR detection. For multi-layer NTMDs (over 5 L for PtSe2), which can be regarded as semimetal materials, they can be combined with other semiconductor materials and construct Schottky heterostructures. By choosing a suitable semiconductor functional layer with a particular bandgap (such as n-Si, III − V, 2D perovskite, 2D MoS2, and so on), the photodetector can work efficiently at a specifical wavelength. In addition, owing to the majority-carrier-dominant current-flow mechanism, photodetectors based on NTMDs heterostructures have advantages in high-speed applications. Combined with other electronic characteristics, different photodetectors with wide-spectral, fast-speed, self-powered and anisotropic have been realized. NTMDs based wafer-scalable and flexible photodetectors arrays could be the future development trend. We will comprehensively discuss them in this section.
Summary of characteristic parameters for NTMDs based photodetectors.
*The detectivity D of a photodetector is a figure of merit, defined as the inverse of the noise-equivalent power (NEP). The larger the detectivity of a photodetector, the more it is suitable for detecting week signals which compete with the detector noise. But the specific detectivity D* is the detectivity normalized to a unit detector area and detection bandwidth; one can calculate it by multiplying the detectivity with the square root of the product of detector area (in square centimeters) and the detector bandwidth (in Hz). That term is useful for comparing the performance of different detector technologies.
5.1 2D NTMDs photodetectors
Due to the great electronic transport and optical properties of NTMDs, various of NTMDs based phototransistors have been studied [23, 39, 48, 54]. Here we illustrate a typical PtS2 phototransistor as an instance [48]. The device schematic is as shown in Figure 4a, in which few-layer PtS2 as the channel material on h-BN substrate. The device shows a high field-effect mobility of ~13 cm2V−1S−1 and the high on/off ratio of 105. Then the photo-response ability under light illumination at visible wavelength (500 nm) is studied. Both photogenerated conductive and photo-gating effects are observed in the device. Figure 4b is the 3D diagram which shows the combined photocurrent with incident light intensity and gate voltage (Vg). By calculation, the detectivity and responsivity are obtained with the function of Vg (Figure 4c). when Vg is zero, the responsivity is highly at 1560 AW−1, which shows 106 times higher than that of graphene and 103 times higher than that of BP detectors (~0.5 and 657 mAW−1, respectively). Similarly, the detectivity (D*), as the inverse of the noise-equivalent power and the key parameter related to the signal-to-noise rate of the device, reaches 2.9 × 1011 Jones, which is also higher than that of other 2D-based devices (Figure 4c). The photo-gain is about 2 × 106 at 30 V of Vg, which could be the highest gain in 2D-based photodetectors. The few-Layered PtS2 phototransistor shows that NTMDs is outstanding candidate in photodetection area at visible wavelength range.
Figure 4.
2D NTMDs phototransistors. (a)-(c) PtS2 on h-BN for photodetection. (a) Schematic of the device structure. (b) 3D view of photocurrent mapping. (c) the responsivity and detectivity as a function of vg measured at Vds = 0.1 V. (a)-(c) are reproduced with permission [48]. (d)-(f) bilayer PtSe2 for ultrawide spectra photodetection. (d) and (e) time-resolved photo-response curve at the wavelength of 0.63, 1.47 and 10 μm. (d)-(e) are reproduced with permission [39]. (f) Polarized plot diagram which shows the photocurrent of the device as a function of linear polarization rotation. The gate bias is 50 V and the wavelength is 532 nm, reproduced with permission [54].
Mid-IR optoelectronics is fantastic and important because there is an optical transparent window at Mid-IR in the atmosphere. However, in traditional TMDs based photodetectors, it is very difficult to realize the effective detection at Mid-IR. NTMDs can overcome the difficulty due to the narrow bandgap. Yu et al. fabricated a bi-layer PtSe2 based phototransistor, which can realize wide-spectral and sensitive detection from 632 nm to 10 μm [39]. As shown in Figure 4d and e, the time-resolved photo-response results are obtained at 632 nm, 1.47 μm and 10 μm, with photo- responsivity of 6.25 AW−1, 5.5 AW−1 and 4.5 AW−1, respectively. The achieved photocurrent responsivity at 10 μm is 3 orders of magnitude higher than that of graphene and comparable to commercial mid-IR detectors. The rise and fall time are also better than other TMDs based photodetectors owing to the high mobility of PtSe2. Overall, bilayer PtSe2 shows promising potential in mid-IR optoelectronic applications.
