Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\n
This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\n
We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\n
Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"427",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Energy Harvesting Technologies - Past, Present and Future",title:"Sustainable Energy Harvesting Technologies",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In the early 21st century, research and development of sustainable energy harvesting (EH) technologies have started. Since then, many EH technologies have evolved, advanced and even been successfully developed into hardware prototypes for sustaining the operational lifetime of low?power electronic devices like mobile gadgets, smart wireless sensor networks, etc. Energy harvesting is a technology that harvests freely available renewable energy from the ambient environment to recharge or put used energy back into the energy storage devices without the hassle of disrupting or even discontinuing the normal operation of the specific application. With the prior knowledge and experience developed over a decade ago, progress of sustainable EH technologies research is still intact and ongoing. EH technologies are starting to mature and strong synergies are formulating with dedicate application areas. To move forward, now would be a good time to setup a review and brainstorm session to evaluate the past, investigate and think through the present and understand and plan for the future sustainable energy harvesting technologies.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-438-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4384-0",doi:"10.5772/945",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sustainable-energy-harvesting-technologies-past-present-and-future",numberOfPages:270,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"61a870ec0f3bf63739132a7cf4465ca7",bookSignature:"Yen Kheng Tan",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/427.jpg",numberOfDownloads:50437,numberOfWosCitations:123,numberOfCrossrefCitations:83,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:16,numberOfDimensionsCitations:133,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:22,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:339,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 8th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 8th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 13th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 12th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 10th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/78857/images/system/78857.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tan Yen Kheng is the CEO and co-founder of Printed Power, a high-tech company headquartered in Singapore that develops edge computers for smarter buildings and manufacturing globally (China and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations [ASEAN]). The company empowers customers with sensor-end to application-end platform solutions to discover opportunities and capture value from actionable insights as well as co-create with domain experts using advanced artificial intelligence (AI)/machine learning (ML) tools. Dr. Tan is concurrently the associate editor of the IEEE Sensors Journal and the industrial chair of IEEE Singapore section. He was also chair/professor at the School of Electrical Engineering/Hanergy School of Renewable Energy at Beijing Jiaotong University (BJTU) where he built international partnership programs, delivered seminars and short courses, and performed research exchanges with research staff and students.",institutionString:"Printed Power LTD",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"771",title:"Sustainability Science",slug:"sustainability-science"}],chapters:[{id:"25367",title:"A Modelling Framework for Energy Harvesting Aware Wireless Sensor Networks",doi:"10.5772/26622",slug:"a-modelling-framework-for-energy-harvesting-aware-wireless-sensor-networks",totalDownloads:2440,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Michael R. Hansen, Mikkel Koefoed Jakobsen and Jan Madsen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25367",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25367",authors:[{id:"67339",title:"MSc.",name:"Mikkel",surname:"Jakobsen",slug:"mikkel-jakobsen",fullName:"Mikkel Jakobsen"},{id:"69921",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Madsen",slug:"jan-madsen",fullName:"Jan Madsen"},{id:"69926",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Hansen",slug:"michael-hansen",fullName:"Michael Hansen"}],corrections:null},{id:"25368",title:"Vibration Energy Harvesting: Machinery Vibration, Human Movement and Flow Induced Vibration",doi:"10.5772/25731",slug:"vibration-energy-harvesting-machinery-vibration-human-movement-and-flow-induced-vibration",totalDownloads:7899,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:28,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Dibin Zhu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25368",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25368",authors:[{id:"64354",title:"Dr.",name:"Dibin",surname:"Zhu",slug:"dibin-zhu",fullName:"Dibin Zhu"}],corrections:null},{id:"25369",title:"Modelling Theory and Applications of the Electromagnetic Vibrational Generator",doi:"10.5772/27236",slug:"modelling-theory-and-applications-of-the-electromagnetic-vibrational-generator",totalDownloads:4032,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Chitta Ranjan Saha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25369",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25369",authors:[{id:"69384",title:"Dr.",name:"Chitta",surname:"Saha",slug:"chitta-saha",fullName:"Chitta Saha"}],corrections:null},{id:"25370",title:"Modeling and Simulation of Thermoelectric Energy Harvesting Processes",doi:"10.5772/28530",slug:"modeling-and-simulation-of-thermoelectric-energy-harvesting-processes",totalDownloads:9431,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:25,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Piotr Dziurdzia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25370",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25370",authors:[{id:"74230",title:"Dr.",name:"Piotr",surname:"Dziurdzia",slug:"piotr-dziurdzia",fullName:"Piotr Dziurdzia"}],corrections:null},{id:"25371",title:"WSN Design for Unlimited Lifetime",doi:"10.5772/26925",slug:"wsn-design-for-unlimited-lifetime",totalDownloads:2811,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Emanuele Lattanzi and Alessandro Bogliolo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25371",authors:[{id:"68291",title:"Prof.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Bogliolo",slug:"alessandro-bogliolo",fullName:"Alessandro Bogliolo"},{id:"68300",title:"Dr.",name:"Emanuele",surname:"Lattanzi",slug:"emanuele-lattanzi",fullName:"Emanuele Lattanzi"}],corrections:null},{id:"25372",title:"Wearable Energy Harvesting System for Powering Wireless Devices",doi:"10.5772/39055",slug:"wearable-energy-harvesting-system-for-powering-wireless-devices",totalDownloads:4033,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Yen Kheng Tan and Wee Song Koh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25372",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25372",authors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],corrections:null},{id:"25373",title:"Vibration Energy Harvesting: Linear and Nonlinear Oscillator Approaches",doi:"10.5772/25623",slug:"vibration-energy-harvesting-linear-and-nonlinear-oscillator-approaches",totalDownloads:5233,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Luca Gammaitoni, Helios Vocca, Igor Neri, Flavio Travasso and Francesco Orfei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25373",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25373",authors:[{id:"63935",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",surname:"Gammaitoni",slug:"luca-gammaitoni",fullName:"Luca Gammaitoni"}],corrections:null},{id:"25374",title:"Energy Harvesting Technologies: Thick-Film Piezoelectric Microgenerator",doi:"10.5772/25547",slug:"energy-harvesting-technologies-thick-film-piezoelectric-microgenerator",totalDownloads:5626,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Swee Leong Kok",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25374",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25374",authors:[{id:"63664",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Leong",surname:"Kok",slug:"swee-leong-kok",fullName:"Swee Leong Kok"}],corrections:null},{id:"25375",title:"Hydrogen from Stormy Oceans",doi:"10.5772/27215",slug:"hydrogen-from-stormy-oceans",totalDownloads:2635,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Helmut Tributsch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25375",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25375",authors:[{id:"69270",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"Tributsch",slug:"tributsch",fullName:"Tributsch"}],corrections:null},{id:"25376",title:"Design Issues in Radio Frequency Energy Harvesting System",doi:"10.5772/25348",slug:"design-issues-in-radio-frequency-energy-harvesting-system",totalDownloads:6301,totalCrossrefCites:38,totalDimensionsCites:49,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Chomora Mikeka and Hiroyuki Arai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/25376",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/25376",authors:[{id:"63050",title:"Dr.",name:"Chomora",surname:"Mikeka",slug:"chomora-mikeka",fullName:"Chomora Mikeka"},{id:"69313",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroyuki",surname:"Arai",slug:"hiroyuki-arai",fullName:"Hiroyuki Arai"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"135",title:"Wireless Sensor Networks",subtitle:"Application - Centric Design",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"wireless-sensor-networks-application-centric-design",bookSignature:"Geoff V Merrett and Yen Kheng Tan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/135.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"137",title:"Sustainable Wireless Sensor Networks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"sustainable-wireless-sensor-networks",bookSignature:"Winston Seah and Yen Kheng Tan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/137.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"136",title:"Smart Wireless Sensor Networks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"smart-wireless-sensor-networks",bookSignature:"Hoang Duc Chinh and Yen Kheng Tan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/136.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4576",title:"Rehabilitation Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c4fcda89f1173a1ec31aabd7f4ac894",slug:"rehabilitation-engineering",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4576.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"205",title:"Fundamental and Advanced Topics in Wind Power",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b8b5955addb75d98a6bba1c94e3e7a74",slug:"fundamental-and-advanced-topics-in-wind-power",bookSignature:"Rupp Carriveau",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/205.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"22234",title:"Dr.",name:"Rupp",surname:"Carriveau",slug:"rupp-carriveau",fullName:"Rupp Carriveau"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2706",title:"Small-Scale Energy Harvesting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"63bc4c27bdf9ec1e00aa20ff6f1d804f",slug:"small-scale-energy-harvesting",bookSignature:"Mickael Lallart",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2706.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"10041",title:"Dr.",name:"Mickaël",surname:"Lallart",slug:"mickael-lallart",fullName:"Mickaël Lallart"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"115",title:"Wind Turbines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"wind-turbines",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Al-Bahadly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/115.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19588",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim H.",surname:"Al-Bahadly",slug:"ibrahim-h.-al-bahadly",fullName:"Ibrahim H. Al-Bahadly"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"13",title:"Paths to Sustainable Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"paths-to-sustainable-energy",bookSignature:"Jatin Nathwani and Artie Ng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/13.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13730",title:"Dr.",name:"Artie",surname:"Ng",slug:"artie-ng",fullName:"Artie Ng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"212",title:"Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cd6021285906516c727802d02ce0954",slug:"energy-storage-in-the-emerging-era-of-smart-grids",bookSignature:"Rosario Carbone",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/212.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"11592",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosario",surname:"Carbone",slug:"rosario-carbone",fullName:"Rosario Carbone"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66068",slug:"addendum-an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia",title:"Addendum - An Overview of PET Radiopharmaceuticals in Clinical Use: Regulatory, Quality and Pharmacopeia Monographs of the United States and Europe",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66068.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66068",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66068",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66068",chapter:{id:"62269",slug:"an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia-monograp",signatures:"Ya-Yao Huang",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 24th 2019",book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247754",title:"Prof.",name:"Ya-Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Ya-Yao Huang",slug:"ya-yao-huang",email:"careyyh@ntuh.gov.tw",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"62269",slug:"an-overview-of-pet-radiopharmaceuticals-in-clinical-use-regulatory-quality-and-pharmacopeia-monograp",signatures:"Ya-Yao Huang",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"July 24th 2019",book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"247754",title:"Prof.",name:"Ya-Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Ya-Yao Huang",slug:"ya-yao-huang",email:"careyyh@ntuh.gov.tw",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9503",leadTitle:null,title:"Keratoconus - What Has Changed in Diagnosis and Treatment",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tKeratoconus is a corneal ectatic disorder that is very far to be completely understood and successfully managed. Thanks to great innovations in different technology fields, physicians now have more options in order to obtain a more precise and earlier diagnosis, such as Scheimpflug camera based device, or corneal biomechanical properties analysis. Some years ago, patients with progressive keratoconus were intended to undergo corneal transplant, and now corneal crosslinking procedure has changed this course, and it is possible to stabilize progression of this disease. Being a fairly new procedure, corneal crosslinking has already changed since its introduction, and it is reasonable to expect further news about it. Even if new devices and procedures are always purposed, it is important to verify them because “new” is not always “better”. Because of that, latest methods need to be methodologically verified.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book will provide general ophthalmologists, corneal specialists, optometrists and physicians interested in this disease, a complete vision of the latest news regarding the diagnosis and the management of keratoconus.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fbb96c980c0a79b398c2f56a2888e6c9",bookSignature:"Prof. Michele Lanza",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9503.jpg",keywords:"Corneal Topography, Corneal Tomography, Placido Disc, Scheimpflug Camera, Corneal Aberrations, Corneal Degenerations, Early Diagnosis, Corneal Ectasia, Tear Film Alterations, Systemic Association, Corneal Biomechanical Properties, Corneal Deformation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 20th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 9th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 7th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Michele Lanza, after graduating in Medicine and Surgery at Medical School of Seconda Università di Napoli, he started the residency program in Ophthalmology (2001). Today he is an Associate Professor in Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli. His field of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal distrophies, and cataract.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7858",title:"A Practical Guide to Clinical Application of OCT in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e2d479cc9258dee430f8ba4c353c468",slug:"a-practical-guide-to-clinical-application-of-oct-in-ophthalmology",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10343",title:"Ocular Hypertension",subtitle:"The Knowns and Unknowns",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0ff71cc7e0d9f394f41162c0c825588a",slug:"ocular-hypertension-the-knowns-and-unknowns",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10343.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"28567",title:"Electrochemical Cells with the Liquid Electrolyte in the Study of Semiconductor, Metallic and Oxide Systems",doi:"10.5772/39007",slug:"the-method-of-electromotive-force-emf-with-liquid-electrolyte-",body:null,keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/28567.pdf",chapterXML:null,downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28567",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28567",totalDownloads:3939,totalViews:153,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:85,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 1st 2011",dateReviewed:"October 20th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 7th 2012",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/28567",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/28567",book:{id:"1430",slug:"electrochemical-cells-new-advances-in-fundamental-researches-and-applications"},signatures:"Valery Vassiliev and Weiping Gong",authors:[{id:"127739",title:"Prof.",name:"Valery",middleName:null,surname:"Vassiliev",fullName:"Valery Vassiliev",slug:"valery-vassiliev",email:"valeryvassiliev@yahoo.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"127747",title:"Prof.",name:"Weiping",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",fullName:"Weiping Gong",slug:"weiping-gong",email:"weiping_gong@mail.csu.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:null,chapterReferences:null,footnotes:null,contributors:null,corrections:null},book:{id:"1430",type:"book",title:"Electrochemical Cells",subtitle:"New Advances in Fundamental Researches and Applications",fullTitle:"Electrochemical Cells - New Advances in Fundamental Researches and Applications",slug:"electrochemical-cells-new-advances-in-fundamental-researches-and-applications",publishedDate:"March 7th 2012",bookSignature:"Yan Shao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1430.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0032-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4949-1",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:38,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"39811",title:"Dr.",name:"Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Shao",slug:"yan-shao",fullName:"Yan Shao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"505"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"28564",type:"chapter",title:"A Review of Non-Cottrellian Diffusion Towards Micro- and Nano-Structured Electrodes",slug:"a-review-of-non-cottrelian-diffusion-towards-micro-and-nano-structured-electrodes",totalDownloads:4747,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Katarína Gmucová",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"98469",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarína",middleName:null,surname:"Gmucová",fullName:"Katarína Gmucová",slug:"katarina-gmucova"}]},{id:"28565",type:"chapter",title:"Modeling and Quantification of Electrochemical Reactions in RDE (Rotating Disk Electrode) and IRDE (Inverted Rotating Disk Electrode) Based Reactors",slug:"a-quantitative-investigation-of-electrochemical-reaction-mechanisms-in-the-rotating-disk-electrode-r",totalDownloads:5513,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Lucía Fernández Macía, Heidi Van Parys, Tom Breugelmans, Els Tourwé and Annick Hubin",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"105436",title:"Dr.",name:"Heidi",middleName:null,surname:"Van Parys",fullName:"Heidi Van Parys",slug:"heidi-van-parys"},{id:"105440",title:"MSc.