\r\n\tDigital images can be easily distorted by noise during the acquisition, processing, and transmission. Noise level is an important parameter to consider in image processing algorithms, including denoising, compression, feature extraction, motion estimation, optical flow, segmentation, super-resolution, and image quality assessment. Their performance depends on the accuracy of the noise level estimate.
\r\n
\r\n\tImage denoising is an important stage to improve the accuracy of many image processing techniques, such as image segmentation and recognition. Image segmentation is another important stage in computer vision applications. Many methodologies utilize both stages in a unique algorithm to solve the problem of the segmentation of noisy images to provide better classification and recognition compared to algorithms that independently use these two stages. \r\n\tThe goal of this book will be to collect original research chapters that develop or apply new theories and/or hardware or software to process the acquired noisy images to solve the problem of Segmentation of noisy images in the field of medical imaging, remote sensing, engineering, and other research applications.
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1. Introduction to digital holography (DH)
Digital holograms are generated by recording the interference pattern of two mutually coherent beams. These two beams are the object beam and the reference beam and the recording medium is usually a CCD [1]. The digital hologram recorded on the CCD due to the interference of the object beam EO and the reference beam ER is given by
hxy∝IH=ER2+EO2+ER∗EO+EO∗ER,E1
where the * notation denotes the complex conjugate. Traditionally, in analog holography the reconstruction is performed by illuminating a holographic film by the conjugate of the reference beam ER∗, and the real image is obtained from the last term of Eq. (1): ER2EO∗. The first two terms on the right hand side and the third term contribute to the zero order and the virtual image, respectively. The digital reconstruction is generally performed by numerically propagating the field ER∗hxy by the recording distance, d or –d, to reconstruct either the real or virtual images. A typical schematic of the recording and reconstruction of DHs is shown in Figure 1. Several numerical reconstruction algorithms have been developed for DH, although the most common are the discrete Fresnel transform, the convolution approach, and reconstruction by angular spectrum. Each of these reconstruction algorithms will be subsequently briefly described.
Figure 1.
Coordinate system for DH recording and reconstruction.
1.1 Numerical reconstruction by discrete Fresnel transformation
The Fresnel Transform is based on the Fresnel approximation to the Huygens-Fresnel diffraction integral, and under the paraxial approximation, i.e., d3>>2π/λξ−x2+η−y2, the reconstruction of the hologram can be approximated by the Fresnel transformation [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]:
Γξη=zξηℑx,yhxyER∗xywxykx=2πξ/λd,ky=2πη/λd,E2
wxy=exp−jπλdx2+y2,E3
zξη=jλdexp−j2πdλexp−jπξ2+η2/λd,E4
where ℑx,y• is the Fourier transform operator. The intensity is calculated by squaring the optical field, i.e., Iξη=Γξη2 and the phase is calculated using φξη=arctanImΓξη/ReΓξη. Since x,y are discretized on a CCD rectangular raster of Nx,Ny pixels of sizes Δx,Δy, the reconstructed image resolution in the ξ,η coordinates are given by [5, 6, 7].
Δξ=λd/NxΔx,Δη=λd/NyΔy.E5
The image resolution given by Eq. (3) is considered to be “naturally scaled,” such that the value of Δξ is automatically equal to the physical resolution limit imposed by the CCD sampled signal bandwidth [2, 6].
A reflection type Fresnel DH setup based upon the Mach-Zehnder interferometer is schematically shown in Figure 2(a). Light from a Laser source is divided into two parts with a beam splitter. One of the beams forms the reference, while the other is reflected off the object, then both interfere on a CCD camera to form a Fresnel hologram. Figure 2(b) shows a Michelson type setup [8, 9]. An example of a recorded hologram of a Newport Logo recorded using an Argon laser @ 496.5 nm and its reconstruction using Fresnel transform method are shown in Figure 3(a) and (b), respectively.
Figure 2.
Schematic of a DH setup (a) Mach-Zehnder setup, (b) Michelson setup. MO-SF: microscope objective-spatial filter, BS: beam splitter, NF: neutral density filter, M: mirror, CL: collimating Lens.
Figure 3.
The recorded hologram in (a) is reconstructed via Eq. (2) to yield (b) the reconstructed image. Note that (b) contains an in-focus (virtual) image on the right, and an out-of-focus (real) image on the left. The relevant reconstruction parameters are d = 39 cm, λ = 496.5 nm, Δx = 6.7 μm, N = 1024, with reconstructed image resolution Δξ= 28.5 μm.
1.2 Numerical reconstruction by the convolution approach
Since the diffracted field at a distance z = d from the hologram can be expressed as
where GPSF=ℑx,ygPSF. Although the pixel sizes of the images reconstructed by the convolution approach are equal to that of the hologram, namely, Δξ=Δx,Δη=Δy, the physical image resolution remains according to Eq. (3) and is ultimately governed by physical diffraction [5, 6, 7].
