\r\n\t2. Animal and vegetal protein hydrolysates
\r\n\t3. Macroalgae seaweeds extracts
\r\n\t4. Beneficial microorganisms, etc.
\r\n\tThe elucidation of the agricultural function (i.e. improving nutrient use efficiency, quality, and tolerance to abiotic stresses) and action mechanisms of PBs will permit to develop a second generation of PBs where synergies and complementary mechanisms can be functionally designed to feed the future.
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Advanced forms of the disease may present as areas of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) loss, subretinal/sub-RPE hemorrhage or serous fluid, as well as subretinal fibrosis. Severely affected areas may have no visual function, since loss of RPE is associated with photoreceptor collapse.
When OCT (Optical Coherence Tomography) was not available yet, several studies proposed classifications using a wide variety of parameters for AMD grading systems [1, 2, 3]. In order to facilitate data comparison among those studies and develop a core grading system using color stereoscopic fundus photography, the International Age-Related Maculopathy Epidemiological Study Group compiled the results of a series of meetings among groups involved in the epidemiological analysis of Age-Related Maculopathy (ARM) [4].
Also The Macular Photocoagulation Study Group contributed significantly to AMD grading, to the understanding of natural history of subfoveal neovascularization as well as to the effectiveness of laser photocoagulation on juxtafoveal neovascularizations [5].
OCT applied to the study of retinal pathologies has revolutionized the understanding and management of AMD, especially with the technology of full-depth imaging (FDI) Spectral Domain (SD) OCT. With the increasing amount of data from several important studies using SD-OCT and OCT-angiography (OCT-A) we can now better classify and more accurately decode AMD.
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the most important AMD biomarkers recently discovered using SD OCT.
Cuticular drusen were first described by Gass in 1977 and consist of a subtype of drusen characterized by being much more numerous than small hard drusen [6]. They frequently coalesce revealing a diffuse appearance. On fluorescein angiography (FA), they are seen as a starry-sky fluorescence pattern that is most evident during the early arteriovenous phase. Some authors suggested that cuticular drusen are often initially visible in the peripheral or midperipheral retina, where the rod-to-cone ratio is the highest [7, 8]. On fundus autofluorescence (FAF), the lesions have a central hypoautofluorescent area with a rim of hyperautofluorescence. The central hypoautofluorescent area corresponds to the area of central hyperfluorescence on FA.
Based on studies with light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, the location of cuticular drusen was determined to be at the same of hard small drusen and soft drusen: between the inner collagenous layer of the Bruch’s membrane and the basal lamina of the RPE [9, 10]. Cuticular drusen are small with steep sides and contain a dense hyalinized component that is identical to hard drusen. This contrasts with soft drusen, which are larger and have sloping sides.
On B-Scan SD-OCT, cuticular drusen are located beneath the RPE and imprint the area below with a pattern of hyperreflectivity alternated with hyporreflectivity, providing an aspect similar to a barcode sign. This aspect is due to the thinning of the RPE at the apex of the drusen and thickening at the base of the drusen. On SD-OCT, the height of drusen did not correlate with the area of hyperfluorescence on FA or hypoautofluorescence on FAF (Figure 1).
Cuticular drusen. Type 1 (green arrowhead): Shallow elevations of the RPE and basal laminar band. Type 2 (red arrowhead): Triangular shape resulting in a saw-tooth appearance and hyporreflective internal contents. Type 3 (yellow arrowhead): Mound-shaped elevations of the RPE and basal laminar band with hyporreflective internal contents.
The morphological features of cuticular drusen seen on SD OCT B-scans can be categorized into 3 patterns:
Type 1 (33%): characterized by shallow elevations of the RPE
Type 2 (49%) with a triangular shape, resulting in a saw-tooth appearance, and hyporreflective internal contents
Type 3 pattern (18%) characterized by broad, mound-shaped elevations of the RPE with hyporreflective internal contents [11].
Near infra-red (NIR) images showed variable reflectivity patterns of cuticular drusen: hyporreflective centers with a surrounding hyperreflective margin in 53.9%, diffuse hyperreflectivity in 15.2%, heterogeneous reflectivity in 3.9%, and a combination of these patterns in 27.0%. These variations of aspects demonstrate that the accurate detection of the cuticular drusen phenotype requires the integration of data from more than one imaging method [11].