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez Macia",fullName:"Lucia Fernandez Macia",slug:"lucia-fernandez-macia"},{id:"105441",title:"Prof.",name:"Els",middleName:null,surname:"Tourwé",fullName:"Els Tourwé",slug:"els-tourwe"},{id:"105442",title:"Prof.",name:"Annick",middleName:null,surname:"Hubin",fullName:"Annick Hubin",slug:"annick-hubin"},{id:"154002",title:"Dr.",name:"Tom",middleName:null,surname:"Breugelmans",fullName:"Tom Breugelmans",slug:"tom-breugelmans"}]},{id:"28566",type:"chapter",title:"Electrochemical Probe for Frictional Force and Bubble Measurements in Gas-Liquid-Solid Contactors and Innovative Electrochemical Reactors for Electrocoagulation/Electroflotation",slug:"electrochemical-probe-for-frictional-force-and-bubble-measurements-in-gas-liquid-solid-contactors-an",totalDownloads:2839,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki"}]},{id:"28567",type:"chapter",title:"Electrochemical Cells with the Liquid Electrolyte in the Study of Semiconductor, Metallic and Oxide Systems",slug:"the-method-of-electromotive-force-emf-with-liquid-electrolyte-",totalDownloads:3939,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Valery Vassiliev and Weiping Gong",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"127739",title:"Prof.",name:"Valery",middleName:null,surname:"Vassiliev",fullName:"Valery Vassiliev",slug:"valery-vassiliev"},{id:"127747",title:"Prof.",name:"Weiping",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",fullName:"Weiping Gong",slug:"weiping-gong"}]},{id:"28568",type:"chapter",title:"Cold Plasma – A Promising Tool for the Development of Electrochemical Cells",slug:"cold-plasma-a-promising-tool-for-the-development-of-electrochemical-cells",totalDownloads:4683,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jacek Tyczkowski",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"98108",title:"Prof.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Tyczkowski",fullName:"Jacek Tyczkowski",slug:"jacek-tyczkowski"}]},{id:"28569",type:"chapter",title:"Fuel Cell: A Review and a New Approach About YSZ Solid Oxide Electrolyte Deposition Direct on LSM Porous Substrate by Spray Pyrolysis",slug:"fuel-cell-a-review-and-a-new-approach-about-ysz-solid-oxide-electrolyte-deposition-direct-on-lsm-por",totalDownloads:3163,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Tiago Falcade and Célia de Fraga Malfatti",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"92807",title:"Prof.",name:"Célia",middleName:null,surname:"Malfatti",fullName:"Célia Malfatti",slug:"celia-malfatti"},{id:"104069",title:"MSc.",name:"Tiago",middleName:null,surname:"Falcade",fullName:"Tiago Falcade",slug:"tiago-falcade"}]},{id:"28570",type:"chapter",title:"Investigations of Intermediate-Temperature Alkaline Methanol Fuel Cell Electrocatalysis Using a Pressurized Electrochemical Cell",slug:"investigations-of-intermediate-temperature-alkaline-methanol-fuel-cell-electrocatalysis-using-a-pres",totalDownloads:2557,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Junhua Jiang and Ted Aulich",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"105856",title:"Dr.",name:"Junhua",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",fullName:"Junhua Jiang",slug:"junhua-jiang"},{id:"130195",title:"Mr.",name:"Ted",middleName:null,surname:"Aulich",fullName:"Ted Aulich",slug:"ted-aulich"}]},{id:"28571",type:"chapter",title:"Electrochemical Cells with Multilayer Functional Electrodes for NO Decomposition",slug:"electrochemical-cells-with-multilayer-functional-electrodes-for-no-decomposition-",totalDownloads:2737,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Sergey Bredikhin and Masanobu Awano",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"93355",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Bredikhin",fullName:"Sergey Bredikhin",slug:"sergey-bredikhin"},{id:"102378",title:"Prof.",name:"Masanobu",middleName:null,surname:"Awano",fullName:"Masanobu Awano",slug:"masanobu-awano"}]},{id:"28572",type:"chapter",title:"Sequential Injection Anodic Stripping Voltammetry at Tubular Gold Electrodes for Inorganic Arsenic Speciation",slug:"sequential-injection-anodic-stripping-voltammetry-at-tubular-gold-electrodes-for-inorganic-arsenic-s",totalDownloads:2776,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"José A. Rodríguez, Enrique Barrado, Marisol Vega, Yolanda Castrillejo and José L.F.C. Lima",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"15104",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Barrado",fullName:"Enrique Barrado",slug:"enrique-barrado"},{id:"35093",title:"Dr.",name:"Yolanda",middleName:null,surname:"Castrillejo",fullName:"Yolanda Castrillejo",slug:"yolanda-castrillejo"},{id:"103222",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez",fullName:"Jose Antonio Rodriguez",slug:"jose-antonio-rodriguez"},{id:"103928",title:"Dr.",name:"Marisol",middleName:null,surname:"Vega",fullName:"Marisol Vega",slug:"marisol-vega"},{id:"103931",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose L.F.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",fullName:"Jose L.F.C. Lima",slug:"jose-l.f.c.-lima"}]},{id:"28573",type:"chapter",title:"Electrode Materials a Key Factor to Improve Soil Electroremediation",slug:"electrode-materials-a-key-factor-to-improve-soil-electroremediation",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Erika Méndez, Erika Bustos, Rossy Feria, Guadalupe García and Margarita Teutli",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"98655",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",middleName:"M",surname:"Teutli",fullName:"Margarita Teutli",slug:"margarita-teutli"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2549",title:"Ion Exchange Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d5d70a346ca433c501e5968f54286740",slug:"ion-exchange-technologies",bookSignature:"Ayben Kilislioğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2549.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139903",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayben",surname:"Kilislioglu",slug:"ayben-kilislioglu",fullName:"Ayben Kilislioglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"40710",title:"Thermodynamics of Ion Exchange",slug:"thermodynamics-of-ion-exchange",signatures:"Ayben Kilislioğlu",authors:[{id:"139903",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayben",middleName:null,surname:"Kilislioglu",fullName:"Ayben Kilislioglu",slug:"ayben-kilislioglu"}]},{id:"40708",title:"Ion-Exchange Reactions for Two-Dimensional Quantum Antiferromagnetism",slug:"ion-exchange-reactions-for-two-dimensional-quantum-antiferromagnetism",signatures:"Yoshihiro Tsujimoto and Hiroshi Kageyama",authors:[{id:"142776",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Kageyama",fullName:"Hiroshi Kageyama",slug:"hiroshi-kageyama"},{id:"142784",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Tsujimoto",fullName:"Yoshihiro Tsujimoto",slug:"yoshihiro-tsujimoto"}]},{id:"40701",title:"Bifunctional Polymer-Metal Nanocomposite Ion Exchange Materials",slug:"bifunctional-polymer-metal-nanocomposite-ion-exchange-materials",signatures:"Berta Domènech, Julio Bastos-Arrieta, Amanda Alonso, Jorge Macanás, Maria Muñoz and Dmitri N. Muraviev",authors:[{id:"38647",title:"MSc.",name:"Amanda",middleName:null,surname:"Alonso",fullName:"Amanda Alonso",slug:"amanda-alonso"},{id:"100087",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Macanás",fullName:"Jorge Macanás",slug:"jorge-macanas"},{id:"141913",title:"Prof.",name:"Dmitri",middleName:null,surname:"Muraviev",fullName:"Dmitri Muraviev",slug:"dmitri-muraviev"},{id:"161552",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Berta",middleName:null,surname:"Domènech Garcia",fullName:"Berta Domènech Garcia",slug:"berta-domenech-garcia"},{id:"161553",title:"MSc.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Bastos Arrieta",fullName:"Julio Bastos Arrieta",slug:"julio-bastos-arrieta"},{id:"161554",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz Tapia",fullName:"Maria Muñoz Tapia",slug:"maria-munoz-tapia"}]},{id:"40705",title:"Preparation of Ionic Polysilsesquioxanes with Regular Structures and Their Ion-Exchange Behaviors",slug:"preparation-of-ionic-polysilsesquioxanes-with-regular-structures-and-their-ion-exchange-behaviors",signatures:"Yoshiro Kaneko",authors:[{id:"139189",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshiro",middleName:null,surname:"Kaneko",fullName:"Yoshiro Kaneko",slug:"yoshiro-kaneko"}]},{id:"40711",title:"Carbon Nanomaterials – A New Form of Ion Exchangers",slug:"carbon-nanomaterials-a-new-form-of-ion-exchangers",signatures:"Kriveshini Pillay",authors:[{id:"141633",title:"Dr.",name:"Kriveshini",middleName:null,surname:"Pillay",fullName:"Kriveshini Pillay",slug:"kriveshini-pillay"}]},{id:"40696",title:"Investigation of Sorption and Separation of Lanthanides on the Ion Exchangers of Various Types",slug:"investigation-of-sorption-and-separation-of-lanthanides-on-the-ion-exchangers-of-various-types",signatures:"Dorota Kołodyńska and Zbigniew Hubicki",authors:[{id:"42116",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska"},{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki"}]},{id:"40698",title:"Ion Exchange in Glass – The Changes of Glass Refraction",slug:"ion-exchange-in-glass-the-changes-of-glass-refraction",signatures:"Roman Rogoziński",authors:[{id:"139910",title:"Prof.",name:"Roman",middleName:null,surname:"Rogoziński",fullName:"Roman Rogoziński",slug:"roman-rogozinski"}]},{id:"40697",title:"Selective Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Waters and Waste Waters Using Ion Exchange Methods",slug:"selective-removal-of-heavy-metal-ions-from-waters-and-waste-waters-using-ion-exchange-methods",signatures:"Zbigniew Hubicki and Dorota Kołodyńska",authors:[{id:"42116",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Kołodyńska",fullName:"Dorota Kołodyńska",slug:"dorota-kolodynska"},{id:"141883",title:"Prof.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Hubicki",fullName:"Zbigniew Hubicki",slug:"zbigniew-hubicki"}]},{id:"40700",title:"Ion Exchange and Application of Layered Silicate",slug:"ion-exchange-and-application-of-layered-silicate",signatures:"Kyeong-Won Park",authors:[{id:"138752",title:"PhD.",name:"Kyeong-Won",middleName:null,surname:"Park",fullName:"Kyeong-Won Park",slug:"kyeong-won-park"}]},{id:"40703",title:"Structural and Ion-Exchange Properties of Natural Zeolite",slug:"structural-and-ion-exchange-properties-of-natural-zeolite",signatures:"Aiymgul M. Akimkhan",authors:[{id:"138717",title:"Prof.",name:"Aiymgul",middleName:"Muhtargalikyzy",surname:"Akimkhan",fullName:"Aiymgul Akimkhan",slug:"aiymgul-akimkhan"}]},{id:"40702",title:"Thermodynamic Study of the Synthesis of Zeolites from Coal Ash and Its Use as Sorbents for Heavy Metals",slug:"thermodynamic-study-of-the-synthesis-of-zeolites-from-coal-ash-and-its-use-as-sorbents-for-heavy-met",signatures:"Marisa Nascimento, Patrícia F. Prado, Paulo Sérgio M. Soares and Vicente P. de Souza",authors:[{id:"141484",title:"Dr.",name:"Marisa",middleName:null,surname:"Nascimento",fullName:"Marisa Nascimento",slug:"marisa-nascimento"},{id:"142200",title:"MSc.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Prado",fullName:"Patricia Prado",slug:"patricia-prado"},{id:"142432",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Soares",fullName:"Paulo Soares",slug:"paulo-soares"},{id:"142433",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Vicente Souza",slug:"vicente-souza"}]},{id:"40706",title:"Influence of KNO3 Bath Composition on Ion Exchange Process of Commercial Soda Lime Silicate Float Glass",slug:"influence-of-kno3-bath-composition-on-ion-exchange-process-of-commercial-soda-lime-silicate-float-gl",signatures:"Vincenzo M. Sglavo",authors:[{id:"17426",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Sglavo",fullName:"Vincenzo Maria Sglavo",slug:"vincenzo-maria-sglavo"}]},{id:"40707",title:"Unheated and Heated Batch Methods in Ion Exchange of Clinoptilolite",slug:"unheated-and-heated-batch-methods-in-ion-exchange-of-clinoptilolite",signatures:"Tevfik Ünaldı and Selahattin Kadir",authors:[{id:"143090",title:"Dr",name:"TEVFİK",middleName:null,surname:"Ünaldı",fullName:"TEVFİK Ünaldı",slug:"tevfik-unaldi"},{id:"164885",title:"Dr.",name:"Selahattin",middleName:null,surname:"Kadir",fullName:"Selahattin Kadir",slug:"selahattin-kadir"}]},{id:"40709",title:"The Role of Ion Exchange Chromatography in Purification and Characterization of Molecules",slug:"the-role-of-ion-exchange-chromatography-in-purification-and-characterization-of-molecules",signatures:"Hidayat Ullah Khan",authors:[{id:"140538",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Hidayat Khan",slug:"hidayat-khan"}]},{id:"40745",title:"Nitrogen Isotope Separation by Ion Exchange Chromatography",slug:"nitrogen-isotope-separation-by-ion-exchange-chromatography",signatures:"Xingcheng Ding and Xunyue Liu",authors:[{id:"139864",title:"Prof.",name:"Xingcheng",middleName:null,surname:"Ding",fullName:"Xingcheng Ding",slug:"xingcheng-ding"},{id:"139865",title:"Dr.",name:"Xunyue",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Xunyue Liu",slug:"xunyue-liu"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"159",title:"Superconductivity",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb0587d06c5516fc4e3c89818b9b17e6",slug:"superconductivity-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Adir Moyses Luiz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/159.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"10012",title:"Dr.",name:"Adir",surname:"Luiz",slug:"adir-luiz",fullName:"Adir Luiz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"607",title:"Electropolymerization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0457c6cc64766bdd64f8195b8e22afb1",slug:"electropolymerization",bookSignature:"Ewa Schab-Balcerzak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/607.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73293",title:"Dr.",name:"Ewa",surname:"Schab-Balcerzak",slug:"ewa-schab-balcerzak",fullName:"Ewa Schab-Balcerzak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1430",title:"Electrochemical Cells",subtitle:"New Advances in Fundamental Researches and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d6940c11056ad45b64997133a536a0f",slug:"electrochemical-cells-new-advances-in-fundamental-researches-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yan Shao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1430.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"39811",title:"Dr.",name:"Yan",surname:"Shao",slug:"yan-shao",fullName:"Yan Shao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1455",title:"Electroplating",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18ec8cf0e50c5e8170a9d0b20af09b7f",slug:"electroplating",bookSignature:"Darwin Sebayang and Sulaiman Bin Haji Hasan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1455.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92970",title:"Prof.",name:"Darwin",surname:"Sebayang",slug:"darwin-sebayang",fullName:"Darwin Sebayang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2118",title:"Applications of High-Tc Superconductivity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b8133d92a142eb2e79b83762e20e9e46",slug:"applications-of-high-tc-superconductivity",bookSignature:"Adir Moysés Luiz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"10012",title:"Dr.",name:"Adir",surname:"Luiz",slug:"adir-luiz",fullName:"Adir Luiz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"1430",title:"Electrochemical Cells",subtitle:"New Advances in Fundamental Researches and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d6940c11056ad45b64997133a536a0f",slug:"electrochemical-cells-new-advances-in-fundamental-researches-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yan Shao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1430.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"39811",title:"Dr.",name:"Yan",surname:"Shao",slug:"yan-shao",fullName:"Yan Shao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"77501",title:"Learning from Bats to Escape from Potent or Severe Viral Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98916",slug:"learning-from-bats-to-escape-from-potent-or-severe-viral-infections",body:'
1. Introduction
Bats and flying foxes, including large flying foxes (Pteropus vampyrus) and variable flying foxes (P. hypomelanus) are the mammals belonging to the order Chiroptera (hand wing). This order contains 1232 species of bats and flying foxes constituting a more diverse and important order of mammals after rodents. They evolved approximately 52 million years ago [1, 2]. Taxonomically, bats represent approximately 20% of mammalian diversity [3]. They are the real flying mammals and come out for prey in the night time (nocturnal aerial predators). Many species of bats are frugivorous (fruit eating), insectivorous (insect eating), and some feed on blood of other animals (hematophagous). Some species of bats fly long distances during seasonal migration with a speed of 100 miles per hour, making them the fastest mammal (free-flying Brazilian free-tailed bats or Tadarida brasiliensis) on earth [4]. Some species of bats fly during night and some are diurnal or crepuscular. Bats are found in all continents, except Antarctica. They live in caves or in other dark spaces in large groups or colonies and some are solitary in nature. Besides playing a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity or ecological balance through their different roles (insects eating, pollination, and seed dispersal etc.), they remain crucial to researchers due to their strange characteristics and reservoir for different pathogens [2]. For example, the advancing knowledge in bat biology has implicated them (the tropical frugivorous Honduran white bat Ectophylla alba) to be studied as a mammalian model for skin carotenoid metabolism [5].
Bats are crucial primary reservoirs for emerging viral infections that can be transferred to humans or cross the species barrier to infect other wild or domesticated animals through spill over [6]. Studies have indicated that they harbor higher numbers of zoonotic viruses per species than rodents [7]. Even they have higher (3.9 times stronger) sympatry than bats and sympatry within a taxonomic order serves as a most crucial host trait for zoonotic virus enrichment [7]. Of note, despite harboring more zoonotic viruses per species than rodents, the total number of zoonotic viruses found in bats (61) are lower than rodents (68) due to double the number of rodent species than bat species. However, bats are the primary host for more virulent viruses than other mammals, including rodents [8]. Before, the emergence of recent virus infections, including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), middle-eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS), Ebola virus infection, and most recent Coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, Ebola virus or Zaire Ebolavirus (three different species of Ebola viruses have been found in greater long-fingered bat (Miniopterus inflatus or M. inflatus) in Liberia’s Sanniquellie-Mahn District that borders to Guinea and insect-eating bat, M. schreibersii), and SARS-CoV-2, the studies of natural histories of bats, their importance as primary reservoirs for different zoonotic viral diseases have been largely underappreciated, underrated, and underfunded [9, 10, 11, 12]. Although, they (vampire bats or Desmodus rotundus murinua found only in the Latin America) were considered for their role in the rabies transmission called vampire bat rabies as suggested first in 1959 [13, 14, 15, 16].