For anisotropic detector applications, Liang et al. adopted PdSe2 as the photosensitive material [54]. The photodetector shows effective photo-response covering from 532 nm to 4.05 μm. The responsivity is 708 AW−1, which is five orders larger than graphene and two orders larger than commercial InGaAs near-IR photodetectors. Furthermore, with the unique pentagonal structure of PdSe2, the detector shows anisotropic photo-response for the linear-polarized light with varying polarization angle. In Figure 4f, when the increase of rotation angle with the step of 15° from 0° to 360°, the photocurrent clearly shows periodical variation and reaches the maximum value at 120° and 300°, which is coincident with the angle-resolved polarized Raman response results, furtherly showing the lattice effects. The anisotropic detectors as linear dichroism media have potential in optical communication and structural chemistry analysis.
Overall, with the first realization of PtSe2 photodetectors in 2016 [23], Various of NTMDs and their photodetection abilities are studied, which show great performance. Till now, NTMDs based photodetectors exhibit higher responsivity and photo-gain than that of graphene, conventional TMDs and other 2D photodetectors. The work wavelength has been extended to 10 μm and the anisotropic detection has also been realized. With the development of NTMDs synthesis technique, the optimization of device structure, and the study of NTMDs photo-current mechanism, the narrow bandgap material will be the excellent candidate in the field of photodetection.
5.2 2D NTMDs heterostructures for photodetection
NTMDs with widely tunable energy gaps and high carrier mobility have broad prospects in developing high-performance photodetectors. However, the ultrathin thickness nature makes 2D NTMDs relatively low light absorption. Constructing NTMDs based heterostructures can not only enhance the light absorption, but accelerate the separation and transmission of carriers, and invent the high-speed photodetectors. Therefore, different NTMDs heterostructures have been studied for fast, broadband, self-powered and polarization-sensitive photodetectors.
Due to the atomic thickness, NTMDs is very convenient to from heterostructures with conventional semiconductors such as Si [55], n-Si [56, 62], Ge [57, 63], GaAs [58], GaN [59] and CdTe [60]. Few-layer PtSe2 is semimetal state. By choosing p-doped bulk semiconductors with appropriate work function and bandgaps and contacting them with Few-layer PtSe2 layer, the Schottky junction will be formed. The detection wavelength is determined by the bulk semiconductor. Zeng et al. fabricated the PtSe2-GaAs vertical heterostructure detector [58]. The device schematic and the photocurrent generation mechanism are depicted in Figure 5a. Under the light illumination, the electron–hole pairs forms at the interface of the heterojunction, then separates with the function of in-built electric field. The photocurrent generates and gathered by two electrodes. The device shows the broadband work wavelength from200 to 1200 nm and a large photo-response at visible wavelength (Figure 5b). The responsivity and specific detectivity reach to 708 mAW−1 and 2.9 × 1012 Jones at 808 nm, respectively. Moreover, the device achieves the fast response speed, in which the rise and fall time are only 5.5 and 6.5 μs (Figure 5c). By choosing the semiconductor layer with relatively large energy gap, e.g., GaN, the deep-UV photodetectors can be realized [59]. The self-powered PtSe2-GaN phototransistor has the responsivity of 193 mAW−1, an ultra-high specific detectivity of 3.8 × 1014 Jones and a fast response time of 45.2/102.3 μs at zero gate voltage. In particular, the calculated linear dynamic range (LDR) exceeds 155 dB, which much higher than all reported 2D based detectors and commercial photodetectors. For infra-wavelength application, Wang et al. designed a near-infrared light photovoltaic detector by constructing few-layer PtSe2-Ge heterostructure [57]. Since the device works at photovoltaic region, the self-start operation can be realized without any external power supply. The device also has high responsivity (602 mAW−1 at 1550 nm, closed to that of commercial device) and long environment stability. Then Wu and the co-workers designed the improved graphene-PdSe2-Ge heterostructure (Figure 5d) [63]. With graphene as a transport and protector layer, the device has great stability and can realize the imaging application. In particular, with continuedly working over 5000 cycles, the photo-response still remains stable, showing the practical application potential (Figure 5e). Due to the particularity of PdSe2, the device can achieve the dipole anisotropic operation (see Figure 5f).