In a very extensive multimodal analysis, cuticular drusen were shown to be involved in the formation of: RPE clumping, large drusen, vitelliform lesions and subretinal neovascular membranes [11]. In the entire cohort of this study, new pigmentary RPE abnormalities were identified in 47.5% of eyes, large drusen in 45.4%, drusen resorption in 58.3% and drusen coalescence in 70.8%.
Acquired vitelliform lesions (AVL) involving the central macula were seen in 24.2% of the eyes in the study. However, visual acuity in eyes with AVLs was not significantly different from that in eyes without AVLs [11].
Geographic atrophy (GA) was identified in the macula of 25% of the eyes. The frequency of atrophy in patients older than 60 years was significantly greater than in those that were 60 years-old or younger (42.9% vs. 9.4%; p < 0.001). Visual acuity (VA) in eyes with atrophy was significantly worse than in those without atrophy (0.32 vs. 0.14 logMAR; p < 0.001) [11].
Twelve percent of the cases were complicated by choroidal neovascularization. The frequency of neovascularization in patients older than 60 years was significantly higher than in those that were 60 years-old or younger (19.6% vs. 6.2%; p < 0.014). The vast majority of cases (76.7%) were of type 1 neovascularization, while 9 cases were a mixture of type 1 and 2 lesions. There were no cases of type 3 macular neovascularization [11, 12, 13].
Reticular pseudodrusen are multiple yellowish-white lesions arranged in a reticular network pattern. A distinction between conventional drusen and pseudodrusen was first made in 1990 by Mimoun et al. [14]. More recently the knowledge on pseudodrusen, more accurately called subretinal drusenoid deposits (SDDs), has expanded.
Reticular pseudodrusen have an increased visibility in blue light. On FAF imaging, reticular drusen are shown as numerous spots of reduced autofluorescence, with brighter lines in-between. SDDs frequently spares the fovea and usually are distributed at the superior macula, which has the highest rod-photoreceptor density [15]. Such topographic characteristic is probably related to a rod-photoreceptor association [16, 17, 18].
The fluorescein angiographic findings of subretinal drusenoid deposits are subtle, ranging from no demonstrable change to minimal hypofluorescence.
On NIR photography, reticular drusen are hyporreflective lesions, most of them with a lighter center, on a hyperreflective background. The area superior to the fovea, which has the highest rod-photoreceptor density, is the most commonly involved. The fovea, however, is typically spared [15].
The reticular pattern may not be needed for diagnosis, but most studies have required at least five reticular pseudodrusen lesions and multiple imaging modalities for confirmation of the diagnosis.
Histologic evaluation of these deposits revealed aggregation of material in the subretinal space between photoreceptors and the RPE. SDDs contain some proteins that are common to soft drusen but differ in lipid composition. There is a decrease in the number of photoreceptor nuclei above the deposits. These deposits are interconnected, forming a branching pattern [19].
SDDs contain some proteins that are common to soft drusen but differ in lipid composition.
On OCT scans, these lesions are shown as collections of granular hyperreflective deposits located between the RPE layer and the ellipsoid zone (Figure 2). These deposits are more commonly seen in older eyes with thinner choroids. Currently, it was shown that retinal thinning in early AMD with reticular pseudodrusen was accompanied by choroidal and retinal vascular loss, which suggests that eyes with reticular pseudodrusen may have limited compliance with changes in ocular perfusion pressure at the level of choroidal and retinal vasculature [20].
Reticular drusen. The pink arrowhead indicates a stage 1 lesion where diffuse hyperreflective material between the RPE and ellipsoid layer without elevation of the ellipsoid layer. The red arrowhead indicates a stage 2 lesion with increased accumulation of hyperreflective material and distortion of the ellipsoid layer. The yellow arrowhead indicates a stage 3 lesion that has a characteristic conical shape and has punctured through the ellipsoid layer.
OCT has been used to classify SDD into three subtypes [21]:
Type 1: characterized by the presence of hyperreflective material between the RPE and the Inner/outer segment junction or ellipsoid zone (EZ). There is no elevation or breach of the EZ
Type 2: characterized by hyperreflective material that accumulates and forms a mound over the RPE, with distortion of overlying EZ
Type 3 characterized by hyperreflective material that has a conical configuration which perforates the EZ and reaches the outer retina.