Fruit bats, including Hypsignathus monstrosus, Epomops franqueti, and Myonycteris torquate have also been suggested as potential reservoirs for Zaire Ebolavirus [12, 17]. In addition to these zoonotic viral infections, bats also serve as potential reservoirs for other viruses responsible for infections in humans that include Nipah, Hendra, Marburg, Hepadna (able to infect human hepatocytes), and Lyssa viruses etc. Thus, different viruses of 23 virus families have been detected in different bat species (196) in 69 countries all over the world [3, 18]. The mortality among bats due to bacterial or viral infection has been the least observed cause of death [19]. In comparison to humans, where 7% of the genome encodes for the immune or related genes (1562 immune genes recorded in humans as of 1st October 2004 by the immunogenetic related information source or IRIS), only less than 4% of the bat (Australian flying fox or Pteropus alecto) genome encodes from immune related genes (about 500) [20, 21]. For example, Jamaican fruit bat or Artibeus jamaicensis has 466 immune-related genes (IRGs) and the Egyptian Rousette bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus), a common fruit bat species has 407 or 2.75% IRGs of their total genome [22, 23]. Thus, either bats have lower numbers of IRGs as compared to humans or we need further studies in other potential bat species harboring potent virus pathogens that can infect humans directly or indirectly through secondary reservoir hosts.
Also, Panamanian Seba’s short-tailed bats (Carollia perspicillata), a widely distributed neotropical species shows individual and population-specific diversity in their major-histocompatibility complex 1 or MHC-1 genes with an unique genotype in each individual comparable to passerine or perching or singing birds [24]. The MHC-II diversity is also correlated with the geographic origin and population admixture in Carollia perspicillata and Molossus molossus, and in Desmodus rotundus MHC-II DRB gene diversity depends on the environment only [25]. The MHC diversity in bats may impact their defense against different reservoir viruses inducing resistance against them and providing an opportunity or a perfect animal niche for the virus evolution that may infect other hosts, including humans severely [24]. The Egyptian Rousette or fruit bat does not support the productive growth or replication of the Nipah virus [26]. No seroconversion against Nipah virus glycoprotein has been reported in these bats. Hence, only specific bat species serve as potential reservoirs for Nipah viruses. This may be true for other viruses too. The in vitro study based on bat cells (RoNi/7.1 (Rousettus aegyptiacus) and PaKiT01 (P. alecto) cells) lines has indicated the enhanced interferon (IFN)-mediated antiviral immune response generation of either constitutive or induced form that allows a rapid cell to cell virus transmission rate (β) within the host [27]. The IFN-induced antiviral state protects live cells from apoptotic or other forms of cell death in vitro that (the in vitro epidemic or extended life of the cells) enhances the probability of developing and establishing a long-term persistent infection [27]. This phenotype of infection and associated host-pathogen interaction response is absent in Vero cells (a cell line derived from the kidneys of African green monkeys) due to the genetic defect in the IFN production [27, 28]. Hence, viruses evolved in bats as reservoirs have an increased IFN capabilities that helps to achieve a rapid within-host transmission rates without inducing clinical symptoms of the disease. Thus these rapidly reproducing viruses in bats may become more virulence upon spillover to hosts, including humans lacking similar immune capabilities like bats. Hence, understanding the bat immune function or response becomes crucial to understand. The present chapter describes the immunological aspects or features of bats preparing them to harbor a wide range of viruses without severe disease causing mortality.
2. Innate immune adaptation of bats as preventing to develop severe infections
The innate immune system is primary or first line of the defense against invading pathogens. The pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including toll-like receptors (TLRs), Nod-like receptors (NLRs), absent in melanoma-2 (AIM2)-like receptors (ALRs), retinoic acid-inducible gene-1 (RIG-1)-like receptors (RLRs, RIG-1 and melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 or MDA5), C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), and cyclic GMP (guanosine monophosphate)–AMP (adenosine monophosphate) synthase (cGAS) and stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling pathways play a crucial role in the host defense and the generation of pro-inflammatory immune response (cytokine, chemokines, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS), and type 1 interferon (IFN) production) [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. TLR4 is a crucial PRR to recognize Gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as a potent microbial or pathogen-associated molecular pattern (MAMP or PAMP) to induce a potent pro-inflammatory immune response to clear the infection. However, its overactivation may cause severe inflammation. Pallas’s mastiff bats (Molossus molossus) upon exposure to the Escherichia coli (E. coli)-derived LPS do not develop leucocytosis and hyperthermia or fever independent of their sex (Figure 1) [35]. However, they show weight loss upon exposure to the LPS. This study indicates the presence of defective TLR4 signaling responsible for the NF-κB-dependent pyrogenic cytokines (IL-1 and IL-6) (Figure 1). This defect may also prevent the further activation of cytosolic NLRP3-dependent inflammasomes responsible for generating IL-1β and IL-18. Bat (little brown bat or Myotis lucifugus) mitochondria produce lesser ROS (a potent inducer of NLRP3 activation) [36]. The reduced mitochondrial ROS (mtROS) production in Seba’s short-tailed bats involves a mild depolarization of the inner mitochondrial membrane that decreases the membrane potential to a level sufficient to produce ATP molecules but insufficient to synthesize mtROS (Figure 1) [37]. This mechanism decreases with age in mice but remains intact in these bats. For example, in 2.5 years old mice this mechanism of mild mitochondrial depolarization disappears in different organs (lungs, liver, spleen, skeletal muscles, heart, brain, and kidneys). Hence, mtROS-mediated DNA and protein damage is seen in mice or other mammals but not in bats.
Figure 1.
Schematic representation of immune response in bats preventing development of severe infection and inflammation. The gram-negative bacteria or its PAMP (LPS) recognition in bats do not stimulate pro-inflammatory cytokine production through NF-κB activation and increase in body temperature. The increase in autophagy further increases cellular longevity, acts as an antiviral mechanism to clear or control the infection, decreases or suppresses inflammation. The PYHIN domain containing AIM2 and IFI16 inflammasomes are absent and hence, do not take part in cytosolic DNA recognition as DAMP to inflammasome activation-based maturation of IL-1β and IL-18. This further decreases the incidence of inflammation and associated tissue damage. The cGAS-STING-based signaling mechanism recognizing cytosolic dsDNA as DAMP also does not work in bats due to the presence of serine at 358 AA position in STING that is unable to activate IRF3 and type 1 IFN production. Hence, this further prevents inflammatory events in response to the self-DNA. Only the cytosolic RNAs activate different PRRs (RIG-1, MDA5, and TLR3) that via IRF3 and IRF7 activation synthesize type 1 and 3 IFNs, which exert antiviral action, but damp pro-inflammatory action of NRLP3 and NLRP1 inflammasomes. Mx1 is an IFN-inducible antiviral protein with a GTPase activity. APOBEC3 also directly acts as an antiviral host factor without inducing inflammation. Hence, only protective antiviral immune response works in bats to control their number without inducing severe inflammation.
The immune challenge among bats does not alter their oxidative stress irrespective of their pre-migration and migration seasons [38]. However, bats have higher baseline leukocytes but lower neutrophil numbers during their migratory seasons as compared to their pre-migratory season. Their plasma haptoglobin (a humoral innate immune component) levels also remain same during both seasons [38]. However, plasma haptoglobin level of migratory bats increases upon an immune (LPS) challenge that remains unchanged in non-migratory or pre-migratory bats under the same immunogenic stimulation. Of note, bats do not upregulate genes associated with chronic inflammation with the advancement of age that is seen in other mammals, including humans [39]. Hence, this protects them from age related inflammatory diseases and predisposes them towards healthy aging and longevity along with tolerance to infections, including Ebola, Nipah, and many more. Also, the bat microbiota (Firmicutes and Proteobacteria are dominant bacteria) differs from other terrestrial mammals (strict anaerobic phylum Bacteroidetes in mice and humans), and remains intact throughout their life that further protects them from age-associated inflammation and inflammatory diseases [40, 41]. On the other hand in mice and humans gut microbiota changes with time and aging that predispose them to age-associated inflammatory diseases associated with gut bacteria dysbiosis [42, 43, 44].
A study has shown the TLR3, TLR7, and TLR9 expression at mRNA levels in different organs of Leschenault’s Rousette bats (Rousettus leschenaulti) [45]. Another study has shown the expression of full length mRNA transcripts of TLR1-TLR10 in the Australian flying fox or P. alecto [46]. This bat species also expresses the pseudogene for TLR13. However, their functional protein level expression in different bat species needs further investigation. The evolutionary studies have shown that the bats evolved under the influence of positive selection for TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 that is highest for TLR9 and lowest for TLR7 [47]. The TLR3 in bats has evolved under a negative selection process. This study indicates the adaptation of host-pathogen interaction in bats, particularly in bat TLR9. The bat TLR8 has an extensive sequence variation within them that separates them from other mammals, including humans [48]. Bat TLRs are evolving slowly under purifying selection in response to the functional constraints with a divergence process that is overall congruent with the species tree [49]. The bat TLRs show unique mutations in their ligand-binding domains even involving their non-conservative amino acid (AA) change and/or targets of positive selection. These changes can modify the binding of the corresponding TLR ligands. Hence, bat TLRs may vary in recognizing the same ligand recognized by other mammalian or human TLRs.
Flying fox bats (P. alecto) have other cytosolic dsRNA recognizing receptors called RLRs, including RIG-1, MDA5, and laboratory of genetics and physiology 2 (LGP2), like humans that upon recognizing cytosolic dsRNA induce the type 1 IFN production [50]. LGP2 synergy with MDA5 to generate antiviral immune response during RLR-dependent dsRNA recognition [51]. LGP2 interacts with the IFN-inducible, dsRNA binding protein PACT (a cofactor of DICER in the processing of microRNAs) through its regulatory C-terminal domain that inhibits RIG-1-dependent signaling but promotes MDA5-dependent antiviral immune response [52]. TLR3, RLRs (RIG-1), and MDA5 serve as potent antiviral immune response inducers in bats to protect them from severe infection caused by Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) (Figure 1) [53]. The functionally conserved RLR adaptor called mitochondrial antiviral signaling (MAVS) protein has been demonstrated in the Chinese rufous horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus sinicus) and straw-colored fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) that upon RLR (RIG-1 and MDA5)-based activation transmits signals to produce type 1 IFNs (IFN-β) and interferon stimulated gene (ISG) called IFN-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 1 (IFIT1) that further enhances IFN gene program (IFN-β, IRF7, and OAS1 or 2′-5’oligadenylate synthase 1), which activates ISGs, immune homeostasis, and cell’s internal antiviral immune response (Figure 1) [54, 55, 56].
The activation of MAVS involves the RIG-1 and MDA5 dimer formation [57]. Also, the IFIT1 generated exerts an anti-inflammatory action via suppressing TLR-dependent NF-κB-mediated pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β) and chemokines (CCL3) through activating Sin3A-histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) transcriptional regulatory complex containing SAP25 that has an inhibitory action (Figure 1) [56]. Hence, these PRRs protect bats from developing severe viral infections through increased type 1 IFN production but low tissue damaging pro-inflammatory immune response. It should be interesting to observe that viruses harboring bats as their primary reservoirs may have evolved strategies to escape this innate immune mechanism to recognize cytosolic dsRNA viruses or bats have developed other mechanisms to escape from exaggerated pro-inflammatory innate immune response upon recognizing cytosolic dsRNA viruses. The MERS-CoV replicates efficiently in Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis) without causing a productive infection with clinical signs of the disease [58]. The interferon regulatory factor (IRF3) transcription factor activation plays a crucial role in generating the potent antiviral immune response in the bat (Eptesicus fuscus) against MERS-CoV (Figure 1) [59]. In comparison to humans or other mammals, MERS-CoV fails to subvert the IRF3 activation and dependent type 1 IFN response generation in E. fuscus. The IRF3 in bats differs from humans due to the presence of serine185 (S185) that provides an enhanced antiviral protection (Figure 1) [60]. The S185 insertion in the human IRF3 increases its antiviral action. Hence, the positive selection of S185 in the bat IRF3 increases its antiviral action. Also, the bats persistently infected with MERS-CoV have increased type 1 IFN levels than non-infected ones and its disruption increases the virus replication [61].
The bat cells repeatedly select for the mutant MERS-CoV called delta open reading frame (ΔORF5) MERS-CoV and are resistant to superinfection by wild type (WT) MERS-CoV due to deficiency of MERS-CoV binding receptor dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) and increased type 1 IFN levels [61]. Additionally, the Australian black flying foxes in response the cytosolic TLRs and RLRs recognizing viral PAMPs (dsRNA) also activate IRF7, which also induces type 1 IFNs mediated antiviral immune response (Figure 1) [62]. The deficiency or the defective activation of IRF7 in bats enhances viral replication and the development of the productive infection. Of note, virus (bat paramyxovirus, Tioman virus) infection to bats also induces protective type III IFN production that further provides protection from the development of productive infection (Figure 1) [63]. Egyptian rousette bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) are the naturally harbor Marburg virus (MARV) and do not develop clinical symptoms of the disease as compared to humans due to generation of IFN-based immune response by DCs and suppressing pro-inflammatory immune response [64, 65]. This is because these bats secrete IFN-ω, which have antiviral action against RNA viruses (Figure 1). Also, the 13% of genes induced by IFN-ω in bats are not found in the interferome and other ISG databases, indicating their uniqueness to bats [64].
Bat immune cells exert protective type 1 (IFN-α, β, and ω) type II (IFN-γ) IFNs against Filoviruses (Marburg and Ebola viruses) but human immune cells fail to do so (Figure 1) [66]. Myxovirus resistance 1 (Mx1, a GTPase) is another antiviral protein induced in response to the IFNs is evolutionary conserved in vertebrates and can restrict a wide range of viruses in host cells (Figure 1) [67]. In bats these Mx1 proteins protect against Ebola and Influenza viruses through reducing the polymerase activity of these viruses along with other circulating viruses [68]. However, bat Mx1 does not inhibit Thogoto virus (enveloped negative sense ssRNA virus of Orthomyxoviridae family) as it does not infect them. On the other hand, mice Mx1 in hematopoietic cells inhibits Thogoto virus infection [67]. Hence, Mx1 is another IFN-induced antiviral protein in bats to protect against severe viral infections (Figure 1). Also, the production of type 1 IFN inhibits the NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasome-induced IL-1β and IL-18 production and induces IL-10 synthesis via STAT1 transcription factor (Figure 1) [69]. The IL-10 further activates STAT3 to reduce the IL-1β and IL-1α levels. IFNs also inhibit inflammasome-mediated Caspase 11 (CASP11) to inhibit the pro-inflammatory IL-1β and IL-18 release via activating immunity-related GTPases M clade 2 (Irgm2) and Gate16 (an ATG8 family member), which inhibit CASP11 maturation or activation [70]. Hence, IFN levels control exaggerated inflammation through different mechanisms.
The cGAS-STING signaling-mediated type 1 IFN production against DNA viruses is lost in bats due to the loss of serine AA at 358 (S358) position of the STING (Figure 1) [71, 72]. The S358 AA of the STING from other non-bat mammals is conserved and its phosphorylation is crucial for STING-dependent IRF3 activation and type 1 IFN release. For example, in human STING the S3666 and S358 phosphorylation is crucial for IRF3 binding and activation, but not for TBK1 [73]. Also, the TLR9-dependent cytosolic DNA recognition in bats is not as functional as in other mammals, including humans as result to adapt its high metabolic rate that increases the body temperature over 41°C during migratory flight that can induce DNA damage and its migration to the cytosol (Figure 1) [49]. Along with, defective cGAS-STING and TLR9 signaling for cytosolic DNA recognition, absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) and gamma-interferon-inducible protein Ifi-16 (IFI16 or p204 in mouse) or interferon-inducible myeloid differentiation transcriptional activator are the PYRIN and HIN domain containing (PYHIN) proteins also recognizing cytosolic DNA are absent the genome of most bats, including P. alecto and M. davidii [74, 75, 76]. Both, AIM2 and IFI16 are involved in the cytosolic DNA recognition-induced inflammasome activation, and the maturation and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and IL-18) (Figure 1) [75]. Only, a bat called Pteronotus parnellii has a truncated AIM2. Hence, the removal of cytosolic DNA sensors or PRRs adds to escape from the inflammatory immune response generated due to DNA damage observed high metabolic rate-induced rise in temperature during long migratory flights and helps in the coexistence of host and pathogens. Also, the killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) encoded by genes in the leukocyte receptor complex (LRC), and killer cell lectin-like receptors (KLRs, also called Ly49 receptors), encoded within the natural killer gene complex (NKC) are required for potent antiviral function of NK cells. However, P. alecto lacks both KLRs and KIRs and M. davidii has only one Ly49 pseudogene [76].