Figure 5.
(a) Device schematic and the photocurrent generation mechanism of the PtSe2-GaAs photodetector. (b) Wavelength-dependent specific detectivity and responsivity of PtSe2-GaAs photodetector. (c) Fast photo-response with the rise/fall time of 5.5/6.5 μs. (a)-(c) are reproduced with permission [58]. (d) Schematic diagram of graphene-PdSe2-Ge based photodetectors. (e) the long-term stability measurement results, where the device still remains stable with continuedly working over 5000 cycles. (f) Normalized photocurrent graphs which obtained by changing illumination polarization angle of linearly polarized light with wavelengths of 365, 650, 980 and 1550 nm. (d)-(f) are reproduced with permission [63].
Perovskite is also an emerging material with a large absorption coefficient, long diffusion length and low trapping density, which has aroused extensive research interest in optoelectronics. Zhang et al. reported a new type of detector based on few-layer PtSe2 and FACsPbI3 perovskite heterostructure [61]. The device has broad spectra response from 300 to 1200 nm, with the responsivity of 117.7 mAW−1, high Ilight/Idark ratio of 5.7 × 103 and considerable specific detectivity of 2.6 × 1012 Jones. Especially, due to the extraordinary electronic properties of PtSe2 and the perovskite and the well-designed built-in electric field at Schottky junction interface, the response time is only 78/60 ns, which is one of the fastest reported values in mixed-dimensional 2D-3D van der Waals heterostructures. Zeng and the co-workers chose PtSe2 to construct heterojunction with FA1 − xCsxPbI3 perovskite film, which can realize the self-powered detection operation from 200 to 1550 nm [64]. The device demonstrates high responsivity, large on/off ratio, a good polarization sensitivity over 104, and reliable imaging application at 808 nm.
The heterostructure between NTMDs with other 2D materials is also fantastic. Here we use PdSe2-MoS2 heterostructure as an example [65]. Both of PdSe2 and MoS2 are multilayer flakes with thickness of ~10 nm. The ultra-thin device can not only a ultrawide spectra working range from 532 nm to 10.6 μm, but contributes an ultrahigh responsivity of 42.1 AW−1 at 10.6 μm.
5.3 Perspective of 2D NTMDs in photodetectors
Due to the industrial demand and the inherent advantages of 2D materials, the development trend of 2D optoelectronics is scalability and flexibility. Yuan et al. has realized the fabrication of wafer-scale PtS2- PtSe2 heterojunctions and devices [47]. They pre-deposited 0.8 nm Pt films as arrays of periodic square, then directly grew PtS2 and PtSe2 2D thin films by CVD method. Figure 6a is the photograph and Figure 6b shows the schematic illustration of one single device. The photodetector array can work from 405 nm to 2200 nm. The ultrathin device has a large external quantum efficiency (EQE) (1.2% at 1064 nm, 0.2% at 1550 nm, and 0.05% at 2200 nm). The response time is several milliseconds. If the quality of thin film is improved, the response time could be faster. The scalable devices can be adopted for high-resolution imaging, as shown in Figure 6c.
Figure 6.
(a)-(c) Wafer-scale NTMDs photodetection and imaging. (a) Photograph of PtS2- PtSe2 photodetectors array on a SiO2/Si wafer. (b) Schematic illustration of the photodetector device. (a)-(b) are reproduced with permission [47]. (c) high-resolution imaging by NTMDs based photodetectors, reproduced with permission [63]. (d)-(f) Flexible photodetection based on PtSe2. (d) illustration of the PtSe2 thin film based Flexible photodetector. (e)Time-resolved photo-response curve at the wavelength of 408, 515 and 640 nm. (f) Mechanic stability measurement, in which the photocurrent is recorded as a function of bending cycles. (e)-(f) are reproduced with permission [66].
