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Tikhonov and M.V. Rodkin",authors:[{id:"75011",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Tikhonov",fullName:"Ivan Tikhonov",slug:"ivan-tikhonov"},{id:"121075",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Rodkin",fullName:"Michael Rodkin",slug:"michael-rodkin"}]},{id:"30704",title:"Earthquakes Precursors",slug:"earthquakes-precursors",signatures:"Dumitru Stanica and Dragos Armand Stanica",authors:[{id:"73282",title:"Prof.",name:"Dumitru",middleName:null,surname:"Stanica",fullName:"Dumitru Stanica",slug:"dumitru-stanica"},{id:"80863",title:"MSc",name:"Armand",middleName:"Dragos",surname:"Stanica",fullName:"Armand Stanica",slug:"armand-stanica"}]},{id:"30705",title:"Earthquake Prediction: Analogy with Forecasting Models for Cyber Attacks in Internet and Computer Systems",slug:"earthquake-prediction-analogy-with-forecasting-models-for-incidents-in-the-internet-and-computer-sys",signatures:"Elvis Pontes, Anderson A. A. Silva, Adilson E. Guelfi and Sérgio T. Kofuji",authors:[{id:"51858",title:"MSc",name:"Elvis",middleName:null,surname:"Pontes",fullName:"Elvis Pontes",slug:"elvis-pontes"},{id:"51860",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Kofuji",fullName:"Sergio Kofuji",slug:"sergio-kofuji"},{id:"51861",title:"Dr.",name:"Adilson",middleName:null,surname:"Guelfi",fullName:"Adilson Guelfi",slug:"adilson-guelfi"},{id:"82495",title:"MSc.",name:"Anderson",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Anderson Silva",slug:"anderson-silva"}]},{id:"30706",title:"Identification of Simultaneous Similar Anomalies in Paired Time-Series",slug:"identification-of-simultaneous-similar-anomalies-in-paired-time-series",signatures:"R. G. M. Crockett",authors:[{id:"80558",title:"Dr.",name:"Robin",middleName:null,surname:"Crockett",fullName:"Robin Crockett",slug:"robin-crockett"}]},{id:"30707",title:"Radon as Earthquake Precursor",slug:"radon-as-earthquake-precursor",signatures:"Giuseppina Immè and Daniela Morelli",authors:[{id:"79901",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Morelli",fullName:"Daniela Morelli",slug:"daniela-morelli"},{id:"81874",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Immè",fullName:"Giuseppina Immè",slug:"giuseppina-imme"}]},{id:"30708",title:"Application of Recurrent Radon Precursors for Forecasting Local Large and Moderate Earthquakes",slug:"application-of-recurrent-radon-precursors-for-forecasting-local-large-earthquakes-",signatures:"Ming-Ching T. Kuo",authors:[{id:"69565",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming-Ching T.",middleName:null,surname:"Kuo",fullName:"Ming-Ching T. Kuo",slug:"ming-ching-t.-kuo"}]},{id:"30709",title:"Radon as an Earthquake Precursor – Methods for Detecting Anomalies",slug:"radon-as-earthquake-precursor-methods-for-detecting-anomalies",signatures:"Asta Gregorič, Boris Zmazek, Sašo Džeroski, Drago Torkar and Janja Vaupotič",authors:[{id:"24867",title:"Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Vaupotič",fullName:"Janja Vaupotič",slug:"janja-vaupotic"},{id:"76533",title:"PhD.",name:"Asta",middleName:null,surname:"Gregoric",fullName:"Asta Gregoric",slug:"asta-gregoric"},{id:"80799",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",middleName:null,surname:"Zmazek",fullName:"Boris Zmazek",slug:"boris-zmazek"},{id:"80801",title:"Dr.",name:"Drago",middleName:null,surname:"Torkar",fullName:"Drago Torkar",slug:"drago-torkar"},{id:"80802",title:"Prof.",name:"Sašo",middleName:null,surname:"Džeroski",fullName:"Sašo Džeroski",slug:"saso-dzeroski"}]},{id:"30710",title:"Changes in Apparent Resistivity in the Late Preparation Stages of Strong Earthquakes",slug:"changes-in-apparent-resistivity-in-the-late-preparation-stages-of-strong-earthquakes",signatures:"Du Xuebin, An Zhanghui, Yan Rui, Ye Qing, Fan Yingying, Liu Jun, Chen Junying and Tan Dacheng",authors:[{id:"70756",title:"Prof.",name:"Xuebin",middleName:null,surname:"Du",fullName:"Xuebin Du",slug:"xuebin-du"}]},{id:"30711",title:"Are There Pre-Seismic Electromagnetic Precursors? A Multidisciplinary Approach",slug:"are-there-pre-seismic-electromagnetic-precursors-a-multidisciplinary-approach-",signatures:"Konstantinos Eftaxias",authors:[{id:"72622",title:"Prof.