The pteropodidae or cave nectar bat (Eonycteris spelae) monocytes, macrophages and granulocytes resemble human counterparts depending on the immune parameters that are divergent between mice and humans [77]. However, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, platelets or thrombocytes have not been identified and characterized in different bat species [54]. Further studies are required in this direction. Also, the genome-wide comparison of immune-related genes have indicated their much closer phylogenetic relationship with humans than rodents. Also, bats express largest and most diverse array of apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like 3 (APOBEC3) genes (encode antiviral DNA cytosine deaminases), which are potent antiviral proteins and act as antiviral restriction factors for viruses, including hepadnaviruses (hepatitis DNA virus), and parvoviruses [78, 79]. The potent antiviral immune response of APOBEC3 involves its cytosine deaminase activity that deaminates cytosine residues in the nascent retroviral DNA to block retrovirus replication via hypermutation (Figure 1) [80]. This hyper-mutated retroviral DNA, then gets degraded or becomes non-functional [81]. In other mammals, including humans and laboratory mice the expression and action of APOBEC3 might threaten the integrity of the host genome triggering the incidence of cancer [82]. For example, a common APOBEC3 overexpression in humans is associated with the incidence of breast cancer in humans and the overexpression of APOBEC1 (A1) in mice is associated with hepatocellular carcinoma [83, 84, 85]. However, bats are more resistant to developing cancer despite expressing APOBEC3 as they express a higher quantity of ABC transporter called ABCB1 than humans and efficiently removes cytotoxic agents (doxorubicin) and damaged DNA [86]. Hence, in bats APOBEC exerts its only antiviral action and remains sans to increase susceptibility to cancer. However, further studies are warranted. Of note, even minor levels of IFNs are able to induce APOBEC3 family of proteins (A3A, A3G, and A3F) expression and their antiviral action [87].
Lower NLRP3 inflammasome activation in the cytosol prevents exaggerated inflammatory immune response in immune cells bats due to lower ROS production (crucial for NLRP3 activation) and apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC) speck formation and secretion of interleukin-1β (Figure 1) [88]. Also, bats produce less TNF-α due to the interaction of c-Rel (a member NF-κB family) with the promoter sequence of TNF-α [89]. The antiviral innate immune response in bat macrophages in response to the virus-derived PAMPs is also accompanied by sustained production of an increased amount of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) (Figure 1) [90]. These unique anti-inflammatory mechanisms in bats, including greater mouse-eared bats, Myotis myotis may have evolved due to their high metabolic rate (but produce low ROS that regulates NLRP3 inflammasome activation) and long distance flights [90]. For example, this bat species along with other long-distance traveling bats exhibit a delayed aging process as indicated by the absence of shortened telomerase and due to strategies to check induction of severe inflammation, but the induction of potent anti-inflammatory mechanisms [91, 92]. Also, the expression of high basal levels of heat shock proteins (HSP70 and HSP90) in bats protects them from increased metabolic stress that further contributes to their longevity and healthy aging [93]. Hence, these processes may contribute to longevity and healthy aging among bats.
Autophagy is an essential cellular process through which cells maintain homeostasis, including immune homeostasis [94, 95, 96]. Autophagy involves the breakdown of cellular components and the sequestration of the portion of cytoplasm into the double or multi-membraned vesicle called autophagosomes, which then fuse with cellular suicide or waste bags or lysosomes (contain hydrolases in their lumen and their membranes have permeases) to form autophagolysosomes or autolysosomes [96, 97, 98]. Autolysosomes are the junk crashers of the cell, in which luminal materials, including internal membrane, are degraded and exported out of the cell through permeases to recycle in the cytosol [96]. Hence, autophagy is the renewal process for cytosolic components through which cytoplasmic macromolecules mobilize to generate energy-rich compounds to meet cellular energy requirements during conditions with decreased internal and external energy resources. The impaired autophagy predisposes the host towards premature aging and inflammatory and degenerative diseases. Hence, autophagy helps the host to escape from premature aging and different diseases (cancer, neurodegeneration, and other chronic inflammatory conditions) through cellular self-digestion [99].
Autophagy also plays a crucial role in immune response to infections and inflammation that works downstream to different PRRs (TLRs, NLRs, RLRs, and cGAS-STING signaling) discussed earlier (Figure 1) [100, 101, 102]. The increased autophagy in Australian black fly foxes also dampens the severity of the lyssavirus infection through suppressing the virus replication and increases the tolerance to the prolonged infection with lesser cell death than humans (Figure 1) [103]. Autophagy increases with the increases in the viral load in bats. The pharmacological activation of the autophagy decreases the virus replication that shows its antiviral action. Another virus called Nelson Bay Orthoreovirus (NBV that in humans causes severe respiratory tract infection) isolated from the Australian fruit bat increases autophagy in host cells depending on the viral replication without causing severe infection [104]. Hence, increased autophagy along with increasing longevity and suppressing aging mechanisms among bats also increases their antiviral immune response to protect them from severe productive infection.
3. Adaptive immune response in bats to make them resistant severe viral infections
We do not have greater immunological data for adaptive immunity in bats as compared to humans due to lack of experimental reagents specific for bats and corresponding appropriate animal models. The genes [MHC-I and II, TCR (TCR-α and –β) and co-receptors, including CD3, CD4, CD8, and CD28 along with B cell-specific markers (CD22, CD19, CD20, CD27, and Igs)] involved in adaptive immunity in other species are conserved in bats [21, 22, 23]. The transcripts of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-12a, IL-12b, IL-17a, IL-23, IL-10, TGF β, TNF, IFN γ, IL-1 β, CCL2, CCL5, and CXCL10) are also present [23]. The alpha1 (α1) domain of the H chain of MHC-I of P. alecto have three sequential AAs (Met, Asp, and Leu), which are absent in other mammals, including humans [105]. These 3 extra AAs in bat MHC-I help to form an extra salt-bridge chain between the H chain and the N-terminal of aspartic acid (Asp) of the antigenic peptide that promotes peptide presentation to the MHC I with high affinity during antigen presentation process. This study indicates the induction of stronger MHC-1-dependent T cells (CD8+ cytotoxic T cells) immune response against viruses that helps them to survive otherwise lethal viral infections as seen in other mammals.
P. alecto has a predominant population of CD8+T cells in their spleen and CD4+T cells are predominantly present in blood, lymph nodes (LNs), and bone marrow [106]. Forty percent of these splenic T cells constitutively express IL-17, IL-22, and TGF-β mRNA, indicating the polarization of these T cells towards, Th17 and regulatory T cells (Tregs) [106]. Recent identification and development of bat-specific cross-reactive Abs and establishment of captive experimental bat colonies have advanced the field. Immunoglobulins or Abs, including IgG, IgA, IgM, and IgE have been detected in bats (P. alecto) [107, 108]. However, IgA in secretion is lesser than expected but that is compensated by increased presence of IgG in the mucosal surfaces [108]. IgM is the second most abundant Ab in the serum after IgG in P. alecto. Of note, bats have a bigger repertoire of germline genes encoding Ig variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) segments than humans, indicating a provision of a larger number of antigen (Ag) specificities in their naïve B cell receptor (BCR) repertoire [54]. For example, little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) rely more on the germline encoded repertoire to fight against infections than somatic hypermutation (SHM) [109]. On the other hand, SHM in humans increase the affinities of Abs for diverse antigens [110]. Thus, human Ab response generates more diverse Abs in humans than bats.
The maternal Abs transferred to Egyptian Rousette bats against the Marburg virus last for their first five months after birth and Abs last for approximately 1 year in these bats infected naturally [111]. However, the reinfection of bats with the same virus induces anamnestic immune or Ab response within 5 days of the post viral infection clearing the virus systemically as well as from major organs (salivary glands, intestine, urinary bladder, and the reproductive tract). Hence, reinfection with the virus to bats in the natural environment is not sufficient to induce the productive infection. Another study indicates that the maternally-derived Abs (MDAs) in seasonally breeding bats (African fruit bats) do not last long for other viruses, including Lagos bat lyssavirus (LBV, a member of genus lyssavirus and gamily rhadoviridae) [112]. Also, the Abs developed in captive bats decay more slowly than these MDAs, indicating the fast decay of these MDAs. However, Abs produced in captive bats decay faster than seasonally breeding bats living in their natural environment, indicating the Ab may persist for life in natural environment harboring bats.
The Abs-mediated virus neutralization is not a universal mechanism for protection against Ebola, Marburg, and Sosuga (a recently discovered pathogenic Paramyxovirus in Uganda) viruses in the Egyptian Rousette bats [113, 114]. Similarly, maternal Abs to the Henipavirus become undetectable between 4 and 12 months after birth [115]. The seasonal horizontal transmission of the virus makes seronegative bats seropositive for Abs and seasons of late pregnancy/lactation in bats may increase the risk of zoonotic diseases. Further studies have shown that in the straw colored fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) fruit bats maternal Abs provide protection against Lagos bat lyssavirus and African Henipavirus for 6 months and acquired immunity in developed adult bats against them lasts for 12 years (Lagos bat virus) and 4 years (Henipavirus) [116]. However, the disturbed pregnancy and lactation (seasonal birth pulse) impacts the maternal Ab-based immunity on persisting virus that depends on the transmission characteristics (prolonged infection period or within host latency). It is interesting to note that despite the diminished Abs level the Egyptian Rousette bats exert a protective immune response against severe Marburg infection that may be due to the anamnestic response generating Abs and type 1 IFNs [117].
Abs specific to the glycoprotein GP2 to another Filoviridae family member called Lloviu virus (LLOV) have been detected in insectivorous Schreiber’s Bent-winged bats in the caves of Northern Spain [118]. A study has shown that the reinfection with the particular virus is essential to explain the shortness (hours to days) of acute infections and development of immunity lasting for another 1–2 years [119]. Hence, recurring latent infections are warranted for immunoprotection in bats to severe viral infections. The migrating status of the bats or other migratory animals//birds also determine the reactivation or suppression of the latent infection depending on the immune status [120, 121]. For example, the relapse at either the start or end of migration may increase the prevalence across the year and may maintain pathogens with low transmissibility and short infectious periods in the migratory population [120]. For example, relapse at the beginning of the migration may reduce the prevalence of highly virulent or infectious viruses by amplifying death of infected hosts during migration, especially for highly transmissible viruses and those transmitted during migration or breeding season. The long-distance migratory Nathusius’ pipistrelles (Pipistrellus nathusii) show difference in the immune status, for example, during migration they have increased number of lymphocytes with decreased neutrophils as compared to the non or pre-migratory period [38]. The oxidative stress is higher during migration period without any association between blood oxidative status and immunological impact. Of note, the immune challenge does not induce any changes in the oxidative stress irrespective of the migratory or pre-migratory season.
4. Future perspectives and conclusion
Bats always remain the source of attraction and fascinate humans. Even in Hollywood movies the character of the Dracula has been inspired from bats living on blood and coming out for the prey in night time. However, they became important to the medical community upon the first recognition of transfer of rabies virus to the animals serving as their prey for blood in 1959 in Trinidad. Since, then different have been suggested as the career for many viral pathogens that are responsible for different endemics, epidemics, and pandemics, including Nipah virus infection, Hendra virus infection, Ebola virus infection, SARS, MERS, and the current COVID-19 or SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, the direct causal virus for COVID-19, called SARS-CoV-2 has not been directly isolated from them, but genetically related or more close viruses have been identified in them [9, 10]. Hence, understanding the factors responsible for no severe pathogenic outcomes in the bats as compared to other mammals, including humans becomes crucial by keeping in mind the damages (both, life and economical) associated with current COVID-19 pandemic. The bat immune system has evolved in such a way to guard itself through the damages associated with high speed flight for long migration. For example, low ROS production to protect from DNA damage and inflammation. However, to keep a check on invading pathogens, especially viruses it has evolved the potent IFN-dependent antiviral immune response without inducing severe pro-inflammatory immune response as seen in other mammals, including humans during Ebola virus and severe COVID-19 infection. A recent study has shown that the Ebola virus in humans and fruit bats (Epomops buettikoferi) evolves differently by undergoing short term evolution as studied through circular sequencing [122]. For example, the Ebola virus (EBOV) passaged in fruit bat (E. buettikoferi) cells shows a sequence markers specific for host RNA editing enzyme activity, including evidence for adenosine deaminase acting on RNA (ADAR) editing of the EBOV glycoprotein (GP), show increased G to A transitions depending on the EBOV genome strand, and increased average genomic Shannon entropy compared to Ebola virus passaged in human 293 T cells. The bat EpoNi/22.1 cells express approximately 12-fold more ADAR1 mRNA than 293 T cells due to unique features of bat cells or bats. Hence, host-specific factors, including ADAR impact mutation/evolution of the virus. Of note, the mutation rate for Ebola virus is same for both bat and human cell lines. Hence, studying and identifying bat-specific factors have a potential to answer the unknowns associated with mild or no infection with the same pathogen that proves lethal to humans. For example, the evolution of the pathogen in the reservoir host is drift-driven, but in the incidental host it favors positive selection to adapt and reduces the tropism for primary host (bats) [123]. Hence, the pathogen becomes severe in the incidental host and transmits among human hosts as seen in Ebola virus infection and COVID-19. Also, the virus related to the Rubella called Ruhugu virus (RuhV shares identical genomic structure with the Rubella virus) has also been isolated from cyclops leaf-nosed bats (Hipposideros cyclops) sampled in Uganda [124]. This indicates that Rubella virus may have evolved from bat virus or in future Rubella-like infection may affect humans and other mammals as zoonotic disease from bats. Thus the future zoonotic (bats-specific) infections-associated endemics, epidemics, and pandemics, including vampire bat (D. rotundus) rabies caused by vampire bat rabies virus (VBRV, Lyssavirus of Rhabdoviridae family) will depend on the host-pathogen evolutionary signatures or relationships [125].
5. Conclusion
Bats are unique mammals with a potential to have true flight, harboring different viral pathogens that have caused or may cause severe infections to humans and other mammals. Understanding their immune system associated uniqueness may open avenues to deal effectively with zoonotic diseases coming from them.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Author contribution
The author developed the idea, wrote and compiled the manuscript, and developed the figure.
Funding
The author has not received any funding for this work.