Many studies reported that SDDs are strong independent risk factors for late AMD. GA and type 3 neovascularization are particularly associated with SDD. Outer retinal atrophy develops in eyes with regression of SDD, a newly recognized form of late AMD [19, 22].
This type of drusen originates from classical drusen that had their colloidal content mineralized along time. While classical drusen have a hyperreflective content due to the presence of colloid, calcified drusen have hyporreflective nodules that correspond to hydroxyapathite crystals [23].
Calcified drusen have a glistening appearance due to calcium-containing spherules and a depigmentation area around them. They present with reduced autofluorescence. On OCT, they appear as hyperreflective dots on a hyporreflective base, and they can cause shadowing of deeper structures (Figure 3). Refractile deposits within drusen may indicate a higher rate of GA development.
Calcified small drusen (white arrowheads). In this OCT-B scan, it is possible to identify a hyperreflective sheath with a hyporreflective content. There may be hyperreflective dots inside the lesions.
There are three calcified structures associated with advanced AMD: 1) small hyperreflective dots within drusen; [2] heterogeneous internal reflectivity within drusen (HIRD) and 3) hyperreflective lines near the Bruch’s membrane. The composition of HIRD and the reason of its hyporreflectivity was not determined yet [24].
Subclinical neovascular membranes are membranes that are not exuding. Therefore, this is an important biomarker either for an exudative form or for the atrophic form of the disease.
Analyzing the NIR, B Scans and OCT-A, a neovascular complex can be observed without exudation and it is providing an elevated but shallow contour of the pigmented epithelium (Figure 4). The initial nomenclature of this type of membrane was quiescent neovascular membrane but more recently terminology for this finding is Shallow Irregular RPE Elevation (SIRE) [25, 26].
SIRE. Superiorly,
The baseline prevalence of this type of neovascularization in patients with AMD was around 13 to 14%. Exudative shift at 12 months had a prevalence of 6.8% among patients without Non-Exudative Macular Neovascularization (NE-MNV) and of 21.1% among patients with NE-MNV. Exudative shift at 24 months had a prevalence of 6.3% among patients without NE-MNV and of 34.5% among patients with NE-MNV. Therefore, it is recommendable a very close follow-up of the patients identified with SIRE [25, 26].
A concept that came to light with SD-OCTs, that we did not have previously with angiography or retinography, is intraretinal hyperreflective foci (HRF). HRF are well-circumscribed, discrete lesions with an equal or superior reflectivity compared to the RPE band on OCT (Figure 5). They are usually associated with hyperpigmentation on color fundus photography. There is an important specific spatial correlation of HRF with the apex of drusen [27] and/or SDD [28]. Additionally, there is an association between HRF overlying drusen and increased risk of atrophy at that location. HRF in eyes with intermediate AMD could be the result of migration of activated RPE cells into the inner retinal layers, as proposed by in vivo OCT study [29].
Hyperreflective foci are observed in the inner (pink arrowhead) and outer retina (orange arrowhead).
Its development is triggered by a process of gliosis and phagocytosis of the Muller cells, followed by accumulation of decomposed cells in hyperreflective deposits, such as the mechanism observed in MacTel. The debris can be located at the external limiting membrane, external nuclear layer and the plexiform layer. They are biomarkers of poor prognosis, because they reveal that Muller Cells are losing their structure and will collapse [30].
Among patients classified as having intermediate AMD, the choriocapillaris flow deficit is apparently worse in eyes with HRF and is commonly located directly below HRF [31]. The amount of HRF was correlated with EZ normalized reflectivity and drusen volume (DV), that are well-defined markers of photoreceptor damage and AMD progression, respectively. Nassisi et al. [32] evaluated the correlation between HRF quantity and progression to advanced AMD after 1 year. He concluded that the area of HRF measured by en face OCT in eyes with intermediate AMD was highly correlated with development of atrophy [33, 34].
AVLs are deposits of melanosomes, melanolipofuscin, lipofuscin and outer segment debris located between the RPE and the photoreceptor layer (Figure 6). Their pathophysiology may be related to paraneoplastic, toxic, degenerative and vitreoretinal interface disorders of the macula.