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:"Athanassios",surname:"Eftaxias",fullName:"Konstantinos Eftaxias",slug:"konstantinos-eftaxias"}]},{id:"30712",title:"The Effect of Marmara (Izmit) Earthquake on the Chemical Oceanography and Mangan Enrichment in the Lower Layer Water of Izmit Bay, Turkey",slug:"the-effect-of-marmara-zmit-earthquake-on-the-chemical-oceanography-and-mangan-enrichment-in-the-lowe",signatures:"Nuray Balkis",authors:[{id:"72138",title:"Prof.",name:"Nuray",middleName:null,surname:"Balkis",fullName:"Nuray Balkis",slug:"nuray-balkis"}]},{id:"30713",title:"Newly-Proposed Methods for Early Detection of Incoming Earthquakes, Tsunamis & Tidal Motion",slug:"newly-proposed-methods-for-early-detection-of-incoming-earthquakes-tsunamis-and-tidal-motion",signatures:"Samvel G. Gevorgyan",authors:[{id:"61622",title:"Prof.",name:"Samvel",middleName:"Gerasim",surname:"Gevorgyan",fullName:"Samvel Gevorgyan",slug:"samvel-gevorgyan"}]},{id:"30714",title:"Earth Observation for Earthquake Disaster Monitoring and Assessment",slug:"earth-observation-for-earthquake-disaster-monitoring-and-assessment",signatures:"Huadong Guo, Liangyun Liu, Xiangtao Fan, Xinwu Li and Lu Zhang",authors:[{id:"72563",title:"Prof.",name:"Huadong",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",fullName:"Huadong Guo",slug:"huadong-guo"},{id:"79914",title:"Prof.",name:"Liangyun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Liangyun Liu",slug:"liangyun-liu"},{id:"79915",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiangtao",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",fullName:"Xiangtao Fan",slug:"xiangtao-fan"},{id:"79916",title:"Dr.",name:"Xinwu",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Xinwu Li",slug:"xinwu-li"},{id:"79917",title:"Dr.",name:"Lu",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Lu Zhang",slug:"lu-zhang"}]},{id:"30715",title:"Earthquake Observation by Social Sensors",slug:"earthquake-obvervation-by-social-sensors",signatures:"Takeshi Sakaki and Yutaka Matsuo",authors:[{id:"78652",title:"MSc.",name:"Takeshi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakaki",fullName:"Takeshi Sakaki",slug:"takeshi-sakaki"},{id:"81817",title:"Prof.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Matsuo",fullName:"Yutaka Matsuo",slug:"yutaka-matsuo"}]},{id:"30716",title:"Fibre-Optic Sagnac Interferometer as Seismograph for Direct Monitoring of Rotational Events",slug:"fibre-optic-sagnac-interferometer-as-the-seismograph-for-direct-monitoring-of-the-rotational-phenome",signatures:"Leszek R. Jaroszewicz, Zbigniew Krajewski and Krzysztof P. Teisseyre",authors:[{id:"72725",title:"Prof.",name:"Leszek",middleName:"R.",surname:"Jaroszewicz",fullName:"Leszek Jaroszewicz",slug:"leszek-jaroszewicz"},{id:"80977",title:"Dr.",name:"Zbigniew",middleName:null,surname:"Krajewski",fullName:"Zbigniew Krajewski",slug:"zbigniew-krajewski"},{id:"80980",title:"Dr.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Teisseyre",fullName:"Krzysztof Teisseyre",slug:"krzysztof-teisseyre"}]},{id:"30717",title:"Experience with Restoration of Asia Pacific Network Failures from Taiwan Earthquake",slug:"experience-with-restoration-of-asia-pacific-network-failures-from-taiwan-earthquake",signatures:"Yasuichi Kitamura, Youngseok Lee, Ryo Sakiyama and Koji Okamura",authors:[{id:"70155",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Kitamura",fullName:"Yasuichi Kitamura",slug:"yasuichi-kitamura"},{id:"122185",title:"Prof.",name:"Youngseok",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",fullName:"Youngseok Lee",slug:"youngseok-lee"},{id:"122187",title:"Prof.",name:"Koji",middleName:null,surname:"Okamura",fullName:"Koji Okamura",slug:"koji-okamura"}]},{id:"30718",title:"Earthquake Induced a Chain Disasters",slug:"earthquake-induced-a-chain-disasters-",signatures:"Guangqi Chen, Yange Li, Yingbin Zhang and Jian Wu",authors:[{id:"73314",title:"Dr.",name:"Guangqi",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Guangqi Chen",slug:"guangqi-chen"},{id:"149519",title:"Dr.",name:"Yange",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yange Li",slug:"yange-li"},{id:"149520",title:"Dr.",name:"Yingbin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Yingbin Zhang",slug:"yingbin-zhang"},{id:"149521",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",fullName:"Jian Wu",slug:"jian-wu"}]},{id:"30719",title:"Correlation Between Geology, Earthquake and Urban Planning",slug:"correlation-between-geology-earthquake-and-urban-planning-",signatures:"Sule Tudes",authors:[{id:"76441",title:"Dr.",name:"Sule",middleName:null,surname:"Tudes",fullName:"Sule Tudes",slug:"sule-tudes"}]},{id:"30720",title:"Simulating Collective Behavior in Natural Disaster Situations: A Multi-Agent Approach",slug:"simulating-collective-behavior-in-natural-disaster-situations-a-multi-agent-approach",signatures:"Robson dos Santos França, Maria das Graças B. Marietto, Margarethe Born Steinberger and Nizam Omar",authors:[{id:"19972",title:"MSc.