1.3 Numerical reconstruction by the angular spectrum approach
In Fourier space and across any plane the various spatial Fourier components of the complex field distribution of a monochromatic wave can be considered as plane waves traveling in different directions away from that plane. The field amplitude at any other point can be calculated by adding the weighted contributions of these plane waves, taking into account of the phase shifts they have undergone during propagation [1]. Similar to the convolution approach above, the angular spectrum approach is based on direct application of the propagation of the angular spectrum of the field in the hologram plane. Accordingly, we define the angular spectrum of the field h⋅ER∗ at the hologram plane as [1]:
where kξ,kη are spatial frequency variables corresponding to ξ,η. After propagating a distance z, each plane wave component of the angular spectrum acquires an additional phase factor e−jkzz where
kz=k02−kξ2−kη2.E10
Therefore, the reconstructed field at a distance z = d becomes:
Table 1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the different reconstruction techniques discussed in this section.
Technique
Advantages
Disadvantages
Fresnel
Fast (uses one FFT)
Used primarily for long distances. (Short distances possible with hologram upsampling prior to reconstruction.)
May be used for larger objects.
Image resolution can be arbitrarily scaled by applying zero padding or upscampling to the hologram.
Image pixel size depends on reconstruction distance and wavelength.
Poor depth resolution for isolating adjacent hologram planes along the propagation axis (compared to newer methods, e.g. compressive sensing).
Not useful in inline holograms of scattering particles that have to be evaluated on different depths
Convolution
Limited numerical image magnification is possible during reconstruction.
Image pixel size does not depend on distance and wavelength and is equal to hologram pixel size (Physical resolution still is governed by diffraction limit)
Useful in inline holograms of scattering particles that have to be evaluated on different depths
Slower (Uses at least two FFT)
Used for small objects
Used for short distances.
Numerical image magnification does not improve object “resolution.”
Angular spectrum
Image pixel size is typically equal to the hologram pixel size. (Physical resolution still is governed by diffraction limit.)
May be used for very short distances where Fresnel technique fails (No minimum distance required between object and CCD).
Typically used for in-line holograms
Slower (Uses at least two FFT)
Used for smaller objects that do not exceed the lateral extent of the CCD for in-line.
Zero padding techniques do not alter resolution.
Table 1.
Advantages and disadvantages of several digital holography reconstruction techniques.
2. Digital holographic microscopy (DHM)
DHM is usually applied to determine 3D shapes of small objects, with height excursions on the order of microns (or phase excursions on the order of a few radians). Since small objects are involved, a microscope objective (MO) is often used to zoom onto a small area of the object to enhance the transverse resolution. Holograms of microscopic objects recorded with DHM setups can be numerically reconstructed in amplitude and phase using the same DH reconstruction techniques discussed in Section 1. The phase aberrations due to the MO and the tilt from the reference beam have to be corrected to obtain the topographic profile or the phase map of the object [10, 11, 12]. Figure 4(a) and (b) show a Michelson DHM in reflection and transmission configurations, respectively.
Figure 4.
Digital holographic microscope: (a) reflective setup, (b) transmissive setup.
For a reflective object on a reflective surface, the height profile on the sample surface is simply proportional to the reconstructed phase distribution φξη, through [10]:
hzξη=λ4πφξη.E12
For a transmissive phase object on a reflective surface, its thickness can be calculated as:
hzξη=λ4πφξηΔn,E13
where Δn is the difference of the index of refraction between the transparent object material and the surrounding medium (e.g. air).
For a transmissive phase object on a transmissive surface or between transmissive surfaces, the phase change (optical thickness) can be calculated as:
hzξη=λ2πφξηΔn.E14
As stated above, in DHM we introduce a MO to increase the spatial resolution which was computed according to Eq. (3). Due to the magnification ‘M’ introduced by the MO the pixel size in the image plane, Δξmag scales according to:
Δξmag=ΔξM=λdN.Δx⋅M,E15
which is simply the magnification predicted by geometric imaging. This is intuitively understood by realizing that the holographic recording is now simply a recording of the geometrically magnified virtual image located at distance d as shown in Figure 5. Thus, the pixel resolution is automatically scaled accordingly. We can enhance the transverse resolution approximately to be equal to the diffraction limit 0.61λ/N.A of the MO, where N.A is the numerical aperture of the MO.
Figure 5.
Generalized holographic recording geometry using a lens. The image location is governed by geometric optics and may be on either side of the lens.
The complete reconstruction algorithm is governed by the equation [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14]:
where zmn=jλdexp−j2πdλexp−jπλdm2Nx2Δx2+n2Ny2Δy2,wkl=exp−jπλdk2Δx2+l2Δy21D=1di1+dodi, and the focal length of the MO is: 1f=1di+1do.
Aberration compensation can be performed manually using a phase mask Ψ to cancel the effects of the quadratic phase due to the MO and the linear phase due to the reference tilt. The phase mask can be written as [11].
where θx,θy are the tilt angles of the reference beam and D is defined in Eq. (11). A more robust technique is to perform automatic aberration cancelation by approximating the residual phase front due to aberration using Zernike polynomials as explained in details in Refs. [13, 14], and shown in Section 4 below.