\n',keywords:"Bats, innate immunity, autophagy, infection, IFNs, adaptive immunity",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77501.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77501.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77501",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77501",totalDownloads:202,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"November 9th 2020",dateReviewed:"June 15th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 22nd 2021",datePublished:"December 1st 2021",dateFinished:"July 12th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The COVID-19 pandemic that started in December 2019 in Wuhan city, China has created chaos all over the world with over 185 million infection cases and 4 million deaths world-wide. The pathogen behind COVID-19 has been identified as severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that is more close to the previous SARS-CoV responsible for SARS epidemic 2002–2003. Although, SARS-CoV-2 also differs from SARS-CoV in many aspects as indicated by genetic studies. For example, SARS-CoV does not have a furin binding domain or site, whereas its presence in SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein increases its potential for infectivity. The horseshoe bats (Rhinolphus species) from China are considered as primary animal reservoirs for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. However, along with CoVs, bats also harbor many other viral pathogens (Ebola, Nipah, and Hendra viruses) without having serious infections. The bat physiology plays a crucial role in harboring these viruses along with adaptations to longevity and slow aging process. The immune system plays a crucial role in the clearance or establishment of the infection. Present chapter discusses different immunological aspects (innate immune response comprising the virus recognizing pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), type 1 interferon production, pro- and anti-inflammatory immune response, and adaptive immune response) that help bats to control viral infection without getting a severe infection as compared to other mammals, including humans.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77501",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77501",signatures:"Vijay Kumar",book:{id:"10535",type:"book",title:"SARS-CoV-2 Origin and COVID-19 Pandemic Across the Globe",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"SARS-CoV-2 Origin and COVID-19 Pandemic Across the Globe",slug:"sars-cov-2-origin-and-covid-19-pandemic-across-the-globe",publishedDate:"December 1st 2021",bookSignature:"Vijay Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10535.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-756-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-755-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-757-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",email:"vij_tox@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63844/images/system/63844.jpg",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee Health Science Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Innate immune adaptation of bats as preventing to develop severe infections",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Adaptive immune response in bats to make them resistant severe viral infections",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Future perspectives and conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Author contribution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Funding",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'T.H. Kunz, E.B. de Torrez, D. Bauer, T. Lobova, T.H. Fleming, Ecosystem services provided by bats, Europe 31 (2011) 32'},{id:"B2",body:'M. Kasso, M. Balakrishnan, Ecological and Economic Importance of Bats (Order Chiroptera), ISRN Biodiversity 2013 (2013) 187415'},{id:"B3",body:'D.T.S. Hayman, Bats as Viral Reservoirs, Annual Review of Virology 3(1) (2016) 77-99'},{id:"B4",body:'G.F. McCracken, K. Safi, T.H. Kunz, D.K.N. Dechmann, S.M. Swartz, M. Wikelski, Airplane tracking documents the fastest flight speeds recorded for bats, Royal Society Open Science 3(11) (2016) 160398'},{id:"B5",body:'I. Galván, J. Garrido-Fernández, J. Ríos, A. Pérez-Gálvez, B. Rodríguez-Herrera, J.J. Negro, Tropical bat as mammalian model for skin carotenoid metabolism, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(39) (2016) 10932-10937'},{id:"B6",body:'C.H. Calisher, J.E. Childs, H.E. Field, K.V. Holmes, T. Schountz, Bats: important reservoir hosts of emerging viruses, Clin Microbiol Rev 19(3) (2006) 531-545'},{id:"B7",body:'A.D. Luis, D.T.S. Hayman, T.J. O\'Shea, P.M. Cryan, A.T. Gilbert, J.R.C. Pulliam, J.N. Mills, M.E. Timonin, C.K.R. Willis, A.A. Cunningham, A.R. Fooks, C.E. Rupprecht, J.L.N. Wood, C.T. Webb, A comparison of bats and rodents as reservoirs of zoonotic viruses: are bats special?, Proc Biol Sci 280(1756) (2013) 20122753-20122753'},{id:"B8",body:'F.L. Roes, On the Evolution of Virulent Zoonotic Viruses in Bats, Biol Theory (2020) 1-3'},{id:"B9",body:'V. Kumar, Understanding the complexities of SARS-CoV-2 infection and its immunology: A road to immune-based therapeutics, International Immunopharmacology 88 (2020) 106980'},{id:"B10",body:'V. Kumar, Emerging human Coronavirus infections (SARS, MERS, and COVID-19): Where they are leading us, International Reviews of Immunology (2020)'},{id:"B11",body:'A. Caron, M. Bourgarel, J. Cappelle, F. Liégeois, H.M. De Nys, F. Roger, Ebola Virus Maintenance: If Not (Only) Bats, What Else?, Viruses 10(10) (2018) 549'},{id:"B12",body:'E.M. Leroy, B. Kumulungui, X. Pourrut, P. Rouquet, A. Hassanin, P. Yaba, A. Délicat, J.T. Paweska, J.P. Gonzalez, R. Swanepoel, Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus, Nature 438(7068) (2005) 575-576'},{id:"B13",body:'J.L. Pawan, Rabies in the vampire bat of Trinidad, with special reference to the clinical course and the latency of infection, Caribb Med J 21 (1959) 137-156'},{id:"B14",body:'J.L. Pawan, The transmission of paralytic rabies in Trinidad by the vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus murinus Wagner, Caribb Med J 21 (1959) 110-136'},{id:"B15",body:'N. Johnson, N. Aréchiga-Ceballos, A. Aguilar-Setien, Vampire bat rabies: ecology, epidemiology and control, Viruses 6(5) (2014) 1911-1928'},{id:"B16",body:'E. De Verteuil, F.W. Urich, The study and control of paralytic rabies transmitted by bats in Trinidad, British West Indies, Caribb Med J 21 (1959) 85-109'},{id:"B17",body:'L.K. Koch, S. Cunze, J. Kochmann, S. Klimpel, Bats as putative Zaire ebolavirus reservoir hosts and their habitat suitability in Africa, Scientific Reports 10(1) (2020) 14268'},{id:"B18",body:'L. Chen, B. Liu, J. Yang, Q. Jin, DBatVir: the database of bat-associated viruses, Database (Oxford) 2014 (2014) bau021'},{id:"B19",body:'T.J. O\'Shea, P.M. Cryan, D.T.S. Hayman, R.K. Plowright, D.G. Streicker, Multiple mortality events in bats: a global review, Mammal Review 46(3) (2016) 175-190'},{id:"B20",body:'J. Kelley, B. de Bono, J. Trowsdale, IRIS: a database surveying known human immune system genes, Genomics 85(4) (2005) 503-511'},{id:"B21",body:'A.T. Papenfuss, M.L. Baker, Z.P. Feng, M. Tachedjian, G. Crameri, C. Cowled, J. Ng, V. Janardhana, H.E. Field, L.F. Wang, The immune gene repertoire of an important viral reservoir, the Australian black flying fox, BMC Genomics 13 (2012) 261'},{id:"B22",body:'T.I. Shaw, A. Srivastava, W.C. Chou, L. Liu, A. Hawkinson, T.C. Glenn, R. Adams, T. Schountz, Transcriptome sequencing and annotation for the Jamaican fruit bat (Artibeus jamaicensis), PLoS One 7(11) (2012) e48472'},{id:"B23",body:'A.K. Lee, K.A. Kulcsar, O. Elliott, H. Khiabanian, E.R. Nagle, M.E. Jones, B.R. Amman, M. Sanchez-Lockhart, J.S. Towner, G. Palacios, R. Rabadan, De novo transcriptome reconstruction and annotation of the Egyptian rousette bat, BMC Genomics 16 (2015) 1033'},{id:"B24",body:'T. Qurkhuli, N. Schwensow, S.D. Brändel, M. Tschapka, S. Sommer, Can extreme MHC class I diversity be a feature of a wide geographic range? The example of Seba\'s short-tailed bat (Carollia perspicillata), Immunogenetics 71(8-9) (2019) 575-587'},{id:"B25",body:'A. Salmier, B. de Thoisy, B. Crouau-Roy, V. Lacoste, A. Lavergne, Spatial pattern of genetic diversity and selection in the MHC class II DRB of three Neotropical bat species, BMC Evol Biol 16(1) (2016) 229'},{id:"B26",body:'S.N. Seifert, M.C. Letko, T. Bushmaker, E.D. Laing, G. Saturday, K. Meade-White, N. van Doremalen, C.C. Broder, V.J. Munster, Rousettus aegyptiacus Bats Do Not Support Productive Nipah Virus Replication, J Infect Dis 221(Supplement_4) (2020) S407-s413'},{id:"B27",body:'C.E. Brook, M. Boots, K. Chandran, A.P. Dobson, C. Drosten, A.L. Graham, B.T. Grenfell, M.A. Müller, M. Ng, L.F. Wang, A. van Leeuwen, Accelerated viral dynamics in bat cell lines, with implications for zoonotic emergence, Elife 9 (2020)'},{id:"B28",body:'J.M. Emeny, M.J. Morgan, Regulation of the interferon system: evidence that Vero cells have a genetic defect in interferon production, J Gen Virol 43(1) (1979) 247-252'},{id:"B29",body:'G.D. Brown, J.A. Willment, L. Whitehead, C-type lectins in immunity and homeostasis, Nature Reviews Immunology 18(6) (2018) 374-389'},{id:"B30",body:'V. Kumar, A STING to inflammation and autoimmunity, Journal of Leukocyte Biology 106(1) (2019) 171-185'},{id:"B31",body:'K. V, Toll-like receptors in immunity and inflammatory diseases: Past, present, and future, International immunopharmacology 59 (2018) 391-412'},{id:"B32",body:'V. Kumar, Toll-like receptors in sepsis-associated cytokine storm and their endogenous negative regulators as future immunomodulatory targets, International immunopharmacology 89(Pt B) (2020) 107087-107087'},{id:"B33",body:'J. Rehwinkel, M.U. Gack, RIG-I-like receptors: their regulation and roles in RNA sensing, Nature Reviews Immunology 20(9) (2020) 537-551'},{id:"B34",body:'V. Kumar, Inflammasomes: Pandora\'s box for sepsis, J Inflamm Res 11 (2018) 477-502'},{id:"B35",body:'S. Stockmaier, D.K.N. Dechmann, R.A. Page, M.T. O\'Mara, No fever and leucocytosis in response to a lipopolysaccharide challenge in an insectivorous bat, Biology Letters 11(9) (2015) 20150576'},{id:"B36",body:'A.K. Brunet-Rossinni, Reduced free-radical production and extreme longevity in the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) versus two non-flying mammals, Mech Ageing Dev 125(1) (2004) 11-20'},{id:"B37",body:'M.Y. Vyssokikh, S. Holtze, O.A. Averina, K.G. Lyamzaev, A.A. Panteleeva, M.V. Marey, R.A. Zinovkin, F.F. Severin, M.V. Skulachev, N. Fasel, T.B. Hildebrandt, V.P. Skulachev, Mild depolarization of the inner mitochondrial membrane is a crucial component of an anti-aging program, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117(12) (2020) 6491-6501'},{id:"B38",body:'C.C. Voigt, M. Fritze, O. Lindecke, D. Costantini, G. Pētersons, G. Czirják, The immune response of bats differs between pre-migration and migration seasons, Sci Rep 10(1) (2020) 17384'},{id:"B39",body:'Z. Huang, C.V. Whelan, N.M. Foley, D. Jebb, F. Touzalin, E.J. Petit, S.J. Puechmaille, E.C. Teeling, Longitudinal comparative transcriptomics reveals unique mechanisms underlying extended healthspan in bats, Nature Ecology & Evolution 3(7) (2019) 1110-1120'},{id:"B40",body:'D.L. Sun, Y.Z. Gao, X.Y. Ge, Z.L. Shi, N.Y. Zhou, Special Features of Bat Microbiota Differ From Those of Terrestrial Mammals, Front Microbiol 11 (2020) 1040'},{id:"B41",body:'G.M. Hughes, J. Leech, S.J. Puechmaille, J.V. Lopez, E.C. Teeling, Is there a link between aging and microbiome diversity in exceptional mammalian longevity?, PeerJ 6 (2018) e4174'},{id:"B42",body:'S. Kim, S.M. Jazwinski, The Gut Microbiota and Healthy Aging: A Mini-Review, Gerontology 64(6) (2018) 513-520'},{id:"B43",body:'F. Kong, F. Deng, Y. Li, J. Zhao, Identification of gut microbiome signatures associated with longevity provides a promising modulation target for healthy aging, Gut Microbes 10(2) (2019) 210-215'},{id:"B44",body:'C. Maynard, D. Weinkove, The Gut Microbiota and Ageing, Subcell Biochem 90 (2018) 351-371'},{id:"B45",body:'K. Iha, T. Omatsu, S. Watanabe, N. Ueda, S. Taniguchi, H. Fujii, Y. Ishii, S. Kyuwa, H. Akashi, Y. Yoshikawa, Molecular cloning and expression analysis of bat toll-like receptors 3, 7 and 9, J Vet Med Sci 72(2) (2010) 217-220'},{id:"B46",body:'C. Cowled, M. Baker, M. Tachedjian, P. Zhou, D. Bulach, L.F. Wang, Molecular characterisation of Toll-like receptors in the black flying fox Pteropus alecto, Dev Comp Immunol 35(1) (2011) 7-18'},{id:"B47",body:'H. Jiang, J. Li, L. Li, X. Zhang, L. Yuan, J. Chen, Selective evolution of Toll-like receptors 3, 7, 8, and 9 in bats, Immunogenetics 69(4) (2017) 271-285'},{id:"B48",body:'J. Schad, C.C. Voigt, Adaptive evolution of virus-sensing toll-like receptor 8 in bats, Immunogenetics 68(10) (2016) 783-795'},{id:"B49",body:'M. Escalera-Zamudio, M.L. Zepeda-Mendoza, E. Loza-Rubio, E. Rojas-Anaya, M.L. Méndez-Ojeda, C.F. Arias, A.D. Greenwood, The evolution of bat nucleic acid-sensing Toll-like receptors, Mol Ecol 24(23) (2015) 5899-5909'},{id:"B50",body:'C. Cowled, M.L. Baker, P. Zhou, M. Tachedjian, L.F. Wang, Molecular characterisation of RIG-I-like helicases in the black flying fox, Pteropus alecto, Dev Comp Immunol 36(4) (2012) 657-664'},{id:"B51",body:'A.M. Bruns, C.M. Horvath, LGP2 synergy with MDA5 in RLR-mediated RNA recognition and antiviral signaling, Cytokine 74(2) (2015) 198-206'},{id:"B52",body:'R.Y. Sanchez David, C. Combredet, V. Najburg, G.A. Millot, G. Beauclair, B. Schwikowski, T. Léger, J.-M. Camadro, Y. Jacob, J. Bellalou, N. Jouvenet, F. Tangy, A.V. Komarova, LGP2 binds to PACT to regulate RIG-I– and MDA5-mediated antiviral responses, Science Signaling 12(601) (2019) eaar3993'},{id:"B53",body:'R. Tarigan, H. Shimoda, K.C.C. Doysabas, M. Ken, A. Iida, E. Hondo, Role of pattern recognition receptors and interferon-beta in protecting bat cell lines from encephalomyocarditis virus and Japanese encephalitis virus infection, Biochem Biophys Res Commun 527(1) (2020) 1-7'},{id:"B54",body:'A. Banerjee, M.L. Baker, K. Kulcsar, V. Misra, R. Plowright, K. Mossman, Novel Insights Into Immune Systems of Bats, Front Immunol 11 (2020) 26'},{id:"B55",body:'H. Feng, A.-L. Sander, A. Moreira-Soto, D. Yamane, J.F. Drexler, S.M. Lemon, Hepatovirus 3ABC proteases and evolution of mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS), Journal of Hepatology 71(1) (2019) 25-34'},{id:"B56",body:'S.P. John, J. Sun, R.J. Carlson, B. Cao, C.J. Bradfield, J. Song, M. Smelkinson, I.D.C. Fraser, IFIT1 Exerts Opposing Regulatory Effects on the Inflammatory and Interferon Gene Programs in LPS-Activated Human Macrophages, Cell Reports 25(1) (2018) 95-106.e6'},{id:"B57",body:'B. Wu, S. Hur, How RIG-I like receptors activate MAVS, Current opinion in virology 12 (2015) 91-98'},{id:"B58",body:'V.J. Munster, D.R. Adney, N. van Doremalen, V.R. Brown, K.L. Miazgowicz, S. Milne-Price, T. Bushmaker, R. Rosenke, D. Scott, A. Hawkinson, E. de Wit, T. Schountz, R.A. Bowen, Replication and shedding of MERS-CoV in Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis), Sci Rep 6 (2016) 21878'},{id:"B59",body:'A. Banerjee, D. Falzarano, N. Rapin, J. Lew, V. Misra, Interferon Regulatory Factor 3-Mediated Signaling Limits Middle-East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) Coronavirus Propagation in Cells from an Insectivorous Bat, Viruses 11(2) (2019)'},{id:"B60",body:'A. Banerjee, X. Zhang, A. Yip, K.S. Schulz, A.T. Irving, D. Bowdish, B. Golding, L.-F. Wang, K. Mossman, Positive Selection of a Serine Residue in Bat IRF3 Confers Enhanced Antiviral Protection, iScience 23(3) (2020)'},{id:"B61",body:'A. Banerjee, S. Subudhi, N. Rapin, J. Lew, R. Jain, D. Falzarano, V. Misra, Selection of viral variants during persistent infection of insectivorous bat cells with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Sci Rep 10(1) (2020) 7257'},{id:"B62",body:'P. Zhou, C. Cowled, A. Mansell, P. Monaghan, D. Green, L. Wu, Z. Shi, L.F. Wang, M.L. Baker, IRF7 in the Australian black flying fox, Pteropus alecto: evidence for a unique expression pattern and functional conservation, PLoS One 9(8) (2014) e103875'},{id:"B63",body:'P. Zhou, C. Cowled, S. Todd, G. Crameri, E.R. Virtue, G.A. Marsh, R. Klein, Z. Shi, L.F. Wang, M.L. Baker, Type III IFNs in pteropid bats: differential expression patterns provide evidence for distinct roles in antiviral immunity, J Immunol 186(5) (2011) 3138-3147'},{id:"B64",body:'S.S. Pavlovich, T. Darling, A.J. Hume, R.A. Davey, F. Feng, E. Mühlberger, T.B. Kepler, Egyptian Rousette IFN-ω Subtypes Elicit Distinct Antiviral Effects and Transcriptional Responses in Conspecific Cells, Front Immunol 11 (2020) 435'},{id:"B65",body:'J. Prescott, J.C. Guito, J.R. Spengler, C.E. Arnold, A.J. Schuh, B.R. Amman, T.K. Sealy, L.W. Guerrero, G.F. Palacios, M. Sanchez-Lockhart, C.G. Albariño, J.S. Towner, Rousette Bat Dendritic Cells Overcome Marburg Virus-Mediated Antiviral Responses by Upregulation of Interferon-Related Genes While Downregulating Proinflammatory Disease Mediators, mSphere 4(6) (2019)'},{id:"B66",body:'I.V. Kuzmin, T.M. Schwarz, P.A. Ilinykh, I. Jordan, T.G. Ksiazek, R. Sachidanandam, C.F. Basler, A. Bukreyev, Innate Immune Responses of Bat and Human Cells to Filoviruses: Commonalities and Distinctions, J Virol 91(8) (2017)'},{id:"B67",body:'J. Spitaels, L. Van Hoecke, K. Roose, G. Kochs, X. Saelens, Mx1 in Hematopoietic Cells Protects against Thogoto Virus Infection, J Virol 93(15) (2019)'},{id:"B68",body:'J. Fuchs, M. Hölzer, M. Schilling, C. Patzina, A. Schoen, T. Hoenen, G. Zimmer, M. Marz, F. Weber, M.A. Müller, G. Kochs, Evolution and Antiviral Specificities of Interferon-Induced Mx Proteins of Bats against Ebola, Influenza, and Other RNA Viruses, J Virol 91(15) (2017)'},{id:"B69",body:'G. Guarda, M. Braun, F. Staehli, A. Tardivel, C. Mattmann, I. Förster, M. Farlik, T. Decker, Renaud A. Du Pasquier, P. Romero, J. Tschopp, Type I Interferon Inhibits Interleukin-1 Production and Inflammasome Activation, Immunity 34(2) (2011) 213-223'},{id:"B70",body:'E. Eren, R. Planès, S. Bagayoko, P.-J. Bordignon, K. Chaoui, A. Hessel, K. Santoni, M. Pinilla, B. Lagrange, O. Burlet-Schiltz, J.C. Howard, T. Henry, M. Yamamoto, E. Meunier, Irgm2 and Gate-16 cooperatively dampen Gram-negative bacteria-induced caspase-11 response, EMBO reports 21(11) (2020) e50829'},{id:"B71",body:'G. Ni, Z. Ma, B. Damania, cGAS and STING: At the intersection of DNA and RNA virus-sensing networks, PLoS Pathog 14(8) (2018) e1007148'},{id:"B72",body:'J. Xie, Y. Li, X. Shen, G. Goh, Y. Zhu, J. Cui, L.-F. Wang, Z.-L. Shi, P. Zhou, Dampened STING-Dependent Interferon Activation in Bats, Cell Host & Microbe 23(3) (2018) 297-301.e4'},{id:"B73",body:'Y. Tanaka, Z.J. Chen, STING specifies IRF3 phosphorylation by TBK1 in the cytosolic DNA signaling pathway, Sci Signal 5(214) (2012) ra20'},{id:"B74",body:'M. Ahn, J. Cui, A.T. Irving, L.