For the study of NTMDs flexible devices, Su and the co-workers did the pioneer work [66]. PtSe2 thin films with 2.5 nm thickness (~3 L) on flexible polyimide substrate were directly grown by plasma-assisted selenization process, which show p-doped semiconductor behaviors and the average field effect mobility of 0.7 cm2V−1S−1. Figure 6d shows the array of devices with the finger-type electrode structure. The flexible photodetector shows good photoresponse with responsivity of 0.4, 0.25 and 0.1AW−1 at 408, 515 and 640 nm, respectively (Figure 6e). Moreover, the great mechanic stability is exhibited. Under large bending with different radius over 1000 cycles, the device can still generate stable photocurrent with almost no degradation, which is depicted in Figure 6f.
6. Conclusions
In this chapter, we focus on 2D NTMDs and their applications in the field of photodetectors. 2D NTMDs exhibit extraordinary structural, electronic and optical properties. Unlike conventional TMD materials, the emerging NTMDs with abundant d-electrons and strong interlayer electronic hybridization have broadband optical absorption and ultra-high mobility, which are promising in optoelectronics. Then we have discussed efficient and controllable synthesis methods for 2D NTMDs with high crystal quality and large scalability. Various NTMDs based photodetectors have been developed till now. We have witnessed their outstanding performance, including wide-spectral range, ultrafast response, self-power and anisotropy. With the development of the materials technology and device manufacturing technology, NTMDs will have great potential in practical optoelectronic applications.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the Starting Research Funds from Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, China (No. Y0D1051F211). Dr. Jian yuan acknowledges the support from Natural Science Research Project for Anhui Universities (grant no. KJ2019A0596), and Youth Project of Provincial Natural Science Foundation of Anhui (grant no. 2008085QF319).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"noble-transition-metal dichalcogenides, 2D materials, photodetectors, optoelectronics, van der Waals",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75114.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75114.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75114",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75114",totalDownloads:411,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 3rd 2020",dateReviewed:"January 7th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2021",datePublished:"September 29th 2021",dateFinished:"February 5th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"2D Transition-Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDs) have been widely considered as a promising material for future optoelectronics due to the strong light-matter interaction, fantastic electronic properties and environmental stability. However, the relatively large bandgap and low mobility of conventional TMDs (such as MoS2 and WS2) limit their applications in infra optoelectronics and high-speed photodetection. In this chapter, we introduce a new type of group-10 noble TMDs (NTMDs), which exhibit outstanding properties such as unique structural phase, widely tunable energy gap and high mobility. Till now, various NTMDs-based photodetectors have been realized with ultrabroad detection waveband (200 nm to 10.6 μm), fast response time, high responsivity and detectivity, and polarization sensitivity. NTMDs have been excellent potential candidates for next-generation photodetection devices with high-performance, wafer-scalability and flexibility.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75114",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75114",signatures:"Haoran Mu, Jian Yuan and Shenghuang Lin",book:{id:"10459",type:"book",title:"Light-Emitting Diodes and Photodetectors",subtitle:"Advances and Future Directions",fullTitle:"Light-Emitting Diodes and Photodetectors - Advances and Future Directions",slug:"light-emitting-diodes-and-photodetectors-advances-and-future-directions",publishedDate:"September 29th 2021",bookSignature:"Maurizio Casalino and Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10459.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-556-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-555-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-564-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"106767",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Casalino",slug:"maurizio-casalino",fullName:"Maurizio Casalino"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"329900",title:"Prof.",name:"Shenghuang",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",fullName:"Shenghuang Lin",slug:"shenghuang-lin",email:"linshenghuang@sslab.org.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"344332",title:"Dr.",name:"Haoran",middleName:null,surname:"Mu",fullName:"Haoran Mu",slug:"haoran-mu",email:"haoran.mu@monash.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Monash University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"344333",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian",middleName:null,surname:"Yuan",fullName:"Jian Yuan",slug:"jian-yuan",email:"jianyuan_cq@126.