Consider the transmission setup shown in Figure 4(b). A USAF 1951 resolution chart target is used as an object. The resolution of a USAF resolution chart is documented as:
Rlp/mm=2G+E−16,E18
where Rlp/mm is resolution in line pair per millimeter, G is the group number, and E is the element number. (See Figure 6(a)). As an example, Group 4, Elements 3 and 4 has a resolution of 20.16 lp/mm, and 22.62 lp/mm, respectively. The wavelength used is λ = 488 nm, the reconstruction distance d = 0.202 m, D = 0.14 m, the magnification is M ≈ 8.25, kx0/k0=sinθx=0.01307,ky0/k0=sinθy=0.01305. It should be noted that in practice, it is very difficult to obtain such precise parameter measurements in the laboratory. Typically, approximate measurements are made, then, varied slightly during numerical reconstruction to yield the “best focus” image. Such a process was followed to obtain the parameters listed above. In Section 4, we discuss the telecentric setups which mitigate these difficulties. Figure 6(b) shows the recorded hologram. Figure 6(c) shows the reconstructed hologram amplitude. Figure 6(d) shows the reconstructed phase using approximate phase mask parameters (see the circular fringes). Figure 6(e) shows the reconstructed phase using exact phase mask parameters (no circular fringes). Figure 6(f) shows the residual phase aberration approximation using Zernike polynomials to be subtracted from (e).
Figure 6.
(a) Schematic of the USAF resolution target, (b) recorded hologram, (c) reconstructed hologram amplitude, (d) reconstructed phase using approximate phase mask parameters, (e) reconstructed phase using exact phase mask parameters, and (f) residual phase aberration approximation using Zernike polynomials to be subtracted from (e).
3. Multi-wavelength digital holography (MWDH)
It is well known that one main application of holographic interferometry (HI) is the generation of a fringe pattern corresponding to contours of constant elevation with respect to a reference plane [2]. These contour fringes can be used to determine the shape of a macroscopic or microscopic three-dimensional object.
There exist three main techniques to create holographic contour interferograms: (a) The two-illumination-point method, (b) the two-refractive-index technique, which is generally not practical because we have to change the refractive index of the medium where the object is located, and (c) Multi-wavelength method, which was adopted in this section [6, 8, 11]. For large height profiles (larger than several microns) 2D topography using single wavelength holographic approach is not appropriate since phase unwrapping has limitations especially for sharp edge variations. As shown in Figure 7, the axial displacement of an image recorded with wavelength λ1 and reconstructed with another wavelength λ2, with respect to the image recorded and reconstructed with λ2, is [2, 6, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
Figure 7.
The path difference of the light rays on their way from the source to the surface and from the surface to the hologram.
Δdz=zλ1−λ2λ2.E19
This means that the phase shift depends on the distance z between the object and the hologram plane. The height jump between two adjacent fringes in the reconstructed image is
ΔH=zΔφ=n+1×2π−zΔφ=n×2π=λ1λ22λ1−λ2=Λ2,E20
where Λ is known as the synthetic wavelength. For larger deformations along the z direction, the phase changes could be hundreds of multiples of 2π. Such large fringe densities may lead to difficulty in determining the object phase using the single wavelength technique. However, multi-wavelength illumination encodes the object height in terms of 2π multiples of the synthetic wavelength, which is generally much longer than either fundamental wavelength. This allows larger object deformations to be measured by multi-wavelength illumination as if illuminated by the single wavelength method, where the “single” wavelength is now given by the synthetic wavelength Λ. Typically, synthetic wavelengths can range from few microns to 10’s of microns [16, 18]. The topographic resolution is typically on the order of 1/100 of Λ and the vertical measurement range can reach several Λ’s by employing phase unwrapping for heights larger than Λ [24]. However, much longer or shorter synthetic wavelengths to measure millimeter-scale features can also be performed. Figure 8 shows the advantages of using MWDH to extend the vertical measurement range without phase ambiguity [6]. MWDH may be used to quantify surface topography and displacement measurements for both fixed objects and time-varying objects [17, 18]. It is worth noting that DHM has a lot of applications in living cells [25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30], neural science [31], tissue analysis [32], particle tracking [33, 34, 35, 36], and MEMS analysis [37, 38, 39].
Figure 8.
The advantage of MWDH is that it extends the vertical measurement range without phase ambiguity.
In multiwavelength DH, both holograms are reconstructed separately at the correct fundamental wavelengths, λ1 or λ2. From the resulting reconstructed complex amplitudes Γλ1ξη and Γλ2ξη the phases are calculated as:
φλ1,2ξη=arctanImΓλ1,2ξη/ReΓλ1,2ξη.E21
The synthetic wavelength phase image is now calculated directly by pixel-wise subtraction of the fundamental wavelength hologram phases
Δφ=φλ1−φλ2ifφλ1≥φλ2,φλ1−φλ2+2πifφλ1<φλ2.E22
This phase map is equivalent to the phase distribution of a hologram recorded with the synthetic wavelength
Λ=λ1λ2λ1−λ2.E23
At normal incidence, a 2π phase jump corresponds to a height step of Λ/2, and the change in longitudinal distance or height Δz is given by [2, 6, 9].
Δz=Δφ2πΛ2=Δφ2πλ1λ22λ1−λ2=Δφ2πΔH.E24
Note that the transverse resolution is the same as in DH namely, Δξ=λd/NΔx is the reconstructed pixel size. Similar to DH, MWDH setup can be constructed using Mach-Zehnder or Michelson configuration as shown in Figure 9(a) and (b), respectively. According to Figure 9(c) and (d), we notice that the true height measurements in the Mach-Zehnder and Michelson configurations are:
Figure 9.