-F. Wang, Unique Loss of the PYHIN Gene Family in Bats Amongst Mammals: Implications for Inflammasome Sensing, Scientific Reports 6(1) (2016) 21722'},{id:"B75",body:'L. Unterholzner, S.E. Keating, M. Baran, K.A. Horan, S.B. Jensen, S. Sharma, C.M. Sirois, T. Jin, E. Latz, T.S. Xiao, K.A. Fitzgerald, S.R. Paludan, A.G. Bowie, IFI16 is an innate immune sensor for intracellular DNA, Nature Immunology 11(11) (2010) 997-1004'},{id:"B76",body:'G. Zhang, C. Cowled, Z. Shi, Z. Huang, K.A. Bishop-Lilly, X. Fang, J.W. Wynne, Z. Xiong, M.L. Baker, W. Zhao, M. Tachedjian, Y. Zhu, P. Zhou, X. Jiang, J. Ng, L. Yang, L. Wu, J. Xiao, Y. Feng, Y. Chen, X. Sun, Y. Zhang, G.A. Marsh, G. Crameri, C.C. Broder, K.G. Frey, L.-F. Wang, J. Wang, Comparative Analysis of Bat Genomes Provides Insight into the Evolution of Flight and Immunity, Science 339(6118) (2013) 456-460'},{id:"B77",body:'A.M. Gamage, F. Zhu, M. Ahn, R.J.H. Foo, Y.Y. Hey, D.H.W. Low, I.H. Mendenhall, C.-A. Dutertre, L.-F. Wang, Immunophenotyping monocytes, macrophages and granulocytes in the Pteropodid bat Eonycteris spelaea, Scientific Reports 10(1) (2020) 309'},{id:"B78",body:'J.A. Hayward, M. Tachedjian, J. Cui, A.Z. Cheng, A. Johnson, M.L. Baker, R.S. Harris, L.F. Wang, G. Tachedjian, Differential Evolution of Antiretroviral Restriction Factors in Pteropid Bats as Revealed by APOBEC3 Gene Complexity, Mol Biol Evol 35(7) (2018) 1626-1637'},{id:"B79",body:'M. Renard, M. Henry, D. Guétard, J.P. Vartanian, S. Wain-Hobson, APOBEC1 and APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases as restriction factors for hepadnaviral genomes in non-humans in vivo, J Mol Biol 400(3) (2010) 323-334'},{id:"B80",body:'J.N. Mandl, C. Schneider, D.S. Schneider, M.L. Baker, Going to Bat(s) for Studies of Disease Tolerance, Frontiers in Immunology 9(2112) (2018)'},{id:"B81",body:'E.W. Refsland, R.S. Harris, The APOBEC3 family of retroelement restriction factors, Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 371 (2013) 1-27'},{id:"B82",body:'I. Narvaiza, S. Landry, M.D. Weitzman, APOBEC3 proteins and genomic stability: the high cost of a good defense, Cell Cycle 11(1) (2012) 33-38'},{id:"B83",body:'S. Yamanaka, M.E. Balestra, L.D. Ferrell, J. Fan, K.S. Arnold, S. Taylor, J.M. Taylor, T.L. Innerarity, Apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing protein induces hepatocellular carcinoma and dysplasia in transgenic animals, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92(18) (1995) 8483-8487'},{id:"B84",body:'S. Henderson, T. Fenton, APOBEC3 genes: retroviral restriction factors to cancer drivers, Trends in Molecular Medicine 21(5) (2015) 274-284'},{id:"B85",body:'M. Petljak, J. Maciejowski, Molecular origins of APOBEC-associated mutations in cancer, DNA Repair (Amst) 94 (2020) 102905'},{id:"B86",body:'J. Koh, Y. Itahana, I.H. Mendenhall, D. Low, E.X.Y. Soh, A.K. Guo, Y.T. Chionh, L.-F. Wang, K. Itahana, ABCB1 protects bat cells from DNA damage induced by genotoxic compounds, Nature Communications 10(1) (2019) 2820'},{id:"B87",body:'V. Mohanram, A.E. Sköld, S.M. Bächle, S.K. Pathak, A.L. Spetz, IFN-α induces APOBEC3G, F, and A in immature dendritic cells and limits HIV-1 spread to CD4+ T cells, J Immunol 190(7) (2013) 3346-3353'},{id:"B88",body:'M. Ahn, D.E. Anderson, Q. Zhang, C.W. Tan, B.L. Lim, K. Luko, M. Wen, W.N. Chia, S. Mani, L.C. Wang, J.H.J. Ng, R.M. Sobota, C.-A. Dutertre, F. Ginhoux, Z.-L. Shi, A.T. Irving, L.-F. Wang, Dampened NLRP3-mediated inflammation in bats and implications for a special viral reservoir host, Nat Microbiol 4(5) (2019) 789-799'},{id:"B89",body:'A. Banerjee, N. Rapin, T. Bollinger, V. Misra, Lack of inflammatory gene expression in bats: a unique role for a transcription repressor, Scientific Reports 7(1) (2017) 2232'},{id:"B90",body:'J. Kacprzyk, G.M. Hughes, E.M. Palsson-McDermott, S.R. Quinn, S.J. Puechmaille, L.A.J. O\'Neill, E.C. Teeling, A Potent Anti-Inflammatory Response in Bat Macrophages May Be Linked to Extended Longevity and Viral Tolerance, Acta Chiropterologica 19(2) (2017) 219-228, 10'},{id:"B91",body:'N.M. Foley, G.M. Hughes, Z. Huang, M. Clarke, D. Jebb, C.V. Whelan, E.J. Petit, F. Touzalin, O. Farcy, G. Jones, R.D. Ransome, J. Kacprzyk, M.J. O\'Connell, G. Kerth, H. Rebelo, L. Rodrigues, S.J. Puechmaille, E.C. Teeling, Growing old, yet staying young: The role of telomeres in bats\' exceptional longevity, Sci Adv 4(2) (2018) eaao0926'},{id:"B92",body:'J. Munshi-South, G.S. Wilkinson, Bats and birds: Exceptional longevity despite high metabolic rates, Ageing Res Rev 9(1) (2010) 12-19'},{id:"B93",body:'Y.T. Chionh, J. Cui, J. Koh, I.H. Mendenhall, J.H.J. Ng, D. Low, K. Itahana, A.T. Irving, L.F. Wang, High basal heat-shock protein expression in bats confers resistance to cellular heat/oxidative stress, Cell Stress Chaperones 24(4) (2019) 835-849'},{id:"B94",body:'B. Levine, N. Mizushima, H.W. Virgin, Autophagy in immunity and inflammation, Nature 469(7330) (2011) 323-335'},{id:"B95",body:'X.-J. Zhou, H. Zhang, Autophagy in immunity: implications in etiology of autoimmune/autoinflammatory diseases, Autophagy 8(9) (2012) 1286-1299'},{id:"B96",body:'B. Ravikumar, S. Sarkar, J.E. Davies, M. Futter, M. Garcia-Arencibia, Z.W. Green-Thompson, M. Jimenez-Sanchez, V.I. Korolchuk, M. Lichtenberg, S. Luo, D.C. Massey, F.M. Menzies, K. Moreau, U. Narayanan, M. Renna, F.H. Siddiqi, B.R. Underwood, A.R. Winslow, D.C. Rubinsztein, Regulation of mammalian autophagy in physiology and pathophysiology, Physiol Rev 90(4) (2010) 1383-1435'},{id:"B97",body:'David C. Rubinsztein, G. Mariño, G. Kroemer, Autophagy and Aging, Cell 146(5) (2011) 682-695'},{id:"B98",body:'H. Appelqvist, P. Wäster, K. Kågedal, K. Öllinger, The lysosome: from waste bag to potential therapeutic target, J Mol Cell Biol 5(4) (2013) 214-226'},{id:"B99",body:'N. Mizushima, B. Levine, A.M. Cuervo, D.J. Klionsky, Autophagy fights disease through cellular self-digestion, Nature 451(7182) (2008) 1069-1075'},{id:"B100",body:'V. Deretic, Autophagy in immunity and cell-autonomous defense against intracellular microbes, Immunological reviews 240(1) (2011) 92-104'},{id:"B101",body:'X. Gui, H. Yang, T. Li, X. Tan, P. Shi, M. Li, F. Du, Z.J. Chen, Autophagy induction via STING trafficking is a primordial function of the cGAS pathway, Nature 567(7747) (2019) 262-266'},{id:"B102",body:'V. Deretic, T. Saitoh, S. Akira, Autophagy in infection, inflammation and immunity, Nature Reviews Immunology 13(10) (2013) 722-737'},{id:"B103",body:'E.D. Laing, S.L. Sterling, D.L. Weir, C.R. Beauregard, I.L. Smith, S.E. Larsen, L.F. Wang, A.L. Snow, B.C. Schaefer, C.C. Broder, Enhanced Autophagy Contributes to Reduced Viral Infection in Black Flying Fox Cells, Viruses 11(3) (2019)'},{id:"B104",body:'X.-L. Tao, W. Zhao, W. Tong, X.-F. Wang, L.-L. Dou, J.-M. Chen, N. Liu, Y. Lu, Y.-B. Zhang, X.-P. Jin, Y.-F. Shen, H.-Y. Zhao, H. Jin, Y.-G. Li, The effects of autophagy on the replication of Nelson Bay orthoreovirus, Virology Journal 16(1) (2019) 90'},{id:"B105",body:'Z. Qu, Z. Li, L. Ma, X. Wei, L. Zhang, R. Liang, G. Meng, N. Zhang, C. Xia, Structure and Peptidome of the Bat MHC Class I Molecule Reveal a Novel Mechanism Leading to High-Affinity Peptide Binding, J Immunol 202(12) (2019) 3493-3506'},{id:"B106",body:'J.M. Martínez Gómez, P. Periasamy, C.-A. Dutertre, A.T. Irving, J.H.J. Ng, G. Crameri, M.L. Baker, F. Ginhoux, L.-F. Wang, S. Alonso, Phenotypic and functional characterization of the major lymphocyte populations in the fruit-eating bat Pteropus alecto, Scientific Reports 6(1) (2016) 37796'},{id:"B107",body:'M.L. Baker, M. Tachedjian, L.F. Wang, Immunoglobulin heavy chain diversity in Pteropid bats: evidence for a diverse and highly specific antigen binding repertoire, Immunogenetics 62(3) (2010) 173-184'},{id:"B108",body:'J.W. Wynne, A. Di Rubbo, B.J. Shiell, G. Beddome, C. Cowled, G.R. Peck, J. Huang, S.L. Grimley, M.L. Baker, W.P. Michalski, Purification and characterisation of immunoglobulins from the Australian black flying fox (Pteropus alecto) using anti-fab affinity chromatography reveals the low abundance of IgA, PLoS One 8(1) (2013) e52930'},{id:"B109",body:'S. Bratsch, N. Wertz, K. Chaloner, T.H. Kunz, J.E. Butler, The little brown bat, M. lucifugus, displays a highly diverse V H, D H and J H repertoire but little evidence of somatic hypermutation, Dev Comp Immunol 35(4) (2011) 421-30'},{id:"B110",body:'I.M. Tomlinson, G. Walter, P.T. Jones, P.H. Dear, E.L. Sonnhammer, G. Winter, The imprint of somatic hypermutation on the repertoire of human germline V genes, J Mol Biol 256(5) (1996) 813-817'},{id:"B111",body:'Kaposi\'s sarcoma and Pneumocystis pneumonia among homosexual men--New York City and California, MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 30(25) (1981) 305-8'},{id:"B112",body:'D.T.S. Hayman, A.D. Luis, O. Restif, K.S. Baker, A.R. Fooks, C. Leach, D.L. Horton, R. Suu-Ire, A.A. Cunningham, J.L.N. Wood, C.T. Webb, Maternal antibody and the maintenance of a lyssavirus in populations of seasonally breeding African bats, PLoS One 13(6) (2018) e0198563'},{id:"B113",body:'A.J. Schuh, B.R. Amman, T.K. Sealy, M.H. Kainulainen, A.K. Chakrabarti, L.W. Guerrero, S.T. Nichol, C.G. Albarino, J.S. Towner, Antibody-Mediated Virus Neutralization Is Not a Universal Mechanism of Marburg, Ebola, or Sosuga Virus Clearance in Egyptian Rousette Bats, J Infect Dis 219(11) (2019) 1716-1721'},{id:"B114",body:'B.R. Amman, C.G. Albariño, B.H. Bird, L. Nyakarahuka, T.K. Sealy, S. Balinandi, A.J. Schuh, S.M. Campbell, U. Ströher, M.E. Jones, M.E. Vodzack, D.M. Reeder, W. Kaboyo, S.T. Nichol, J.S. Towner, A Recently Discovered Pathogenic Paramyxovirus, Sosuga Virus, is Present in Rousettus aegyptiacus Fruit Bats at Multiple Locations in Uganda, J Wildl Dis 51(3) (2015) 774-779'},{id:"B115",body:'K.S. Baker, R. Suu-Ire, J. Barr, D.T.S. Hayman, C.C. Broder, D.L. Horton, C. Durrant, P.R. Murcia, A.A. Cunningham, J.L.N. Wood, Viral antibody dynamics in a chiropteran host, J Anim Ecol 83(2) (2014) 415-428'},{id:"B116",body:'A.J. Peel, K.S. Baker, D.T.S. Hayman, C.C. Broder, A.A. Cunningham, A.R. Fooks, R. Garnier, J.L.N. Wood, O. Restif, Support for viral persistence in bats from age-specific serology and models of maternal immunity, Sci Rep 8(1) (2018) 3859'},{id:"B117",body:'A.J. Schuh, B.R. Amman, T.K. Sealy, J.R. Spengler, S.T. Nichol, J.S. Towner, Egyptian rousette bats maintain long-term protective immunity against Marburg virus infection despite diminished antibody levels, Sci Rep 7(1) (2017) 8763'},{id:"B118",body:'E. Ramírez de Arellano, M. Sanchez-Lockhart, M.J. Perteguer, M. Bartlett, M. Ortiz, P. Campioli, A. Hernández, J. Gonzalez, K. Garcia, M. Ramos, M.Á. Jiménez-Clavero, A. Tenorio, M.P. Sánchez-Seco, F. González, J.E. Echevarría, G. Palacios, A. Negredo, First Evidence of Antibodies Against Lloviu Virus in Schreiber\'s Bent-Winged Insectivorous Bats Demonstrate a Wide Circulation of the Virus in Spain, Viruses 11(4) (2019) 360'},{id:"B119",body:'E.E. Glennon, D.J. Becker, A.J. Peel, R. Garnier, R.D. Suu-Ire, L. Gibson, D.T.S. Hayman, J.L.N. Wood, A.A. Cunningham, R.K. Plowright, O. Restif, What is stirring in the reservoir? Modelling mechanisms of henipavirus circulation in fruit bat hosts, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 374(1782) (2019) 20190021'},{id:"B120",body:'D.J. Becker, E.D. Ketterson, R.J. Hall, Reactivation of latent infections with migration shapes population-level disease dynamics, Proc Biol Sci 287(1935) (2020) 20201829'},{id:"B121",body:'S. Altizer, R. Bartel, B.A. Han, Animal migration and infectious disease risk, Science 331(6015) (2011) 296-302'},{id:"B122",body:'Z.J. Whitfield, A.N. Prasad, A.J. Ronk, I.V. Kuzmin, P.A. Ilinykh, R. Andino, A. Bukreyev, Species-Specific Evolution of Ebola Virus during Replication in Human and Bat Cells, Cell Reports 32(7) (2020) 108028'},{id:"B123",body:'R.A. Urbanowicz, C.P. McClure, A. Sakuntabhai, A.A. Sall, G. Kobinger, M.A. Müller, E.C. Holmes, F.A. Rey, E. Simon-Loriere, J.K. Ball, Human Adaptation of Ebola Virus during the West African Outbreak, Cell 167(4) (2016) 1079-1087.e5'},{id:"B124",body:'A.J. Bennett, A.C. Paskey, A. Ebinger, F. Pfaff, G. Priemer, D. Höper, A. Breithaupt, E. Heuser, R.G. Ulrich, J.H. Kuhn, K.A. Bishop-Lilly, M. Beer, T.L. Goldberg, Relatives of rubella virus in diverse mammals, Nature 586(7829) (2020) 424-428'},{id:"B125",body:'D.G. Streicker, J.C. Winternitz, D.A. Satterfield, R.E. Condori-Condori, A. Broos, C. Tello, S. Recuenco, A. Velasco-Villa, S. Altizer, W. Valderrama, Host–pathogen evolutionary signatures reveal dynamics and future invasions of vampire bat rabies, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113(39) (2016) 10926-10931'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Vijay Kumar",address:"vij_tox@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Children’s Health Queensland Clinical Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Mater Research, University of Queensland, Australia
School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Australia
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), Madison Avenue, USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10535",type:"book",title:"SARS-CoV-2 Origin and COVID-19 Pandemic Across the Globe",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"SARS-CoV-2 Origin and COVID-19 Pandemic Across the Globe",slug:"sars-cov-2-origin-and-covid-19-pandemic-across-the-globe",publishedDate:"December 1st 2021",bookSignature:"Vijay Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10535.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-756-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-755-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-757-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"26303",title:"Prof.",name:"Masahiro",middleName:null,surname:"Ohka",email:"ohka@is.nagoya-u.ac.jp",fullName:"Masahiro Ohka",slug:"masahiro-ohka",position:null,biography:"Masahiro Ohka is a Professor in Graduate School of Information Science at Nagoya University. In 1986, he received Doctor Degree of Engineering from Nagoya University. He was a Researcher at Fuji Electric Company to produce three-axis tactile sensors for an advanced robot of Japanese National Project promoted by MITI. His research focuses in the areas of robotic tactile sensors, complex systems science, human-robot interaction, behavior based robotics.",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Nagoya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"15860",title:"Object-Handling Tasks Based on Active Tactile and Slippage Sensations",slug:"object-handling-tasks-based-on-active-tactile-and-slippage-sensations",abstract:null,signatures:"Masahiro Ohka, Hanafiah Bin Yussof and Sukarnur Che Abdullah",authors:[{id:"26303",title:"Prof.",name:"Masahiro",surname:"Ohka",fullName:"Masahiro Ohka",slug:"masahiro-ohka",email:"ohka@is.nagoya-u.ac.jp"},{id:"32065",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafiah",surname:"Yussof",fullName:"Hanafiah Yussof",slug:"hanafiah-yussof",email:"hanafi3013@hotmail.com"},{id:"32066",title:"MSc",name:"Sukarnur",surname:"Abdullah",fullName:"Sukarnur Abdullah",slug:"sukarnur-abdullah",email:"sukarnur.ca@gmail.com"}],book:{id:"152",title:"Robot Arms",slug:"robot-arms",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"5488",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerasimos G.",surname:"Rigatos",slug:"gerasimos-g.-rigatos",fullName:"Gerasimos G. Rigatos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Industrial Systems Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"9479",title:"Prof.",name:"Aboubekeur",surname:"Hamdi-Cherif",slug:"aboubekeur-hamdi-cherif",fullName:"Aboubekeur Hamdi-Cherif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"- BSc (Hon,) in Elec Eng (Control), Salford University, Greater Manchester, England\n- MSc in Electronic Control Eng, Salford University, Greater Manchester, England\n- PhD in Computer Science (Artificial Intelligence - Robotics), Laboratoire d\\'Informatique Fondamentale (LIF) et Laboratoire de Robotique de Paris (LRP), Universite Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Qassim University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"22699",title:"Dr.",name:"Ho Pham Huy",surname:"Anh",slug:"ho-pham-huy-anh",fullName:"Ho Pham Huy Anh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"24519",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodolfo",surname:"Garcia-Rodriguez",slug:"rodolfo-garcia-rodriguez",fullName:"Rodolfo Garcia-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"25030",title:"Dr.",name:"Ho Pham Huy",surname:"Anh",slug:"ho-pham-huy-anh",fullName:"Ho Pham Huy Anh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ho Chi Minh City University of Transport",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Vietnam"}}},{id:"29287",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelhard",surname:"Rehiara",slug:"adelhard-rehiara",fullName:"Adelhard Rehiara",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/29287/images/3232_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Papua",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"33444",title:"Dr.",name:"S.",surname:"Senthilkumar",slug:"s.-senthilkumar",fullName:"S. Senthilkumar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"SUKUMAR SENTHILKUMAR was born in Neyveli Township, Cuddalore District, Tamilnadu, India on 18th July 1974. He received his B.Sc Degree in Mathematics from Madras University in 1994, M.Sc Degree in Mathematics from Bharathidasan University in 1996, M.Phil Degree in Mathematics from Bharathidasan University in 1999 and M.Phil Computer Science & Engineering from Bharathiar University in 2000. Also, he received PGDCA and PGDCH in Computer Science and Applications and Computer Hardware from Bharathidasan University in 1996 and 1997 respectively. He has been awarded Doctoral degree in the field of Mathematics and Computer Applications he Department of Mathematics from National Institute of Technology [REC], Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu, India. He served as a Lecturer, in the Department of Computer Science at Asan Memorial College of Arts and Science, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India. He has published good amount of research papers in national and international conferences and referred international journals. Also, he is a reviewer and referee for some of the International Journals. His Current Research Interests include Cellular Neural Networks, Digital Image Processing, Numerical Analysis and Methods, Simulation and other related areas.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"35461",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Zegers",slug:"pablo-zegers",fullName:"Pablo Zegers",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"39132",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen Thanh",surname:"Nam",slug:"nguyen-thanh-nam",fullName:"Nguyen Thanh Nam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"101075",title:"Prof.",name:"Abd.Rahni",surname:"Mt.Piah",slug:"abd.rahni-mt.piah",fullName:"Abd.Rahni Mt.Piah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"WIS-cost",title:"What Does It Cost?",intro:"
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
European Commission
\\n\\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\\n\\t
Wellcome Trust