Acquired Vitelliform lesion: OCT B-scan detects an accumulation of hyperreflective material between the ellipsoid layer and the RPE. This material (white arrowhead) is located above soft drusen, with discrete thinning of the overlying outer retinal layers.
AVL were correlated with SDD and cuticular drusen in the past and can occur in conjunction with large drusen. The same dysfunctional processes that lead to drusen formation, or parallel processes, could be related to AVL formation [35].
On fundus exam and SD-OCT, AVLs manifests as yellowish deposits between the EZ or external limiting membrane (ELM) and RPE. On FAF, they appear as areas of hyperautofluorescence that corresponded to the sites where vitelliform material was seen on SD-OCT and fundus exam. In some cases with pseudohypopyon, on FAF it is possible to identify a hypoautofluorescent top portion and a hyperautofluorescent inferior portion. On FA, there is early hypofluorescence with a halo of hyperfluorescence. A progressive late staining of the lesion was noted during the exam. On red-free imaging studies, AVLs manifest with a slight hyperchromia of the material [36].
The lifecycle of an AVL is characterized by a phase of growth followed resorption and, over time, it can lead to complications as foveal atrophy and choroidal neovascularization (type 1 in 8% of cases). These complications are frequent and can impair central vision. There is a decrease in visual acuity from 0,3 to 0,5 logMAR (2 to 3 lines on log scale) in 7 years. Development of neovascular complexes occurs during the collapse phase of the AVL life cycle, after the AVL peak volume was reached. Type 1 choroidal neovascularization occurs in nearly 10% of cases. The risk of neovascularization and the decline in best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) are both significantly greater among eyes with AMD. Foveal atrophy was the characteristic most significantly associated with final BCVA and with change in BCVA from baseline. The development of neovascularization was not predictive of long-term visual outcomes [37].
A drusenoid pigment epithelial detachment (PED) is a large elevation of the RPE that is formed from the coalescence of drusen and colloid material. It is a hallmark feature of AMD and a known precursor of GA. It may be distinguished from hemorrhagic and serous PEDs by its appearance on clinical exam and angiography (Figure 7). Drusenoid PEDs have an accelerated growth rate of 0,022 mm3/month. Additionally, its rate of collapse is 10 times faster: 0,199 mm3/month, similarly to the observed in AVL. The onset of intraretinal hyperreflective foci and AVL usually precedes its collapse.
Drusenoid PED. In this OCT-B scan, it is possible to note a lesion that has an internal homogenous and mild hyperreflectivity. The lesion is delimited by the Bruch’s membrane at its base.
Features such as maximal height, volume and diameter of drusenoid PEDs were inversely correlated with visual acuity and directly correlated with the rate of collapse [38].
In the exudative form of AMD, the local production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) promotes the growth of choroidal neovascularization. These lesions were initially classified in: classic, occult, and variations (predominantly classic and minimally classic) based on their characteristics on FA.
Gass proposed [39] that the location of the neovascular membrane could be important to predict response to treatment and after the advent of OCT, an alternative classification was suggested:
In this type the vessels are located in the sub-RPE space (Figure 8). It is the most common type of neovascularization in AMD. On FA, these lesions are depicted as occult or poorly defined CNV (choroidal neovascularization). Other FA terminologies are used to describe type 1 neovascular complex: vascularized RPE, vascularized PED or stippled hyperfluorescence. On indocyanine green angiography (ICG-A), this neovascular membrane appears as an area of low-intensity hyperfluorescence, known as plaque. On SD-OCT, it is possible to determine its location on a space bounded inferiorly by the hyperreflective remnants of Bruch membrane and superiorly by the hyperreflective RPE band. A new finding of the type 1 neovascularization was described by Spaide [40] recently. It was observed that when the RPE becomes elevated due to sub-RPE exudation, the neovessels adhere to the basal surface of the RPE. On Enhanced Depth Imaging (EDI) OCT, this is described as a hyperreflective material (supposed to be the neovascularization) lining the undersurface of the elevated RPE. This pattern may explain the vulnerability of type 1 neovascularization to RPE tears. This subgroup also includes polypoidal vasculopathy, which was recently renamed as aneurysmal type 1 neovascularization.