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Anhui Normal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Structural and electronic properties of 2D NTMDs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Optical properties of 2D NTMDs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Synthesize of 2D NTMDs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. 2D NTMDs for photodetection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 2D NTMDs photodetectors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 2D NTMDs heterostructures for photodetection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Perspective of 2D NTMDs in photodetectors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Arquer FPG, Armin A, Meredith P, Sargent EH. Solution-processed semiconductors for next-generation photodetectors. Nature Reviews Materials. 2017;2(3): 1-17.'},{id:"B2",body:'Donati S. Photodetectors: Prentice Hall PTR; 1999.'},{id:"B3",body:'Zhai T, Fang X, Liao M, Xu X, Zeng H, Yoshio B, et al. 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Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, China
Department of Materials Science and Engineering and ARC Centre of Excellence in Future Low-Energy Electronics Technologies (FLEET), Monash University, Australia
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We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
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Our platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
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Our reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
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Our expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
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Our reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 184,650 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
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We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
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Our platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
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Our reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
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Our expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
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Our reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 184,650 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
\n\n
Our services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
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A Creative Commons license, so authors always keep their copyright;
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A dedicated Author Service Manager to guide the publication process from submission to publication;
\n\t
Professional copyediting and language editing;
\n\t
Monitoring with CrossCheck plagiarism identification software;
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Professional typesetting in fulltext, interactive XML;
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An open access e-book, plus beautifully produced hardcover and affordable paperback print-on-demand editions;
\n\t
Professional cover design;
\n\t
Access to our online Manuscript Tracking System;
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A dedicated landing page;
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Real-time user statistics for each book and chapter;
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Automated citation and reference options for each chapter;
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DOI for every book and every individual chapter;
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ISBN and ISSN registration;
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Long-term archiving in CLOCKSS;
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Distribution to libraries;
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Indexing in Web of Science Book Citation Index, OAPEN, PubMed Bookshelf;
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SEO optimization;
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Inclusion in and metadata distribution to repositories such as Google Scholar, EBSCO, WorldCat, OpenAIRE, CNKI;
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Our end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
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Anti-inflammatory diet is designed to improve health and prevent the occurrence and development of chronic diseases associated with inadequate diet. Proper nutrition is based on the anti-inflammatory pyramid and changes in poor eating habits are the long-term strategy for preventing inflammation and chronic diseases. Inflammatory factors from food may play a role in the development of osteoporosis and an anti-inflammatory diet may be a way to control and reduce long-term inflammation and prevent bone loss. Pro-inflammatory cytokines from the fat tissue, through activation of the RANKL/RANK/OPG system could intervene with bone metabolism in a way of increased bone loss. Therefore the special attention need to be given to obese patients due to twofold risk, one related to pro-inflammatory cytokines release and the other related to