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Dos Santos França",fullName:"Robson Dos Santos França",slug:"robson-dos-santos-franca"},{id:"81177",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Das Graças B. Marietto",fullName:"Maria Das Graças B. Marietto",slug:"maria-das-gracas-b.-marietto"},{id:"81299",title:"Prof.",name:"Nizam",middleName:null,surname:"Omar",fullName:"Nizam Omar",slug:"nizam-omar"},{id:"81300",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarethe",middleName:"Born",surname:"Steinberger-Elias",fullName:"Margarethe Steinberger-Elias",slug:"margarethe-steinberger-elias"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8282",title:"Polar Seismology",subtitle:"Advances and Impact",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"69e0f0e64b988f29d30532c2618705b2",slug:"polar-seismology-advances-and-impact",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8282.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"4",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"8361",title:"Applied Geophysics with Case Studies on Environmental, Exploration and Engineering Geophysics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"788c034eec48a4e2f1f6a2f1788d3346",slug:"applied-geophysics-with-case-studies-on-environmental-exploration-and-engineering-geophysics",bookSignature:"Ali Ismet Kanlı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8361.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"243975",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Ismet",surname:"Kanlı",slug:"ali-ismet-kanli",fullName:"Ali Ismet Kanlı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9993",title:"Earthquakes",subtitle:"From Tectonics to Buildings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1f9859a0a16af53d80bf3952fba7a272",slug:"earthquakes-from-tectonics-to-buildings",bookSignature:"Walter Salazar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9993.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"236461",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",surname:"Salazar",slug:"walter-salazar",fullName:"Walter Salazar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"605",title:"Earthquake Research and Analysis",subtitle:"Seismology, Seismotectonic and Earthquake Geology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7f97c97f3cf8d09622afa27f3fd2d1e4",slug:"earthquake-research-and-analysis-seismology-seismotectonic-and-earthquake-geology",bookSignature:"Sebastiano D'Amico",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/605.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52181",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastiano",surname:"D'Amico",slug:"sebastiano-d'amico",fullName:"Sebastiano D'Amico"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"892",title:"Seismic Waves",subtitle:"Research and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"77aca8357f09b77cf39eb669b711c862",slug:"seismic-waves-research-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/892.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"2048",title:"Earthquake Research and Analysis",subtitle:"New Frontiers in Seismology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"28d7da86de8c245c5391e4a78f6c2d53",slug:"earthquake-research-and-analysis-new-frontiers-in-seismology",bookSignature:"Sebastiano D'Amico",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2048.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52181",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastiano",surname:"D'Amico",slug:"sebastiano-d'amico",fullName:"Sebastiano D'Amico"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"65856",title:"Consequences of Artificial Light at Night: The Linkage between Chasing Darkness Away and Epigenetic Modifications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84789",slug:"consequences-of-artificial-light-at-night-the-linkage-between-chasing-darkness-away-and-epigenetic-m",body:'\nSince the invention of electrical light in 1879 by Thomas Alva Edison, artificial light at night (ALAN) has become a definitive feature of human development with accelerated increase concurrent with urbanization and industrialization. The light emitted from the original bulb of Edison known as incandescent bulb was weak, with a dominant long wavelength emission above 560 nm. Most of the incandescent electrical energy is dissipated as