(a) Mach-Zehnder configuration, (b) Michelson configuration, with illustration of the true height ΔzTrue relative to the path of phase accumulation for (c) Mach-Zehnder and (d) Michelson configurations.
ΔzTrue,Mach−Zender=Δφ2πΛ2cosθ,E25
ΔzTrue,Michelson≈Δφ2πΛ2,E26
respectively.
One important detail that must be considered when applying the two wavelengths technique is pixel matching. Recall from Eq. (3) that the pixel resolution Δξ of each hologram is dependent upon the fundamental recording wavelength (λ1 or λ2). In order for the reconstruction to be successful, the subtraction described by Eq. (18) must be performed on a pixel-by-pixel basis, in which the pixel sizes match between each hologram (i.e. Δξ1 = Δξ2). This can be accomplished by zero-padding the holograms to alter the numerical resolution according to the following procedure: One hologram is zero-padded prior to reconstruction such that its value of Δξ matches that of the second hologram. The second hologram is then either zero-padded after reconstruction, or the first hologram (which is now larger) is cropped, such that the total sizes of each image are again equal. If it is assumed that λ1 > λ2 then the degree of padding applied to both the λ1 hologram pre-reconstruction and the λ2 hologram post-reconstruction is
padsize=roundN2λ1λ2−1,E27
where pad size is the number of zero elements to be added symmetrically to each edge of the hologram matrix, rounded to the nearest integer value.
3.1 Experimental results for MWDH with and without spatial heterodyning (MWDH-SH)
An example of a 3D profile setup using the MWDH technique is shown in Figure 10. Since the two holograms are recorded sequentially for each wavelength, this technique needs two sequential CCD recordings (i.e. two “shots”). Obviously, this “two-shot” method will not work for dynamic objects. Figure 11(a) shows the Newport logo test object while Figure 11(b) shows the reconstructed hologram of the Newport Logo at one of the wavelengths used (λ1 = 496.5 nm). Figure 11(c) shows the wrapped phase and Figure 11(d) shows the unwrapped 3D surface profile.
Figure 10.
Shape measurement using MWDH.
Figure 11.
(a) Newport logo, (b) reconstructed hologram at λ1 = 496.5 nm, (c) wrapped phase, and (d) unwrapped phase or 3D surface profile. The two wavelengths used are: λ1 = 496.5 nm and λ2 = 488 nm and the synthetic wavelength is Λ = 28.5 μm.
Spatial heterodyning technique has the ability to capture both wavelength measurements in a single composite holographic exposure [6, 9, 21]. This is accomplished by introducing a different angular tilt to the λ1 and λ2 reference beams. These angular tilts in the spatial domain introduce linear phase shifts in the frequency domain of the recorded composite hologram. When reconstructed, the different phase shifts result in spatially separated object locations in the image that each correspond to their respective λ1 and λ2 recordings. One of these reconstructed images is cropped and digitally overlaid upon the other to perform the required phase subtraction. A typical recording configuration using MWDH-SH method is shown in Figure 12. Since the two holograms are recorded for each wavelength at the same time using spatial heterodyning this technique needs only one CCD exposure (i.e. “one-shot”) [6, 9, 21, 22]. This method is well suited for dynamic objects which change relatively quickly and only limited by the integration time of the CCD. Figure 13 shows the reconstructed Newport logo test object. The reconstructed image resolution Δξ = 32 μm/pixel. Note that, two separate reconstructions are required (λ1 and λ2) from the single hologram, although only one reconstruction is shown here.
Figure 12.
Lab setup (Michelson configuration) for macroscopic, spatial heterodyne MWDH using coaxial beams and a single spatial filter and collimation lens. The collimation lens should ideally be achromatic at the λ1 and λ2 wavelengths. M1, M2: Mirrors, BS: Beam splitter, PBS: Polarizing beam splitter. The polarizer, P0, ensures λ1 and λ2 maintain orthogonal polarization [6, 23].
Figure 13.
MWDH-SH hologram reconstruction.
In order to align the two phase images, a block matching algorithm (BMA) is used. After cropping the two reconstructed holograms it is necessary to slide the reference image over the target image looking for best correlation, this is shown in Figure 14. Given the typically rapid variation in object phase, BMA algorithms can only match to within ½ pixel. Hence, BMA matching will generally underperform the two-shot method. After aligning the images, the phase difference is calculated by phase subtraction similar to the two shot technique. The example shown in Figure 15 is for synthetic wavelength Λ= 150 μm.
Figure 14.
BMA slides (a) reference image over (b) the target image, (c) correlation. The best correlation occurs at: Xshift: 0 and Yshift: −4 pixels.
Figure 15.
MWDH-SH phase reconstruction, (a) amplitude reconstruction, (b) phase difference, and (c) phase unwrapping for Λ= 150 μm.