Type 1 neovascularization, also known as aneurysmal type 1 subretinal neovascular membrane. Inferiorly, OCT-B scan demonstrates PED with shallow subretinal fluid and intraretinal cystic degeneration. Superiorly, OCT-A slabs detect a branch vascular network ending in an aneurysm formation (yellow circle) located between the RPE and the Bruch’s membrane.
It consists of a neovascular membrane that has perforated the RPE/Bruch membrane complex and is growing in the space between the neurosensory retina and the RPE [40]. On FA, these new vessels are commonly described as being classic or having a well-defined contour (Figure 9). Due to the attenuation of the choroidal fluorescence by the interjacent RPE promoting the formation of a dark background, the new vessels appear to fluoresce intensely. On the other hand, on ICG-A it may be challenging to identify the neovascular complex due to the intense hyperfluorescence of the background choroidal circulation. It is common to detect type 2 neovascularization along with type 1 vessels in exudative AMD. It is also possible that a type 2 neovascular complex regresses and turns into a type 1.
Type 2 neovascularization.
On OCT, it is possible to detect a disorganization of the overlying inner/outer segment junction in conjunction with intraretinal cystic spaces. Additionally, this exam identifies intraretinal rather than subretinal fluid.
Type 3 neovascularization is the recent terminology for what once was known as Retinal Angiomatous Proliferation (RAP) and consists of an intraretinal neovascularization. Notable discussions happened regarding whether the origin of this neovascular complex was from the retinal circulation (as Yanuzzi suggested) or from the choroidal circulation (as suggested by Gass). Some studies support the theory that the origin of this neovascular complex can be from either circulation and may arise from both circulations at the same time as a Retinal-Choroidal Anastomosis (RCA) (Figure 10).
Type 3 neovascularization. On the left, en face OCT-A slabs show the vascular lesion (pink circles) in the superficial and deep segments of the retina. The OCT-B scan, on the left, demonstrates the presence of intraretinal fluid, caused by the vascular lesion before treatment with anti-VEGF (arrowhead). On the right, en face OCT-A slabs still show the vascular lesion (orange circle), although the OCT-B scan, on the right, demonstrates resolution of fluid after the first injection of anti-VEGF (this type of neovascularization tends to respond well to treatment with anti-VEGF).
On OCT, it is characterized by large amounts of intraretinal fluid as well as a thin choroid. In this aspect it differs from types 1 and 2 neovascularization that have an associated thickened choroid. Another differential aspect, is that type 3 neovascularization leads more often to retinal atrophy due to damage to the external retina caused by its intraretinal origin and the thinner choroid [39, 41].
Geographic Atrophy (GA) is a late-stage disease manifestation of non-neovascular AMD that generally progresses to severe central vision loss. It has traditionally been defined on color fundus photography as a sharply delineated circular or oval area of hypopigmentation or depigmentation in which choroidal vessels are visible. The size required for a lesion to be classified as GA varies with different studies, ranging from 175 μm to 430 μm in diameter.
Autofluorescence of these areas indicate them as hypoautofluorescent lesions, that may have a hyperautofluorescent rim, which is linked to acute suffering of the RPE. Atrophic areas typically demonstrate a late well-defined hyperfluorescence.
On OCT, as drusen regress, the overlying retinal layers undergo characteristic changes, while progressing to atrophy, that can be captured on OCT imaging. These changes, referred to as nascent GA in previous reports, include subsidence of the inner nuclear layer (INL) and outer plexiform layer (OPL), a hyporeflective wedge-shaped band within the Henle fiber layer (HFL), often accompanied by RPE disturbance, and increased signal hypertransmission into the choroid [42].
OCT-A shows significant impairment on the choriocapillaris flow in the zone immediately surrounding GA lesions. OCT-A seems to be able to give us information about the progression of atrophy, since the flow at the choriocapillary layer is diminished in the perifoveal region if compared to the parafoveal regions [43].
Previous studies have identified characteristic fundus features that are associated with a high risk for progression to GA [44]. Features related to a greater chance of developing GA are: large drusen volume, calcified drusen, intraretinal hyperreflective foci and SDD.
Spaide was one of the first to describe that outer retina atrophy could result from regression of SDD [45]. The outcomes of this study showed that, 43% of patients would eventually develop choroidal neovascularization after a period of two years and 43% would develop regression of SDD. Patients that had regression of SDD, had a decrease in the photoreceptor length, decrease in choroidal thickness and loss of ellipsoid band.