heat energy, thus making this type of illumination energetically inefficient. Therefore, new illumination technologies were developed, in order to discover efficient bulbs that transfer most of the electrical energy into light. White fluorescent and light-emitting diodes (LED) are examples of energy efficient bulbs developed to decrease carbon dioxide production from electric power plants, thus lessening the greenhouse effect. One of the adverse outcomes of using efficient illumination at night time is the emission of shorter wavelengths (SWLs) that further exacerbate the health and ecological problems associated with a new source of environmental pollution currently known as ALAN [1, 2, 3]. Light pollution is increasing rapidly, resulting in a more illuminated world, where outdoor and indoor illumination sources are increasing ALAN in developed and developing countries [4, 5].
\nFrom an anthropological perspective, electric light has brought pronounced benefits including advancing urbanization and industrialization by increasing productivity, but we are also increasingly being aware of serious public health and ecological negative impacts emerging from disrupting the adaptive temporal organization of biological responses [6, 7, 8]. Certainly, multiple studies have shown the effects of light pollution on social, behavioral, physiological, and molecular responses in many different taxa, including insects [9], fishes [10], amphibians [11], reptiles [12], birds [13], and mammals [14], as well as plants [15]. Some of the most disturbing effects of ALAN on health are metabolic dysfunction and cancer progression [2, 16]. In mice and humans, several lines of evidence suggest a close association between ALAN levels and both obesity and breast cancer progression [17, 18, 19]. Here, we focus on ALAN as a novel environmental polluter that disrupts biological timing (temporal organization) and consequently may provoke severe health risk, particularly breast cancer development through epigenetic modifications. First, the mammalian photoperiodic system is reviewed in relation to light perception and downstream endocrine responses for timing biological rhythms. Thereafter, we discuss the sensitivity of the photoperiodic system to the spectral composition of ALAN, particularly SWL illuminations. We further discuss the ALAN signal transduction pathway involved in melatonin suppression and aberrant epigenetic modifications in breast cancer progression. Therefore, melatonin and epigenetics are suggested as new biomarkers for breast cancer prevention. Finally, melatonin and thyroxin treatments in the diurnal fat sand rat (
In an early study, it has been demonstrated that the blind mole rat (
First, photoperiodic signals are perceived by ipRGCs that express the photo-pigment melanopsin [25]. The detected environmental light signal by the ipRGCs synchronizes the master circadian clock located in the mammalian hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) by the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT). The SCN regulates the synthesis and release of the hormone melatonin by the pineal gland through multiunit sympathetic nerves from the superior cervical ganglion (SCG). The SCG presynaptic sympathetic terminals release noradrenalin that interacts with postsynaptic α- and β-adrenergic receptors to regulate synthesis and release of pineal melatonin [26]. In mammals, the activity of the adrenergic SCG terminals that innervate the pineal gland is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light [27]. Under dark conditions, stimulation of the pineal adrenergic receptors increases cellular cAMP levels leading to the activation of aryl-alkyl-amine-N-acetyltransferase (AA-NAT), a key enzyme in melatonin synthesis [28]. The nocturnal increase in the enzymatic activity of AA-NAT is strongly inhibited by light exposure, consequently leading to a rapid decrease in nocturnal melatonin levels [29]. The pinealocytes are the primary neuroendocrine cells that synthesis melatonin by sequential hydroxylation and decarboxylation of its precursor tryptophan to serotonin. Thereafter, serotonin is acetylated by the rate-limiting enzyme AA-NAT and methylated by the enzyme hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase (HIOMT) to the final product of melatonin [28, 30]. Finally, the activity of both AA-NAT and HIOMT is under photoperiodic control at the transcriptional level showing distinct diurnal rhythms with peak levels during night and nadir levels during the day [31].