An alternative method of matching the two images is to introduce a phase “tilt” to either one, or both holograms during reconstruction which causes lateral shifts in the position of each image. This is typically referred to as introducing a phase mask, Ψmn, during reconstruction, and in general can take any form, although the most commonly used are tilt phases and lens phases. Proper selection of the phase mask (typically found via multiple iterations) can position one hologram reconstruction directly over the other, and phase subtraction may then be performed in a matter analogous to the “two-shot” method previously described, including appropriate resolution matching via zero-padding. An example of phase due to tilt and due to the MO are given by Eq. (13). The hologram matrix is simply multiplied by the phase mask, Ψ, prior to reconstruction. Although the phase mask method is typically more difficult to implement, requiring multiple iterations to arrive at the correct phase mask, it does not suffer from the inherent mismatch error of up to ½ pixel, as the BMA process does. However, the overlap accuracy will now depend upon the accuracy of the modeled phase mask.
3.2 Experimental results for multi-wavelength DHM (MWDHM) with and without spatial heterodyning (MWDHM-SH)
In this section, we show an example of using the MWDH technique using a microscopy setup similar to the single wavelength DHM shown in Figure 4. Thus, the technique would be abbreviated as (MWDHM). A series of micro-scale objects have been custom fabricated for this experiment as shown in Figure 16(a) and (b). Figure 17(a) shows a MWDHM setup with achromatic optics and can be operated in either the “one-shot” or “two-shot” Michelson configuration. Figure 17(b) is a photograph of the object consisting of 4 bars of photoresist (See element in red circle in Figure 16(a)), each 50 μm wide, on a silicon wafer substrate. Figure 17(c) is the intensity reconstruction of the λ1 hologram only. Figure 17(d) shows the wrapped phase difference between λ1 and λ2 reconstructions. Figure 17(e) shows the unwrapped phase (Ref. [24]) with the residual MO quadratic phase curvature and Figure 17(f) is the 3D topogram after removal of the MO phase using Eq. (13). The relevant reconstruction parameters are: d = 22.7 cm, λ1 = 632.8 nm, λ2 = 488.0 nm, Λ = 2.13 μm, Δx = 6.7 μm, and N = 1024, and M = 2.75. Note that the phase rings are due to a slight mismatch in collimation between the λ1 and λ2 beams, which causes circularly symmetric phase beating since at least one wavefront is not well collimated. This situation arises often in physical lab setups in which both beams are coaxially aligned and filtered using the same pinhole prior to using a single collimation lens. Chromatic dispersion will prevent both wavelengths from being collimated simultaneously, unless an achromatic lens is used.
Figure 16.
(a) Custom fabricated micro-scale objects and (b) 1951 USAF resolution chart with a ∼ 50 nm reflective molybdenum film sputtered on it.
Figure 17.
(a) MWDHM Michelson recording configuration. (b) Photograph of the object. (c) Amplitude reconstruction of the λ1 hologram only. (d) Wrapped phase difference between λ1 and λ2 reconstructions. (e) Unwrapped phase showing MO curvature. (f) the flattened topogram after removal of the curvature.
Here we show an example using the MWDHM technique with the microscopy setup of Figure 17(a), operated in the spatial heterodyne configuration (MWDHM-SH). The object is a set of 3 rectangular photoresist bars, each 75 μm wide, on a silicon wafer (See element in black circle in Figure 16(a)). In this case, the object is simultaneously illuminated by two wavelengths at normal incidence and only a single composite hologram is recorded by the CCD (i.e. “one-shot”). The single hologram is reconstructed twice, one at each fundamental wavelength, and the block-match algorithm is used to align the images prior to phase subtraction. Figure 18(a) shows the intensity reconstruction of the λ1 hologram only, with the region of interest circled, Figure 18(b) shows the wrapped phase difference between λ1 and λ2 reconstructions after block matching and phase subtraction, while Figure 18(c) shows the unwrapped phase with the residual MO quadratic phase curvature, and Figure 18(d) is the 3D topogram after removal of the MO phase and correction of phase errors. The relevant reconstruction parameters are: d = 23 cm, λ1 = 632.8 nm, λ2 = 488 nm, Λ = 2.13 μm, Δx = 6.7 μm, N = 1024, and M = 2.75.
Figure 18.
(a) The intensity reconstruction of the λ1 hologram only, with the region of interest circled. (b) the wrapped phase difference between λ1 and λ2 reconstructions after block matching and phase subtraction. (c) the unwrapped phase with the residual MO quadratic phase curvature, and (d) the 3D topogram after removal of the MO phase, and correction of phase errors.
4. Theoretical background of telecentric systems
In a conventional lens systems the magnification changes with object position change, the image has distortion, perspective errors, image resolution loss along the field depth, and edge position uncertainty due to object border lighting geometry. However, a telecentric system, such as the one shown in Figure 19, provides nearly constant magnification, virtually eliminates perspective angle error (Object with large depth will not appear tilted), and eliminates radial and tangential distortion. In a bitelecentric system, both the entrance pupil (EP) and exit pupil (XP) are located at infinity. Given that double telecentric systems are afocal, shifting either the image or object does not affect magnification.
Figure 19.
A double telecentric system.