A score was proposed to better follow patients [28]. Among the scoring factors, there are: hyporeflective drusen, hyperreflective intraretinal foci, subretinal drusenoid deposits, and volume of large drusen. In order to generate the score, one point was assigned to each feature present in the study eye. The fellow eye was scored in a similar fashion. By adding the scores from both eyes, the total score (TS) is calculated. Category I is defined as a TS of 0, 1 or 2. Category II is defined as a TS of 3 or 4. Category III corresponds to a TS of 7 or 8. According to this score, in category I there was 0% chance to develop retinal atrophy; in category II there was a chance of 14,3%; in category III there was a chance of 47,5% and in category IV the chance was of 73%. The results allowed to conclude that patients in category I could be safely seen every 12 months, whereas patients in category II, III and IV could be seen every 6, 4 and 3 months, respectively [28, 43].
GA usually is characterized by RPE atrophy and recently received the term RPE and outer retina atrophy (RORA). When there is a photoreceptor loss without RPE atrophy, the term proposed is outer retina atrophy (ORA). ORA also occurs in eyes after regression of reticular pseudodrusen. SD-OCT is characterized by thinning of the outer retina, including the ELM and the inner segment of the EZ band and decreased choroidal thickness. ORA increases the risk for progression to RORA or macular neovascularization [44].
Along several meetings, experts proposed a classification according to OCT findings and four terms were described: cRORA, complete RPE and outer retina atrophy; iRORA, incomplete RPE and outer retina atrophy; cORA, complete outer retinal atrophy and iORA, incomplete outer retinal atrophy (Figures 11–14) [46].
cRORA. The green arrow in the red-free image, on the left, shows the location where the OCT B-scan, on the right, was taken. This scan demonstrates an area greater than 250μm in diameter with choroidal hypertransmission due to absence of the RPE layer and overlying outer retinal thinning and loss of photoreceptors.
iRORA. OCT-B scan demonstrates choroidal heterogeneous hypertransmission (pink arrowhead), subsidence of the INL and OPL (green arrowhead) as well as RPE attenuation and overlying photoreceptor disruption (red arrowhead).
cORA. OCT-B scan demonstrates thinning of the outer retina with loss of visibility of the ELM, EZ, IZ (interdigitation zone) (red arrowhead). It is possible to note regressing reticular pseudodrusen (yellow arrowhead).
iORA. OCT-B scan demonstrates thinning of the outer retina where intermittent areas of EZ and ELM can still be identified (arrowhead). It is also possible to note an uninjured RPE layer.
iRORA is defined on OCT by the following criteria: (1) a region of signal hypertransmission into the choroid, (2) a corresponding zone of attenuation or disruption of the RPE, with or without persistence of basal laminar deposits, and (3) evidence of overlying photoreceptor degeneration (subsidence of the INL and OPL, presence of a hyporreflective wedge in the henle fiber layer (HFL), thinning of the outer nuclear layer (ONL), disruption of the external limiting membrane (ELM), or disintegration of the EZ), and when these criteria do not meet the definition of cRORA. A minimum size to determine that a lesion is iRORA was not proposed. iRORA progresses into cRORA over a variable period, from months to years. If each of the areas of RPE change and hypertransmission has a diameter of at least 250 μm on the OCT B-scan, in addition to evidence of photoreceptor loss, then they qualify as cRORA.
Understanding AMD phenotype is very important to define prognosis and individualized forms of treatment and follow up. Biomarkers on OCT have been crucial for a better understanding of AMD.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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Heshmati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313921/images/system/313921.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hassan Massoud Heshmati is an endocrinologist with 46 years of experience in clinical research in academia (university-affiliated hospitals, Paris, France; Mayo Foundation, Rochester, MN, USA) and pharmaceutical companies (Sanofi, Malvern, PA, USA; Essentialis, Carlsbad, CA, USA; Gelesis, Boston, MA, USA). His research activity focuses on pituitary tumors, hyperthyroidism, thyroid cancers, osteoporosis, diabetes, and obesity. He has extensive knowledge in the development of anti-obesity products. Dr. Heshmati is the author of 299 abstracts, chapters, and articles related to endocrinology and metabolism. He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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