the deprivation of the vitamin D in the fat tissue.",book:{id:"10323",slug:"osteoporosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Osteoporosis",fullTitle:"Osteoporosis - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Olga Cvijanović Peloza, Sandra Pavičić Žeželj, Gordana Kenđel Jovanović, Ivana Pavičić, Ana Terezija Jerbić Radetić, Sanja Zoričić Cvek, Jasna Lulić Drenjak, Gordana Starčević Klasan, Ariana Fužinac Smojver and Juraj Arbanas",authors:[{id:"339281",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Cvijanović Peloza",slug:"olga-cvijanovic-peloza",fullName:"Olga Cvijanović Peloza"},{id:"346420",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Pavičić Žeželj",slug:"sandra-pavicic-zezelj",fullName:"Sandra Pavičić Žeželj"},{id:"346421",title:"BSc.",name:"Ivana",middleName:null,surname:"Pavičić",slug:"ivana-pavicic",fullName:"Ivana Pavičić"},{id:"346423",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Terezija",middleName:null,surname:"Jerbić Radetić",slug:"ana-terezija-jerbic-radetic",fullName:"Ana Terezija Jerbić Radetić"},{id:"346424",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanja",middleName:null,surname:"Zoričić Cvek",slug:"sanja-zoricic-cvek",fullName:"Sanja Zoričić Cvek"},{id:"346426",title:"MSc.",name:"Jasna",middleName:null,surname:"Lulić Drenjak",slug:"jasna-lulic-drenjak",fullName:"Jasna Lulić Drenjak"},{id:"346427",title:"Prof.",name:"Gordana",middleName:null,surname:"Starčević Klasan",slug:"gordana-starcevic-klasan",fullName:"Gordana Starčević Klasan"},{id:"346428",title:"MSc.",name:"Ariana",middleName:null,surname:"Fužinac Smojver",slug:"ariana-fuzinac-smojver",fullName:"Ariana Fužinac Smojver"},{id:"346429",title:"Prof.",name:"Juraj",middleName:null,surname:"Arbanas",slug:"juraj-arbanas",fullName:"Juraj Arbanas"},{id:"350011",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordana",middleName:null,surname:"Kenđel Jovanović",slug:"gordana-kendjel-jovanovic",fullName:"Gordana Kenđel Jovanović"}]},{id:"76351",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97416",title:"Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis",slug:"glucocorticoid-induced-osteoporosis",totalDownloads:246,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The use of glucocorticoids (GC) in the medium and long term, causes several considerable side effects, being one of the main ones the reduction of bone mineral density (BMD). Prolonged corticosteroid therapy reduces BMD by up to 20% in trabecular bone and approximately 2–3% in cortical bone in the first year of use. This loss rate declines and stabilizes at approximately 2% in subsequent years. Therefore, there is a considerable increase in the incidence of pathological fractures, whether clinically symptomatic or asymptomatic (detected as a radiological finding), which varies between 30 and 50% of patients who use GC for more than three months. In view of the above, it is essential to prevent fractures and treat osteoporosis in patients using glucocorticoids for long periods (in particular, greater than or equal to 3 months), which may or may not be associated with clinical risk factors or previous fractures. The guidelines for the treatment and prevention of this comorbidity are well established for postmenopausal women and men over 50 years of age. However, for patients below this range, studies are still lacking.",book:{id:"10323",slug:"osteoporosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Osteoporosis",fullTitle:"Osteoporosis - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"José Renan Vieira da Costa Júnior and Sérgio Luchini Batista",authors:[{id:"164388",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Luchini Batista",slug:"sergio-luchini-batista",fullName:"Sergio Luchini Batista"},{id:"354032",title:"Dr.",name:"José Renan",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira Da Costa Júnior",slug:"jose-renan-vieira-da-costa-junior",fullName:"José Renan Vieira Da Costa Júnior"}]},{id:"76677",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97760",title:"Introductory Chapter: Osteoporosis Overview",slug:"introductory-chapter-osteoporosis-overview",totalDownloads:169,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"10323",slug:"osteoporosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Osteoporosis",fullTitle:"Osteoporosis - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Luis Rodrigo",authors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"75660",title:"Bone Quality of the Dento-Maxillofacial Complex and Osteoporosis. Opportunistic Radiographic Interpretation",slug:"bone-quality-of-the-dento-maxillofacial-complex-and-osteoporosis-opportunistic-radiographic-interpre",totalDownloads:337,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Research suggests the use of different indexes on panoramic radiography as a way to assess BMD and to be able to detect changes in bone metabolism before fractures occur. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to describe the use of these parameters as an auxiliary mechanism in the detection of low bone mineral density, as well as to characterize the radiographic findings of patients with osteoporosis.",book:{id:"10323",slug:"osteoporosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Osteoporosis",fullTitle:"Osteoporosis - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Plauto Christopher Aranha Watanabe, Giovani Antonio Rodrigues, Marcelo Rodrigues Azenha, Michel Campos Ribeiro, Enéas de Almeida Souza Filho, Rafael Angelo Soares Vieira and Fabio Santos Bottacin",authors:[{id:"76171",title:"Prof.",name:"Plauto C. A.",middleName:null,surname:"Watanabe",slug:"plauto-c.