\\n\\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\\n\\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\\n\\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\n
All of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n
\n\t
European Commission
\n\t
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
\n\t
Wellcome Trust
\n\t
National Institute of Health (NIH)
\n\t
National Science Foundation (NSF)
\n\t
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
\n\t
Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK)
\n\t
Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
\n\t
Chinese Academy of Sciences
\n\t
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)
\n\t
German Research Foundation (DFG)
\n\t
Max Planck Institute
\n\t
Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
\n\t
Australian Research Council (ARC)
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6675},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5955},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2460},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12718},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1018},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17721}],offset:12,limit:12,total:134178},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"5"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11475",title:"Food Security Challenges and Approaches",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"090302a30e461cee643ec49675c811ec",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad, Dr. Muhammad Imran and Dr. Muhammad Kamran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11475.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"292145",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Haseeb Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-haseeb-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11605",title:"Bamboo - Recent Development and Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7d78700ff7e6b6f86ed00e7d6fc9b308",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mustapha Asniza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11605.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"249239",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustapha",surname:"Asniza",slug:"mustapha-asniza",fullName:"Mustapha Asniza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11606",title:"Asteraceae - Characterization, Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"910ecf8411098a42bb250c87a978f1b9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mohamed A. El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11606.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11607",title:"Aquatic Plants - Biology and Environmental Impacts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9103c1501af58e2c24202646f15f0940",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Abd El-Fatah Abomohra, Dr. Mei Li and Dr. Adel W. Almutairi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11607.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"186114",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatah",surname:"Abomohra",slug:"abdelfatah-abomohra",fullName:"Abdelfatah Abomohra"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11610",title:"New Insights in Herbicide Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"eb3830b8176caf3d1fd52c32313c5168",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11610.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11612",title:"Landraces - Its Productive Conservation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c3ea2c2248cc3c8a2888e525c732c26",slug:null,bookSignature:"Emeritus Prof. Arnoldo González-Reyna and Dr. Prashant Kaushik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11612.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"470479",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Arnoldo",surname:"González-Reyna",slug:"arnoldo-gonzalez-reyna",fullName:"Arnoldo González-Reyna"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11613",title:"New Insight on Terpenes and Terpenoids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4acd3890d8f1ef49f4b006b56d48c3b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Shahzad Aslam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11613.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"220324",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Shahzad",surname:"Aslam",slug:"muhammad-shahzad-aslam",fullName:"Muhammad Shahzad Aslam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11614",title:"Flavonoid Metabolism - Recent Advances and Applications in Crop Breeding",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a09c0aef04a5e8af53f1bec55e6ed2a3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Khalid Abbas and Dr. Aqeel Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11614.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"446864",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Muhammad Khalid",surname:"Abbas",slug:"hafiz-muhammad-khalid-abbas",fullName:"Hafiz Muhammad Khalid Abbas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11616",title:"Foraging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"955b60bb658c8d1a09dd4efc9bf6674b",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11616.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11617",title:"Plant Invasions and Global Change - Prediction, Interaction and Evaluation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"90828f3756aae575bdda131afdc672af",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ling Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11617.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"219350",title:"Dr.",name:"Ling",surname:"Zhang",slug:"ling-zhang",fullName:"Ling Zhang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11618",title:"Seagrass - Biology and Use",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"174d974e744ab42717bb8da4add5b6b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Irem Deniz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11618.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"204855",title:"Dr.",name:"Irem",surname:"Deniz",slug:"irem-deniz",fullName:"Irem Deniz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11624",title:"Agricultural Waste - New Insights",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f86a9f720cc3ac0f1c385d0367ea89b9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11624.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:38},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:22},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:63},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:112},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:68},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4431},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",slug:"campylobacter",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d553bd4f6f1c4b115ca69bd19faac7dc",slug:"hazardous-waste-management",bookSignature:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar, Kavitha Sankarapandian and Yukesh Kannah Ravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9625",title:"Spinocerebellar Ataxia",subtitle:"Concepts, Particularities and Generalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"365a7025fd46eb45de2549bdd9d50b98",slug:"spinocerebellar-ataxia-concepts-particularities-and-generalities",bookSignature:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"221787",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Bozzetto Ambrosi",slug:"patricia-bozzetto-ambrosi",fullName:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"914",title:"Biotechnology",slug:"materials-science-biochemistry-biotechnology",parent:{id:"153",title:"Biochemistry",slug:"materials-science-biochemistry"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:70,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitations:54,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"914",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7012",title:"Biochemical Testing",subtitle:"Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1aa28a784b136633d827933ad91fe621",slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",bookSignature:"Varaprasad Bobbarala, Gaffar Sarwar Zaman, Mohd Nasir Mohd Desa and Abdah Md Akim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7012.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"207119",title:"Dr.",name:"Varaprasad",middleName:null,surname:"Bobbarala PhD",slug:"varaprasad-bobbarala-phd",fullName:"Varaprasad Bobbarala PhD"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8244",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d14302686630dee0aa70e9dda9540c27",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",bookSignature:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8244.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"69881",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90029",title:"Bioprocess Development for Human Mesenchymal Stem Cell Therapy Products",slug:"bioprocess-development-for-human-mesenchymal-stem-cell-therapy-products",totalDownloads:1474,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are advanced therapy medicinal products used in cell therapy applications. Several MSC products have already advanced to phase III clinical testing and market approval. The manufacturing of MSCs must comply with good manufacturing practice (GMP) from phase I in Europe and phase II in the US, but there are several unique challenges when cells are the therapeutic product. Any GMP-compliant process for the production of MSCs must include the expansion of cells in vitro to achieve a sufficient therapeutic quantity while maintaining high cell quality and potency. The process must also allow the efficient harvest of anchorage-dependent cells and account for the influence of shear stress and other factors, especially during scale-up. Bioreactors are necessary to produce clinical batches of MSCs, and bioprocess development must therefore consider this specialized environment. For the last 10 years, we have investigated bioprocess development as a means to produce high-quality MSCs. More recently, we have also used bioreactors for the cocultivation of stem cells with other adult cells and for the production of MSC-derived extracellular vesicles. This review discusses the state of the art in bioprocess development for the GMP-compliant manufacture of human MSCs as products for stem cell therapy.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"Jan Barekzai, Florian Petry, Jan Zitzmann, Peter Czermak and Denise Salzig",authors:[{id:"297959",title:"Dr.",name:"Denise",middleName:null,surname:"Salzig",slug:"denise-salzig",fullName:"Denise Salzig"},{id:"312719",title:"MSc.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Barekzai",slug:"jan-barekzai",fullName:"Jan Barekzai"},{id:"312720",title:"MSc.",name:"Florian",middleName:null,surname:"Petry",slug:"florian-petry",fullName:"Florian Petry"},{id:"312721",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Zitzmann",slug:"jan-zitzmann",fullName:"Jan Zitzmann"},{id:"312723",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Czermak",slug:"peter-czermak",fullName:"Peter Czermak"}]},{id:"70255",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90006",title:"Craft Beers: Current Situation and Future Trends",slug:"craft-beers-current-situation-and-future-trends",totalDownloads:1345,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"During the twentieth century, the consolidation of large multi-national beer companies and the homogenization of the specified beer types have led to a considerable growth in the beer industry. However, the growing demand by consumers of a single and distinctive product, with a higher quality and better sensory complexity, is allowing for a new resurgence of craft beer segment in recent years. This chapter reviews some different alternatives of innovation in the craft brewing process: from the bottle fermented beers with non-Saccharomyces yeast species, to the use of special malts or specific adjuncts, hop varieties, water quality, etc. All of them open a lot of new possibilities to modulate flavor and other sensory properties of beer, reaching also new consumers looking for a specific story in one of the oldest fermented beverages.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"María Jesús Callejo, Wendu Tesfaye, María Carmen González and Antonio Morata",authors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"},{id:"201383",title:"Prof.",name:"María Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"Callejo",slug:"maria-jesus-callejo",fullName:"María Jesús Callejo"},{id:"201384",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"González",slug:"carmen-gonzalez",fullName:"Carmen González"},{id:"287144",title:"Dr.",name:"Wendu",middleName:null,surname:"Tesfaye",slug:"wendu-tesfaye",fullName:"Wendu Tesfaye"}]},{id:"66048",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84672",title:"Amino Acids Profiling for the Diagnosis of Metabolic Disorders",slug:"amino-acids-profiling-for-the-diagnosis-of-metabolic-disorders",totalDownloads:3294,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) represent a group of inherited diseases in which genetic defect leads to the block on a metabolic pathway, resulting in a single enzyme dysfunction. As a downstream consequence of the residual or full loss of the enzymatic activity, there is an accumulation of toxic metabolites in the proximity of the metabolic block and/or a deficiency of an essential metabolic product which leads to the clinical presentation of the disease. While individually IEMs are rare, a collectively estimated incidence of metabolic inherited disorders is 1:800. The genetic basis of IEMs can involve abnormalities such as point mutations, deletions or insertions, or more complex genomic rearrangements. Categorization of IEM can be simply made on the basis of the affected metabolic network: fatty acids oxidation disorders, protein/amino acids metabolism disorders, disorders of carbohydrate metabolism, lysosomal storage diseases, peroxisomal disorders, and mitochondrial diseases. This chapter will overview amino acid metabolism-related inherited disorders and amino acid analysis for the diagnosis and routine monitoring of this category of IEMs.",book:{id:"7012",slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",title:"Biochemical Testing",fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing - Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis"},signatures:"Yana Sandlers",authors:[{id:"285558",title:"Dr.",name:"Yana",middleName:null,surname:"Sandlers",slug:"yana-sandlers",fullName:"Yana Sandlers"}]},{id:"67829",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87160",title:"Solid-State Fermentation of Cassava Products for Degradation of Anti-Nutritional Value and Enrichment of Nutritional Value",slug:"solid-state-fermentation-of-cassava-products-for-degradation-of-anti-nutritional-value-and-enrichmen",totalDownloads:1156,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The cassava plant is grown in tropical and subtropical countries, which represents, alongside with its by-products, an important source of food and feed. Hence, this plant has the capacity to promote the economic development of those countries and provide food security. However, cassava has some disadvantages due to the antinutrient compounds produced in its tissues. In addition, the cassava roots have a low protein content. Due to the economic and practical advantages, the solid-state fermentation (SSF) has been used as a cost-effective and efficient processing method to detoxify the cassava products and enrich them in nutrients. This chapter reviews the solid-state fermentation technique of cassava products for the production of valuable components for food and feed applications, microorganisms involved in this process, and key factors used to optimize the SSF process.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"Mohamed Hawashi, Tri Widjaja and Setiyo Gunawan",authors:[{id:"297246",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiyo",middleName:null,surname:"Gunawan",slug:"setiyo-gunawan",fullName:"Setiyo Gunawan"},{id:"304847",title:"Prof.",name:"Tri",middleName:null,surname:"Widjaja",slug:"tri-widjaja",fullName:"Tri Widjaja"},{id:"304848",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Hawashi",slug:"mohamed-hawashi",fullName:"Mohamed Hawashi"}]},{id:"69244",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89326",title:"Lactic Acid Bacteria as Microbial Silage Additives: Current Status and Future Outlook",slug:"lactic-acid-bacteria-as-microbial-silage-additives-current-status-and-future-outlook",totalDownloads:1159,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Silage making is not a novel technique. However, the agricultural industry has made great strides in improving our understanding of—and efficiency in—producing high-quality silage for livestock. Silage microbiology research has been using the newest molecular techniques to study microbial diversity and metabolic changes. This chapter reviews important research that has laid the foundation for field-based utilization of silage inoculants. We also outline areas of current, and future, research that will improve global livestock production through the use of silage.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"Pascal Drouin, Lucas J. Mari and Renato J. Schmidt",authors:[{id:"85142",title:"Dr.",name:"Pascal",middleName:null,surname:"Drouin",slug:"pascal-drouin",fullName:"Pascal Drouin"},{id:"185246",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucas",middleName:null,surname:"Mari",slug:"lucas-mari",fullName:"Lucas Mari"},{id:"308858",title:"Dr.",name:"Renato J.",middleName:null,surname:"Schmidt",slug:"renato-j.