\nIn most mammals, no level of light exposure is powerless regarding melatonin suppression and even low intensity and short-term exposures can reduce its production and lead to decreased circulating levels [32, 33]. Nonetheless, melatonin suppression is strongly wavelength- and irradiance-dependent, with faster and more robust response at the SWL end of the visible spectrum below 500 nm [19, 34, 35]. A large-scale study comparing the effect of different light technologies on melatonin production in humans demonstrated that the strongest suppression occurred in response to 4000 and 5000 K LED lights compared with incandescent, halogen, and fluorescent counterpart lightening systems [36]. Narrow bandwidth blue LED exposure (λ = 469 nm, ½ peak bandwidth = 26 nm) decreased melatonin levels in an irradiance dose-dependent manner, and this light was more effective in decreasing the hormone levels compared with that of 4000 K of white fluorescent at twice the energy of the latter [37]. In horses, 1 h exposure of 3 lux SWL blue light (468 nm) administered only to one eye was sufficient to decrease melatonin levels compared with control animals [38].
\nFurthermore, blue LED pulses (2-s pulse every 1 min for 1 h, λ = 450 nm) administrated through closed human eyelids markedly suppressed nocturnal melatonin levels and delayed the melatonin onset phase [39, 40, 41]. While the eyelids can weaken irradiance and wavelength ([42], light signals can still penetrate them, be detected by the retinal photoreceptors, and affect circadian regulation [43]. In humans, blue LED exposure (40 lux, 470 nm) emitted from display screens (tablets and computers), suppressed nocturnal melatonin in a duration-dependent manner [44, 45] and melatonin suppression showed higher sensitivity to wavelength compared with intensity manipulations [46].
\nTogether, it is clear that the adverse effects of light pollution are strongly manifested by the SWL portion of the spectrum. As the LED illumination is becoming ubiquitous in every aspect of our modern life, the expected increase in light pollution may exacerbate the problem since higher irradiance and shorter wavelengths would be emitted by the energy efficient technology [47, 48]. Accordingly, the American Medical Association [49] passed a resolution in 2016 calling upon communities in the USA to avoid using LED lighting in public domains as it is enriched with SWL [49]. In summary, SWL-ALAN is a source of pollution and should be removed from public spaces through legislation.
\nThe flexibility and the sensitivity of the endocrine system play an adaptive role in determining the success and survival of organisms under contentiously changing environmental conditions in their habitat [50]. As the endocrine system regulates several functions, it is expected to be the first system to respond to environmental changes such as ALAN by coordinating body functions to maintain homeostasis during the exposure. The core stimulus-response of the endocrine system to ALAN relies on four main components, including the pineal gland, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis (HPT), and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis [51]. The elaborated hormonal responses generated by these axes to ALAN exposure might be mediated by transcriptional regulation of gene expression
The incidences of breast and prostate cancers show close association with light pollution particularly in urbanized and industrialized regions [2, 54]. Several epidemiological studies have found direct association between light pollution and incidence of breast cancer in women as well as prostate cancer in men [18, 55, 56]. Furthermore, the strong association between light pollution and cancer incidences displays divergent spatial disruption with higher incidences in urban compared with rural regions [57, 58]. Evidence for direct association between ALAN and cancer development comes also from animal studies.
\nIn rats, ALAN exposure accelerated the growth rates of induced-tumors, including mammary cancer [59, 60, 61, 62]. Studies under control conditions demonstrated that 30-min ALAN per midnight emitted from either white fluorescent or blue LED illuminations can accelerate tumor growth and lung metastatic activity in female BALB/c mice inoculated with 4T1 mammary carcinoma [63, 64]. Indeed, the effects of ALAN on tumor growth have been demonstrated at different spectral compositions with markedly higher cancer burden in response to lighting exposure lower than 500 nm [19].