-a.-watanabe",fullName:"Plauto C. A. Watanabe"},{id:"337631",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovani Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigues",slug:"giovani-antonio-rodrigues",fullName:"Giovani Antonio Rodrigues"},{id:"350577",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Santos Bottacin",slug:"fabio-santos-bottacin",fullName:"Fabio Santos Bottacin"},{id:"350578",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael Angelo",middleName:null,surname:"Soares Vieira",slug:"rafael-angelo-soares-vieira",fullName:"Rafael Angelo Soares Vieira"},{id:"350579",title:"Dr.",name:"Enéas de Almeida",middleName:null,surname:"Souza Filho",slug:"eneas-de-almeida-souza-filho",fullName:"Enéas de Almeida Souza Filho"},{id:"350580",title:"Dr.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Campos Ribeiro",slug:"michel-campos-ribeiro",fullName:"Michel Campos Ribeiro"},{id:"350581",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigues Azenha",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigues Azenha",slug:"rodrigues-azenha-rodrigues-azenha",fullName:"Rodrigues Azenha Rodrigues Azenha"}]},{id:"76677",title:"Introductory Chapter: Osteoporosis Overview",slug:"introductory-chapter-osteoporosis-overview",totalDownloads:170,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"10323",slug:"osteoporosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Osteoporosis",fullTitle:"Osteoporosis - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Luis Rodrigo",authors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}]},{id:"76507",title:"Osteoporosis: A Multifactorial Disease",slug:"osteoporosis-a-multifactorial-disease",totalDownloads:195,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"A great achievement of modern medicine is the increased lifespan of the human population. Unfortunately, the comorbidities of aging have created a large economic and health burden on society. Osteoporosis is the most prevalent age-related disease. It is characterized by uncoupled bone resorption that leads to low bone mass, compromised microarchitecture and structural deterioration that increases the likelihood of fracture with minimal trauma, known as fragility fractures. These fractures lead to disproportionally high mortality rate and a drastic decline in quality of life for those affected. While estrogen loss is one known trigger of osteoporosis, a number of recent studies have shown that osteoporosis is a multifactorial condition in both humans and rodent models. The presence or absence of certain factors are likely to determine which subset of the population develop osteoporosis. In this chapter, we review the factors that contribute to osteoporosis with an emphasis on its multifactorial nature and the therapeutic consequences.",book:{id:"10323",slug:"osteoporosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Osteoporosis",fullTitle:"Osteoporosis - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Di Wu, Anna Cline-Smith, Elena Shashkova and Rajeev Aurora",authors:[{id:"339667",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:null,surname:"Aurora",slug:"rajeev-aurora",fullName:"Rajeev Aurora"},{id:"347366",title:"Mr.",name:"Di",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"di-wu",fullName:"Di Wu"},{id:"347367",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Cline-Smith",slug:"anna-cline-smith",fullName:"Anna Cline-Smith"},{id:"347579",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Shashkova",slug:"elena-shashkova",fullName:"Elena Shashkova"}]},{id:"75742",title:"Osteoporosis and Dietary Inflammatory Index",slug:"osteoporosis-and-dietary-inflammatory-index",totalDownloads:230,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Healthy bones are constantly being renewed and proper nutrition is an important factor in this process. Anti-inflammatory diet is designed to improve health and prevent the occurrence and development of chronic diseases associated with inadequate diet. Proper nutrition is based on the anti-inflammatory pyramid and changes in poor eating habits are the long-term strategy for preventing inflammation and chronic diseases. Inflammatory factors from food may play a role in the development of osteoporosis and an anti-inflammatory diet may be a way to control and reduce long-term inflammation and prevent bone loss. Pro-inflammatory cytokines from the fat tissue, through activation of the RANKL/RANK/OPG system could intervene with bone metabolism in a way of increased bone loss. Therefore the special attention need to be given to obese patients due to twofold risk, one related to pro-inflammatory cytokines release and the other related to the deprivation of the vitamin D in the fat tissue.",book:{id:"10323",slug:"osteoporosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Osteoporosis",fullTitle:"Osteoporosis - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Olga Cvijanović Peloza, Sandra Pavičić Žeželj, Gordana Kenđel Jovanović, Ivana Pavičić, Ana Terezija Jerbić Radetić, Sanja