As shown in Sections 2 and 3, traditional DHM systems record a digital hologram using a MO. The object phase recovered from digital reconstruction using the Fresnel transform suffers from a parabolic phase factor introduced by the MO. The phase of the MO is superposed over the object phase, often obscuring it. Also, the phase tilt introduced by the reference beam results in linear fringes with high frequency that also obscure the real phase of the object. Numerical techniques as well as optical configurations are usually employed to compensate for both the parabolic phase curvature and the phase tilt. One well-known technique discussed in Section 2 is based on phase mask during reconstruction, which requires knowledge of the setup parameters [13, 14, 40, 41, 42]. If the object parameters are unknown a two-step method is used, in which the hologram of a flat reference surface is initially recorded, and upon reconstruction it is subtracted from that of the hologram of the real object [43]. In this section, we adopt two telecentric configurations in reflection and transmission modes to remove optically, instead of numerically, the phase curvature due to MO [44, 45, 46]. This telecentric setup can be used in a single wavelength or multiwavelength DHM configurations. It is worth noting that while operating in the nontelecentric mode, a posteriori numerical methods will not eliminate the phase aberration completely, as it depends on sample location in the field of view (FOV) [45].
In traditional DHM, the recorded wavefront on the CCD includes the interference of the reference wavefront and the total object wavefront. The total object phase consists of the defocused object phase on the image plane as well as the spherical (quadratic in paraxial approximation) phase due to propagation of the object wave from the image plane to the CCD. The object phase is expressed as [11, 46]:
φxy=jk2Rx2+y2+φobxy,E28
where R is the radius of curvature of the spherical curvature.
Typical multiwavelength DHM setups using telecentric configurations in reflection and transmission modes are shown in Figure 20(a) and (b), respectively. In each setup, the telecentric system is formed by employing two achromatic lenses and an aperture stop similar to Figure 19. The achromatic lenses are crucial to eliminate achromatic aberration due to the use of multi-wavelength illumination. The telecentric system is set in an afocal configuration, where the back focal plane of L1 coincides with the front focal plane of L2f1≡f2, with the object placed at the front focal plane of L1, resulting in the cancelation of the spherical phase curvature normally present in traditional DHM systems.
Figure 20.
Schematics of the TMWDHM setups: (a) reflection and (b) transmission configurations.
Hence, the 3D amplitude distribution in the image space will be a scaled defocused replica of the 3D amplitude distribution of the object space due to the convolution with the PSF of the lens system. For each wavelength λ1λ2, the object wave recorded by the CCD can be expressed as [45]:
Oxy=−1Mexpjk1,22f2+f1×O′xMyM∗P˜xλ1,2f2yλ1,2f2,E29
where, O′∗P˜ is the convolution of the complex amplitude scattered by the object and the PSF, (*) is the convolution operator, and the magnification is M=−f2/f1 [47].
4.1 Experimental results for single wave telecentric DHM (TDHM)
Figure 21 shows a custom developed user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI) for the single wave reflection Telecentric DHM (TDHM) setup similar to that shown in Figure 20(a). The target object is shown in Figure 16(b).
Figure 21.
A custom-designed GUI showing the TDHM in reflection configuration. The object is a reflective object on a reflective substrate (see Figure 16(b)).
The MATLAB GUI is connected to a Lumenra LU120M CCD camera using a USB cable. The GUI is equipped with all the parameters needed to adapt to different CCD camera pixel size, laser wavelength, reconstruction distance, reflection vs. transmission mode. In this example, the laser wavelengths used is λ=488nm the CCD pixel size is 5.2 μm, the reconstruction distance is d = 20.2 cm. The reconstructed height is around 120 nm. It’s worth noting that slight aberrations due to the optical components exist in the final computed phase. This can be automatically corrected by subtracting the reconstructed phase shape from the background phase using Zernike polynomial approximation of the residual phase as shown in the GUI.
The telecentric technique has a lot of advantages compared to a standard DHM system since the reconstruction parameters in a standard DHM are hard to obtain and need to be measured precisely to obtain the 3D phase information.
4.2 Experimental results for telecentric multi-wavelength DHM (TMWDHM)
Figure 22 shows the GUI for the reflection configuration shown in Figure 20(a). The target in this experiment is a transmissive object (PMMA) on a reflective Si background (See element in blue circle in Figure 16(a)). The laser wavelengths used are λ1=514.5nm,λ1=488nm. The synthetic wavelength is: Λ=9.6μm and the CCD pixel size is: 5.2 μm. The reconstruction distance is: d = 20.2 cm. It’s worth noting that a slight misalignment and/or achromatic aberration may result in one residual fringe to remain in the final computed phase. Although achromatic lenses were used, there still might be some remaining chromatic aberration, since the achromats are not perfect. That might be enough to cause the one remaining fringe of phase curvature. This can be automatically corrected by subtracting a the reonstructed phase shape from the background phase using Zernike polynomial approximation of the residual phase as shown in the GUI.
Figure 22.
A custom-designed GUI showing the TMWDHM in reflective configuration. The object is a transmissive object on a reflective substrate (see Figure 16(a)).
5. Simulation of coherent speckle on phase and intensity
Due to the use of coherent optical sources, the recorded holograms and reconstructed fields contain coherent speckle patterns, as seen in the inset in Figure 23(a). Speckle is produced by the coherent interference of a set of wavefronts. Mutual interference occurs when coherence is lost, where coherence is defined as the wavefront having constant phase at each frequency. A well-known mechanism for incoherence is optical roughness; when illuminated with monochromatic light the reflected (or scattered) wave consist of the contribution from many scattering points. Different scattering areas or small highlights on the object emit spherical wavelets which combine and interfere coherently resulting in a complex interference pattern known as speckle (Ref. [48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54]). This speckle generation mechanism also applies to transmission (scattering) through an optically rough phase object.