\nThese studies have related the increased cancer burden to aberrant epigenetic modifications, particularly advanced global DNA hypo-methylation. Promoter hyper-methylation of cancer suppresser genes and global DNA hypo-methylation are characterizing epigenetic patterns in breast cancer cells [65, 66]. These aberrant epigenetic modifications may contribute to increase cancer burden by eliciting genomic instability and activation of both oncogenes and metastatic related genes, as well as silencing tumor suppressor genes. Generally, prominent decreased methylation in repetitive DAN elements is a common trait in most cancer cells [67]. Demethylation of pro-metastatic genes is normally suppressed by DNA methylation and might advance gene overexpression leading to genetic instability that increases the risk of developing cancer [68, 69]. DNA hypomethylation can be detected at an early stage of breast cancer and is correlated with the degree of tumor differentiation [70, 71]. Altogether, the close association between aberrant DAN hypomethylation and tumorigenesis, particularly of breast cancer, is well-established, but the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood, especially how the adverse ALAN effects are mediated.
\nSince the melatonin hypothesis was first proposed during the late twentieth century by Stevens [72], multiple studies in human and nonhuman animals have provided direct and indirect evidence that melatonin suppression by ALAN could impose health risks, including metabolic disorders and cancer progression [2, 54]. The importance of melatonin in the regulation of several biological functions depends heavily on its lipophilic and hydrophilic traits that make it omnipresent in all cell compartments, principally in the nucleus [73]. Indeed, low levels of 6-sulfatoxymelatonin (6-SMT), the major metabolites of the hormone in urine [74], have been demonstrated to correlate with increased risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women [75, 76, 77]. Furthermore, women with blindness or long sleep duration (elevated melatonin levels) present reduced breast cancer risk relative to normal women [78, 79].
\nPhysiological blood concentration of melatonin blocked human leiomyosarcoma (soft tissue sarcoma) proliferation by inhibiting tumor metabolic and genetic pathways presumable by suppression of cellular cAMP levels
Melatonin could mediate its effects of cancer development
The strong association between ALAN, DNA hypo-methylation, and melatonin suppression may be of significant clinical importance. DNA methylation and melatonin can be utilized as biomarkers for detecting and preventing breast cancer development. The traditional diagnosis method for breast cancer is scanning by mammography, which is a useful technique to identify the growth of cancer. The mammography cannot predict risk for breast cancer as it indicates its existence, but trends in melatonin suppression and DNA methylation can provide a simple, noninvasive, and reliable tool for predicting cancer risk, particularly among a group of high-risk individuals for developing the disease such as night shift workers. Bearing in mind that epigenetic modifications are reversible [92], early treatment by melatonin or any other analogs [93] for individuals at high risk can be very effective in preventing breast cancer. We are aware today, that genetics factors such as breast cancer genes are not the major causes of the malignancy and other external factors are heavily involved. Therefore, much more attention should be given to environmental changes that link endocrinology with epigenetic modifications.
\nCollectively, in diurnal humans, circadian disruption enforced by activity impinging on the inactive period during the nighttime is recurrently associated with a number of health problems. However, a direct link between ALAN-induced circadian disruption and health risks is still difficult to clearly establish as most data are derived from epidemiological and nocturnal animal studies [94]. Therefore, integrating diurnal animal models of chronodisruption with epidemiological and nocturnal model studies would add a significant value in defining potential direct signal transduction pathways mediating the environmental exposure impacts on physiology and health. Consequently, we conducted a preliminary study to investigate the effects of hormonal manipulations in diurnal species on physiological and epigenetic regulations. This preliminary study is a first step in a large-scale study using diurnal mouse model to elucidate the association between ALAN-induced circadian disruption and the development of health problems at the behavioral, physiological, and molecular levels.