Zoričić Cvek, Jasna Lulić Drenjak, Gordana Starčević Klasan, Ariana Fužinac Smojver and Juraj Arbanas",authors:[{id:"339281",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Cvijanović Peloza",slug:"olga-cvijanovic-peloza",fullName:"Olga Cvijanović Peloza"},{id:"346420",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Pavičić Žeželj",slug:"sandra-pavicic-zezelj",fullName:"Sandra Pavičić Žeželj"},{id:"346421",title:"BSc.",name:"Ivana",middleName:null,surname:"Pavičić",slug:"ivana-pavicic",fullName:"Ivana Pavičić"},{id:"346423",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Terezija",middleName:null,surname:"Jerbić Radetić",slug:"ana-terezija-jerbic-radetic",fullName:"Ana Terezija Jerbić Radetić"},{id:"346424",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanja",middleName:null,surname:"Zoričić Cvek",slug:"sanja-zoricic-cvek",fullName:"Sanja Zoričić Cvek"},{id:"346426",title:"MSc.",name:"Jasna",middleName:null,surname:"Lulić Drenjak",slug:"jasna-lulic-drenjak",fullName:"Jasna Lulić Drenjak"},{id:"346427",title:"Prof.",name:"Gordana",middleName:null,surname:"Starčević Klasan",slug:"gordana-starcevic-klasan",fullName:"Gordana Starčević Klasan"},{id:"346428",title:"MSc.",name:"Ariana",middleName:null,surname:"Fužinac Smojver",slug:"ariana-fuzinac-smojver",fullName:"Ariana Fužinac Smojver"},{id:"346429",title:"Prof.",name:"Juraj",middleName:null,surname:"Arbanas",slug:"juraj-arbanas",fullName:"Juraj Arbanas"},{id:"350011",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordana",middleName:null,surname:"Kenđel Jovanović",slug:"gordana-kendjel-jovanovic",fullName:"Gordana Kenđel Jovanović"}]},{id:"76351",title:"Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis",slug:"glucocorticoid-induced-osteoporosis",totalDownloads:248,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The use of glucocorticoids (GC) in the medium and long term, causes several considerable side effects, being one of the main ones the reduction of bone mineral density (BMD). Prolonged corticosteroid therapy reduces BMD by up to 20% in trabecular bone and approximately 2–3% in cortical bone in the first year of use. This loss rate declines and stabilizes at approximately 2% in subsequent years. Therefore, there is a considerable increase in the incidence of pathological fractures, whether clinically symptomatic or asymptomatic (detected as a radiological finding), which varies between 30 and 50% of patients who use GC for more than three months. In view of the above, it is essential to prevent fractures and treat osteoporosis in patients using glucocorticoids for long periods (in particular, greater than or equal to 3 months), which may or may not be associated with clinical risk factors or previous fractures. The guidelines for the treatment and prevention of this comorbidity are well established for postmenopausal women and men over 50 years of age. However, for patients below this range, studies are still lacking.",book:{id:"10323",slug:"osteoporosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Osteoporosis",fullTitle:"Osteoporosis - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"José Renan Vieira da Costa Júnior and Sérgio Luchini Batista",authors:[{id:"164388",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Luchini Batista",slug:"sergio-luchini-batista",fullName:"Sergio Luchini Batista"},{id:"354032",title:"Dr.",name:"José Renan",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira Da Costa Júnior",slug:"jose-renan-vieira-da-costa-junior",fullName:"José Renan Vieira Da Costa Júnior"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1414",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. 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He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"351159",title:"BSc.",name:"Kalum J.",middleName:null,surname:"Ost",slug:"kalum-j.-ost",fullName:"Kalum J. Ost",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"325029",title:"Dr.",name:"Prem Chand",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"prem-chand-jain",fullName:"Prem Chand Jain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shiv Nadar University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357275",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Mih",slug:"thomas-mih",fullName:"Thomas Mih",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Buea",country:{name:"Cameroon"}}},{id:"305305",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo Yosimar",middleName:null,surname:"Jaen-Cuellar",slug:"arturo-yosimar-jaen-cuellar",fullName:"Arturo Yosimar Jaen-Cuellar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305315",title:"Dr.",name:"David Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Elvira-Ortiz",slug:"david-alejandro-elvira-ortiz",fullName:"David Alejandro Elvira-Ortiz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"344374",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Toledano-Ayala",slug:"manuel-toledano-ayala",fullName:"Manuel Toledano-Ayala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"40",type:"subseries",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11968,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. 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A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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