Figure 23.
(a) Spatial frequency spectrum of a hologram recorded using an off-axis digital holographic setup. (b) A slice through constant spatial frequency.
Due to variable phase shifts produced as the wavefront propagates through an optically rough object, the field leaving the object has a corrugated structure of interference. In addition, the presence of an optical diffuser before the object (which consists of small thickness variations) in transmissive configuration, has the same effect as a rough surface in reflective imaging. In this section, we seek to demonstrate an accurate representation of speckle in transmissive imaging through nearly transparent samples, valid for biological imaging applications. To simulate speckle, we consider the complex phasor amplitude EOr→=EOejk→·r→+ϕr→ given by a plane wave propagating through an object which induces a spatially dependent phase shift given by ϕr→. A spatially dependent phase shift ϕroughr→ is introduced to the field at the object plane to account for optical roughness/diffuser. The optical roughness can then be represented by a combination of phasors at each location given by Aroughr→ejϕroughr→, such that the object complex amplitude wave with the inclusion of optical roughness is given by
where the total phase is the sum of the phase derived from the height profile ϕr→ and the phase introduced by optical roughness. The amplitude contribution of speckle Aroughr→ is computed by integrating the absorption coefficient of the material along the optical path length of the roughness. We assume that the phase contribution from each phasor are statistically independent as well as statistically independent from all other phasors such that the phase induced by each surface patch is uniformly distributed over the interval −ϕmaxϕmax (Ref. [49]). The maximum phase shift induced by optical roughness, ϕmax, is derived from the maximum height deviation of the sample roughness. If the surface is rough relative to the optical wavelength, such that each phasor can produce phase shifts of many 2π multiples, the phase shift induced by each surface patch is uniformly distributed over the interval −ππ (Ref. [49]). The numerical propagation of the complex field then captures the coherent interference of the spherical wavelets emitted from the optically rough surface as the wavefront propagates in space.
As an example, we consider a USAF resolution target with a maximum thickness of 10 microns and random height deviations of 1 micron (10% of total height and 1.6λ for red light) due to roughness, imaged through a telecentric holographic configuration with 3x magnification. Figure 24 shows probability density functions computed using the phase reconstruction of simulated speckle patterns; the real and imaginary components of the complex speckle field (A,B) are i.i.d. Gaussian random variables, such that magnitude and intensity (C,D) are Rayleigh and χ22 (negative exponential) distributed respectively, and the phase (E) is uniform. The validity of the probability density functions in Figure 24 is well documented in the literature (Ref [48, 49]).
Figure 24.
Probability density functions of reconstructed speckle patterns. The real and imaginary components of the complex speckle field (a,b) are Gaussian distributed, the magnitude and intensity (c,d) are Rayleigh and χ22 distributed respectively, and the phase (e) is uniform.
In a typical experiment speckle can be reduced using diversity in polarization, space, frequency, or time (Ref. [49]). One of the time domain techniques is through rotating a diffuser or by using a liquid crystal based electronic speckle reducer (Ref. [55]). Another technique is to average multiple holograms or reconstructions recorded by varying the optical path length of the reference beam relative to the object beam (Ref. [56]). Figure 25 show the reconstructed height profile averaged over increasing phase reconstruction frames, where the initial roughness distributions are assumed to be statistically independent from frame to frame due to the varying optical path length difference between the object and reference beam. Figure 26 shows the standard deviation of the phase and height profile contribution of simulated speckle as a function of increasing averaging frames. As expected, the standard deviation decreases as 1/N where N is the number of averaged frames.
Figure 25.
Reconstructed height profile for a telecentric configuration with a magnification of M=3 averaged over 1 (a), 3 (b), 10 (c), and 30 (d) frames.
Figure 26.
Standard deviation of speckle phase and corresponding height profile as a function of number of frames averaged.
In this section, we have demonstrated that the distributions of the simulated speckle phase and intensity are consistent with theory and observations in the limit when the optical roughness is large relative to the optical wavelength. In addition, we have shown that the reduction of speckle standard deviation associated with averaging is as expected. While we have demonstrated an accurate and robust numerical representation of optical speckle patterns in holographic imaging, we do not seek to address speckle mitigation techniques in detail. Our goal is to mimic experimentally recorded and reconstructed holograms for realistic machine learning training not to mitigate speckle, as shown in Section 6 below. In future work we seek to explore the sensitivity of speckle statistics to the roughness of the object relative to the optical wavelength.
6. Conclusion
In this Chapter, we developed the theory, the reconstruction algorithms, and discussed the different experimental configurations for digital holography and digital holographic microscopy. We also showed typical experimental setups for single and multiwavelength configurations. We concluded that single wavelength setups are used for heights that do not exceed few microns while multiwavelength-based setups are used for heights that can reach 100’s of microns depending on the synthetic wavelength used. We also discussed in details the two shot versus the one shot MWDH setup. Although hologram reconstruction using one-shot setup needs an extra digital correlation step, it is very well suited for dynamic objects which change relatively quickly. We also discussed briefly how Zernike polynomials are used to cancel the residual phase due to the different aberrations in the optical system. We also discussed the theory and experimental setups of novel reflection as well as transmission telecentric digital holographic microscopy configurations. The setup optically removes, without the need of any post-processing, the parabolic phase distortion caused by the microscope objective which is present in a traditional multi-wavelength digital holographic microscope. Without a telecentric setup and even with post-processing a residual phase remains to perturb the measurement. The telecentric technique has a major advantage since the reconstruction parameters needed and hard to obtain in a standard DHM do not need to be measured precisely to obtain the 3D phase information. Finally, a custom developed user-friendly GUI was employed to automate the recording and reconstruction process.