-schmidt",fullName:"Renato J. Schmidt"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66048",title:"Amino Acids Profiling for the Diagnosis of Metabolic Disorders",slug:"amino-acids-profiling-for-the-diagnosis-of-metabolic-disorders",totalDownloads:3292,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) represent a group of inherited diseases in which genetic defect leads to the block on a metabolic pathway, resulting in a single enzyme dysfunction. As a downstream consequence of the residual or full loss of the enzymatic activity, there is an accumulation of toxic metabolites in the proximity of the metabolic block and/or a deficiency of an essential metabolic product which leads to the clinical presentation of the disease. While individually IEMs are rare, a collectively estimated incidence of metabolic inherited disorders is 1:800. The genetic basis of IEMs can involve abnormalities such as point mutations, deletions or insertions, or more complex genomic rearrangements. Categorization of IEM can be simply made on the basis of the affected metabolic network: fatty acids oxidation disorders, protein/amino acids metabolism disorders, disorders of carbohydrate metabolism, lysosomal storage diseases, peroxisomal disorders, and mitochondrial diseases. This chapter will overview amino acid metabolism-related inherited disorders and amino acid analysis for the diagnosis and routine monitoring of this category of IEMs.",book:{id:"7012",slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",title:"Biochemical Testing",fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing - Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis"},signatures:"Yana Sandlers",authors:[{id:"285558",title:"Dr.",name:"Yana",middleName:null,surname:"Sandlers",slug:"yana-sandlers",fullName:"Yana Sandlers"}]},{id:"67429",title:"Resource-Based View of Laboratory Management: Tissue Bank ATMP Production as a Model",slug:"resource-based-view-of-laboratory-management-tissue-bank-atmp-production-as-a-model",totalDownloads:1097,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Modern health care organizations, e.g., tissue banks, require a resource-based view (RBV) for an efficient stimulation of innovation, productivity, and performance, especially in the context of laboratory management and new product development. High quality advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) are expected to bring important health benefits; therefore, their production has to be performed in accordance with good manufacturing practice (GMP). Although there are no precisely defined criteria for quality control/evaluation methods of obtained ATMPs, all aspects of pharmaceutical quality of ATMPs’ development, manufacturing, distribution, inspection, and review processes ought to be strictly fulfilled. Explicit performance management and production regimes in accordance with pharmacopeia and RBV philosophy have been proposed in this chapter.",book:{id:"7012",slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",title:"Biochemical Testing",fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing - Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis"},signatures:"Wojciech Smętek, Jacek Węgrzyk, Agnieszka Klama-Baryła, Wojciech Łabuś, Małgorzata Kraut, Michał Szapski, Mariusz Nowak and Diana Kitala",authors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"},{id:"204300",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",middleName:null,surname:"Klama-Baryła",slug:"agnieszka-klama-baryla",fullName:"Agnieszka Klama-Baryła"},{id:"204303",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Nowak",slug:"mariusz-nowak",fullName:"Mariusz Nowak"},{id:"271428",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Łabuś",slug:"wojciech-labus",fullName:"Wojciech Łabuś"},{id:"294857",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:"Grzegorz",surname:"Smętek",slug:"wojciech-smetek",fullName:"Wojciech Smętek"},{id:"294860",title:"Ms.",name:"Małgorzata",middleName:null,surname:"Kraut",slug:"malgorzata-kraut",fullName:"Małgorzata Kraut"},{id:"294861",title:"Mr.",name:"Michał",middleName:null,surname:"Szapski",slug:"michal-szapski",fullName:"Michał Szapski"},{id:"294862",title:"Mr.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Węgrzyk",slug:"jacek-wegrzyk",fullName:"Jacek Węgrzyk"}]},{id:"69881",title:"Bioprocess Development for Human Mesenchymal Stem Cell Therapy Products",slug:"bioprocess-development-for-human-mesenchymal-stem-cell-therapy-products",totalDownloads:1470,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are advanced therapy medicinal products used in cell therapy applications. Several MSC products have already advanced to phase III clinical testing and market approval. The manufacturing of MSCs must comply with good manufacturing practice (GMP) from phase I in Europe and phase II in the US, but there are several unique challenges when cells are the therapeutic product. Any GMP-compliant process for the production of MSCs must include the expansion of cells in vitro to achieve a sufficient therapeutic quantity while maintaining high cell quality and potency. The process must also allow the efficient harvest of anchorage-dependent cells and account for the influence of shear stress and other factors, especially during scale-up. Bioreactors are necessary to produce clinical batches of MSCs, and bioprocess development must therefore consider this specialized environment. For the last 10 years, we have investigated bioprocess development as a means to produce high-quality MSCs. More recently, we have also used bioreactors for the cocultivation of stem cells with other adult cells and for the production of MSC-derived extracellular vesicles. This review discusses the state of the art in bioprocess development for the GMP-compliant manufacture of human MSCs as products for stem cell therapy.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"Jan Barekzai, Florian Petry, Jan Zitzmann, Peter Czermak and Denise Salzig",authors:[{id:"297959",title:"Dr.",name:"Denise",middleName:null,surname:"Salzig",slug:"denise-salzig",fullName:"Denise Salzig"},{id:"312719",title:"MSc.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Barekzai",slug:"jan-barekzai",fullName:"Jan Barekzai"},{id:"312720",title:"MSc.",name:"Florian",middleName:null,surname:"Petry",slug:"florian-petry",fullName:"Florian Petry"},{id:"312721",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Zitzmann",slug:"jan-zitzmann",fullName:"Jan Zitzmann"},{id:"312723",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Czermak",slug:"peter-czermak",fullName:"Peter Czermak"}]},{id:"69537",title:"Serum Protein Electrophoresis and Its Clinical Applications",slug:"serum-protein-electrophoresis-and-its-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:2010,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the principle of electrophoresis and its utilization in a clinical laboratory. A sincere attempt has been made to discuss about clinical applications of serum protein electrophoresis, throwing light on the significance of serum protein electrophoresis in the management of multiple myeloma. Emphasis has been made on quality assurance in terms of accuracy and precision in electrophoresis to ensure reliability of patient results. A note on issues with lack of standardization of reporting of electrophoresis and an insight into global efforts to standardize the reporting of the assay has been included in this chapter.",book:{id:"7012",slug:"biochemical-testing-clinical-correlation-and-diagnosis",title:"Biochemical Testing",fullTitle:"Biochemical Testing - Clinical Correlation and Diagnosis"},signatures:"Satish Ramanathan and Chakravarthy Narasimhachar Srinivas",authors:[{id:"229011",title:"Dr.",name:"Satish",middleName:null,surname:"Ramanathan",slug:"satish-ramanathan",fullName:"Satish Ramanathan"}]},{id:"68145",title:"Current Status of Alkaline Fermented Foods and Seasoning Agents of Africa",slug:"current-status-of-alkaline-fermented-foods-and-seasoning-agents-of-africa",totalDownloads:1830,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Fermented foods and seasoning agents play central roles in the food and nutrition security of nations across the world, but particularly so in Africa, Asia, South America and Oceania. As several people across the world gravitate back to “eating natural,” there is a new emphasis on these fermented foods and seasoning agents which are also critical cultural foods in countries and societies where they are important. The result is the growth in demand for these products beyond what the traditional kitchen technologies is able to cope with. In Africa, many of the seasoning agents are products of alkaline fermentation of legume seeds, pulses and in some cases animal proteins and sea foods. There is an upswing in the popularity of these seasoning agents and around them, new cottage industries are growing, as against the kitchen technology that sustained them through the ages. This chapter will explore the state of biotechnological developments around these foods and seasoning agents and point the way to good manufacturing practice and industrial development and the need to grow this value chain that has helped to sustain societies through ages.",book:{id:"8244",slug:"new-advances-on-fermentation-processes",title:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes",fullTitle:"New Advances on Fermentation Processes"},signatures:"Jerry O. Ugwuanyi and Augustina N. Okpara",authors:[{id:"297797",title:"Prof.",name:"Jerry",middleName:null,surname:"Ugwuanyi",slug:"jerry-ugwuanyi",fullName:"Jerry Ugwuanyi"},{id:"297799",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustina",middleName:null,surname:"Okpara",slug:"augustina-okpara",fullName:"Augustina Okpara"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"914",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11974,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. She lives in Assisi, Italy.",institutionString:"Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics, Patrizio Paoletti Foundation",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. Soogun, Ayesha B.M. Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82193",title:"Enterococcal Infections: Recent Nomenclature and emerging trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104792",signatures:"Kavita Raja",slug:"enterococcal-infections-recent-nomenclature-and-emerging-trends",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kasenga is a graduate of Tumaini University, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania and Umeå University, Sweden. He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). Dr. Kasenga is married to Grace and blessed with three children, a son and two daughters: Happy, Lettice and Sungani.",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"11478",title:"Recent Advances in the Study of Dyslexia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11478.jpg",hash:"26764a18c6b776698823e0e1c3022d2f",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"June 30th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:36,paginationItems:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82212",title:"Protein Prenylation and Their Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104700",signatures:"Khemchand R. Surana, Ritesh B. Pawar, Ritesh A. Khairnar and Sunil K. Mahajan",slug:"protein-prenylation-and-their-applications",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Modifications of Biomolecules",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11098.jpg",subseries:null}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82096",title:"An Important Component of Tumor Progression: Fatty Acids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105087",signatures:"Jin Wang, Qifei Wang and Guangzhen Wu",slug:"an-important-component-of-tumor-progression-fatty-acids",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82029",title:"Synthesis, Characterization and Antimicrobial Properties of Novel Benzimidazole Amide Derivatives Bearing Thiophene Moiety",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104908",signatures:"Vinayak Adimule, Pravin Kendrekar and Sheetal Batakurki",slug:"synthesis-characterization-and-antimicrobial-properties-of-novel-benzimidazole-amide-derivatives-bea",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:5,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:13,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:15,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Pollution",value:38,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"6",type:"subseries",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",slug:"imran-shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"214235",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:"S.",surname:"Zijenah",slug:"lynn-zijenah",fullName:"Lynn Zijenah",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEJGQA4/Profile_Picture_1636699126852",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zimbabwe",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"178641",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Ikwaras",middleName:null,surname:"Okware",slug:"samuel-ikwaras-okware",fullName:"Samuel Ikwaras Okware",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178641/images/system/178641.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uganda Christian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82457",title:"Canine Hearing Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105515",signatures:"Peter M. Skip Scheifele, Devan Marshall, Stephen Lee, Paul Reid, Thomas McCreery and David Byrne",slug:"canine-hearing-management",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"82285",title:"Parvovirus Vectors: The Future of Gene Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105085",signatures:"Megha Gupta",slug:"parvovirus-vectors-the-future-of-gene-therapy",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"82170",title:"Equine Stress: Neuroendocrine Physiology and Pathophysiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105045",signatures:"Milomir Kovac, Tatiana Vladimirovna Ippolitova, Sergey Pozyabin, Ruslan Aliev, Viktoria Lobanova, Nevena Drakul and Catrin S. Rutland",slug:"equine-stress-neuroendocrine-physiology-and-pathophysiology",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:153,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78543",title:"Pulmonary Vein: Embryology, Anatomy, Function and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100051",signatures:"Chan I-Ping and Hsueh Tung",slug:"pulmonary-vein-embryology-anatomy-function-and-disease",totalDownloads:183,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78564",title:"Anatomy of the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta): The Essentials for the Biomedical Researcher",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99067",signatures:"Christophe Casteleyn and Jaco Bakker",slug:"anatomy-of-the-rhesus-monkey-macaca-mulatta-the-essentials-for-the-biomedical-researcher",totalDownloads:355,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"77999",title:"Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (BALT) Histology and Its Role in Various Pathologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99366",signatures:"Tuba Parlak Ak",slug:"bronchus-associated-lymphoid-tissue-balt-histology-and-its-role-in-various-pathologies",totalDownloads:212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78242",title:"Genomic Instability and Cyto-Genotoxic Damage in Animal Species",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99685",signatures:"María Evarista Arellano-García, Olivia Torres-Bugarín, Maritza Roxana García-García, Daniel García-Flores, Yanis Toledano-Magaña, Cinthya Sofia Sanabria-Mora, Sandra Castro-Gamboa and Juan Carlos García-Ramos",slug:"genomic-instability-and-cyto-genotoxic-damage-in-animal-species",totalDownloads:150,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78503",title:"Biomechanics of the Canine Elbow Joint",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99569",signatures:"Thomas Rohwedder",slug:"biomechanics-of-the-canine-elbow-joint",totalDownloads:180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78018",title:"Application of Noble Metals in the Advances in Animal Disease Diagnostics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99162",signatures:"Gabriel Alexis S.P. Tubalinal, Leonard Paulo G. Lucero, Jim Andreus V. Mangahas, Marvin A. Villanueva and Claro N. Mingala",slug:"application-of-noble-metals-in-the-advances-in-animal-disease-diagnostics",totalDownloads:111,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"77455",title:"Marek’s Disease Is a Threat for Large Scale Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98939",signatures:"Wojciech Kozdruń, Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk and Natalia Styś-Fijoł",slug:"marek-s-disease-is-a-threat-for-large-scale-poultry-production",totalDownloads:261,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"74655",title:"Taxon-Specific Pair Bonding in Gibbons (Hylobatidae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95270",signatures:"Thomas Geissmann, Simone Rosenkranz-Weck, Judith J.G.M. Van Der Loo and Mathias Orgeldinger",slug:"taxon-specific-pair-bonding-in-gibbons-hylobatidae",totalDownloads:398,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Pneumonia",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",slug:"pneumonia",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",hash:"9fd70142814192dcec58a176749f1b60",volumeInSeries:13,fullTitle:"Pneumonia",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9615",title:"Chikungunya Virus",subtitle:"A Growing Global Public Health Threat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9615.jpg",slug:"chikungunya-virus-a-growing-global-public-health-threat",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",hash:"c960d94a63867dd12a8ab15176a3ff06",volumeInSeries:12,fullTitle:"Chikungunya Virus - A Growing Global Public Health Threat",editors:[{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9619",title:"Epstein-Barr Virus",subtitle:"New Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9619.jpg",slug:"epstein-barr-virus-new-trends",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Drouet",hash:"a2128c53becb6064589570cbe8d976f8",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Epstein-Barr Virus - New Trends",editors:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9613",title:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9613.jpg",slug:"dengue-fever-in-a-one-health-perspective",publishedDate:"October 28th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",hash:"77ecce8195c11092230b4156df6d83ff",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",editors:[{id:"176579",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcia Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"Sperança",slug:"marcia-aparecida-speranca",fullName:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176579/images/system/176579.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal do ABC",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7887",title:"Hepatitis B and C",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7887.jpg",slug:"hepatitis-b-and-c",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",hash:"8dd6dab483cf505d83caddaeaf497f2c",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Hepatitis B and C",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73208/images/system/73208.jpg",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c00855833476a514d37abf7c846e16e9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Murat Şentürk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",editedByType:null,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"14794",title:"Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Şentürk",slug:"murat-senturk",fullName:"Murat Şentürk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14794/images/system/14794.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Murat Şentürk obtained a baccalaureate degree in Chemistry in 2002, a master’s degree in Biochemistry in 2006, and a doctorate degree in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{title:"Infectious Diseases",id:"6"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/28567",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"28567"},fullPath:"/chapters/28567",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()