\n',keywords:"digital holography, multi-wavelength digital holography",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73896.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73896.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73896",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73896",totalDownloads:528,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"September 9th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 8th 2020",datePrePublished:"November 3rd 2020",datePublished:"March 16th 2022",dateFinished:"November 3rd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this Chapter, we discuss the latest advances in digital holography (DH) and digital holographic microscopy (DHM). Specifically, we study the different setup configurations such as single and multiwavelength approaches in reflection and transmission modes and the reconstruction algorithms used. We also propose two novel telecentric recording configurations for single and multi-wavelength digital holographic microscopy (TMW-DHM) systems. Brief theory and results are shown for each of the experimental setups discussed. The advantages and disadvantages of the different configurations will be studied in details. Typical configuration features are, ease of phase reconstruction, speed, vertical measurement range without phase ambiguity, difficulty in applying optical and numerical post-processing aberration compensation methods. Aberrations can be due to: (a) misalignment, (b) multiwavelength method resulting in Chromatic aberrations, (c) the MO resulting in parabolic phase curvature, (d) the angle of the reference beam resulting in linear phase distortions, and (e) different optical components used in the setup, such as spherical aberration, astigmatism, coma, and distortion. We conclude that telecentric configuration eliminates the need of extensive digital automatic aberration compensation or the need for a second hologram’s phase to be used to obtain the object phase map through subtraction. We also conclude that without a telecentric setup and even with post-processing a residual phase remains to perturb the measurement. Finally, a custom developed user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI) software is employed to automate the reconstruction processes for all configurations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73896",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73896",signatures:"George Nehmetallah, Logan Williams and Thanh Nguyen",book:{id:"10857",type:"book",title:"Augmented Reality and Its Application",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Augmented Reality and Its Application",slug:"augmented-reality-and-its-application",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10857.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-705-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-704-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-706-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"330494",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Nehmetallah",fullName:"George Nehmetallah",slug:"george-nehmetallah",email:"nehmetallah@cua.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"330496",title:"Dr.",name:"Logan",middleName:null,surname:"Williams",fullName:"Logan Williams",slug:"logan-williams",email:"logan.williams@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"330498",title:"Dr.",name:"Thanh",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Thanh Nguyen",slug:"thanh-nguyen",email:"32nguyen@cua.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction to digital holography (DH)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Numerical reconstruction by discrete Fresnel transformation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Numerical reconstruction by the convolution approach",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Numerical reconstruction by the angular spectrum approach",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Digital holographic microscopy (DHM)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Multi-wavelength digital holography (MWDH)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Experimental results for MWDH with and without spatial heterodyning (MWDH-SH)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Experimental results for multi-wavelength DHM (MWDHM) with and without spatial heterodyning (MWDHM-SH)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Theoretical background of telecentric systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Experimental results for single wave telecentric DHM (TDHM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Experimental results for telecentric multi-wavelength DHM (TMWDHM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Simulation of coherent speckle on phase and intensity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'J. Goodman, Introduction to Fourier Optics (Roberts & Company, Englewood 2005).'},{id:"B2",body:'U. Schnars and W. Jueptner, Digital Holography: Digital Hologram Recording, Numerical Reconstruction, and Related Techniques (Springer, Berlin 2010).'},{id:"B3",body:'U. Schnars and W. Juptner, “Direct recording of holograms by a CCD target and numerical reconstruction,” App. Opt., 33, 179–181 (1994).'},{id:"B4",body:'L. P. Yaroslavskii and N. S. Merzlyakov, Methods of Digital Holography (Consultants Bureau, NY 1980).'},{id:"B5",body:'U. Schnars and W. 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Gao, B. Yao, and W. Osten, “Autofocusing and resolution enhancement in digital holographic microscopy by using speckle-illumination,” J. Opt. 17(8), 085301-7p.p. (2015).'},{id:"B54",body:'T. Baumbach, E. Kolenovic, V. Kebbel, and W. Jüptner, “Improvement of accuracy in digital holography by use of multiple holograms,” Appl. Opt. 45(24), 6077–6085 (2006).'},{id:"B55",body:'J. Boonruangkan, H. Farrokhi, and Y. J. Kim, “Rotational diffuser for speckle reduction in quantitative phase imaging,” 2017 Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics Pacific Rim (CLEO-PR), Singapore, 2017, pp. 1–2, doi:10.1109/CLEOPR.2017.8118645.'},{id:"B56",body:'H. Lin and P. Yu, “Speckle mechanism in holographic optical imaging,” Opt. Exp., vol. 15(25), 16322–16327 (2007).'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"George Nehmetallah",address:"nehmetallah@cua.edu",affiliation:'
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Catholic Univ. of America, USA
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Catholic Univ. of America, USA
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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. 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In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. 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He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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