\nBearing in mind that humans are diurnal, understanding the physiological and epigenetic response to ALAN in human disease can benefit significantly from using a diurnal species such as the fat sand rat (
The results showed that melatonin alone significantly increased Wb from day 1 compared with controls, but with a decreasing magnitude with time (Figure 1A). Mass gain on day 1 was approximately 1.5-fold higher compared with that at the last. T4 also increased Wb from day 1 to day 5 compared with controls, but with significantly lesser effect compared with melatonin. Thereafter, mass was decreased showing a moderate mass loss from day 13 to day 21 compared with controls. Thyroxin and melatonin in combination markedly decreased Wb with time compared with all other groups. Mass gain decreased from 0.46 ± 0.88% at day 1 to −20.21 ± 2.56% at day 21. Thyroxin can regulate Wb by increasing heat production through nonshivering thermogenesis by changing membrane permeability to sodium, increasing the pump activity to maintain cell homeostasis in brown adipose tissue, resulting in higher body temperature values and loss in Wb [102].
\nPercentage change in body mass (A) and body temperature (B) in long-day acclimated
Melatonin may operate through increasing the amount of brown adipose tissue, thus increasing heat production by increasing energy expenditure. Melatonin and thyroxin in combination provoked considerably more mass loss than melatonin alone, suggesting that melatonin may act synergistically with thyroxin to evoke mass loss in rats, due to the combined effect of increasing energy expenditure.
\nBody temperature rhythms were notably altered only in response to T4 treatment, while melatonin alone and in combination with thyroxin had no effect on body temperature compared with controls (Figure 1B). Furthermore, the significant decrease in body temperature following treatments with thyroxin and melatonin in combination, compared with T4 alone, suggests that melatonin and thyroxin exert a significant antagonistic effect on body temperature.
\nThyroxin treatment had no effect on mean 6-SMT levels but altered the daily rhythms with higher amplitude and delayed acrophase by approximately 2 h (Figure 2A). Finally, melatonin treatment elicited hypomethylation while thyroxin alone or thyroxin and melatonin in combination exerted comparable effects on GDM levels showing marked hypermethylation compared with control levels (Figure 2B). Similar to Wb, thyroxin and melatonin may have exerted synergistic effects on promoting DNA hypermethylation, but this effect did not reach statistical significance.
\nDaily rhythms of urinary 6-sulfatoxymelatonin (A) and global DNA methylation (B) levels in long-day acclimated
These results suggest that melatonin and thyroxin have a role in the regulation of body temperature and apparently metabolism, in which the former may attenuate metabolism and the latter may accelerate it. Both hormones exerted inverse effects on global DNA levels, suggesting that different transduction pathways are involved in the circadian regulation of body temperature in
However, in humans, melatonin may interact with the HPT axis to modulate the circadian rhythm of body temperature [104]. In mammals, the HPT axis plays a major role in several adaptive functions such as growth, development, metabolic rate, thermogenesis, heart rate, immune, and reproductive responses [105]. The HPT releasing and stimulating hormones as well as the thyroid hormones (T4 and T3) are under photoperiodic control presumably by the pars tuberalis of the adenohypophysis [106, 107]. In rats, T3 and T4 concentrations exhibit significant circadian rhythms with elevated levels during the dark period compared with the counterpart light period [108]. The nocturnal increase in the thyroid hormones was reported also in the rat pineal gland following an increase in type I 5′-iodothyronine deiodinase activity, which catalyzes the conversion of T4 to T3 [109]. Furthermore, the thyroid hormones are crucial photoperiodic regulators of several physiological processes including energy metabolism and reproduction [110, 111]. While the relation between the HPT axis and the photoperiodic system are well-characterized, there are limited studies on the effect of ALAN on the HPT axis. However, due to the link with the photoperiodic system, environmental perturbation of the circadian clock by ALAN is expected to alter the activity of the HPT axis, including the thyroid hormones. In hamsters under short-day photoperiod, low levels of ALAN elevated the levels of thyroid-stimulating-hormone (TSH) receptors causing advanced Wb and gonadal growth [112]. Continuous exposure to ALAN decreased TSH, but increased both T3 and T4 in mice [113]. In birds, long-term exposure to ALAN increased both the blood levels of the thyroid hormones and Wb [114]. Overall, ALAN may induce aberrant epigenetic modifications by disrupting endocrine axes such as HPT axis that interacts with melatonin to manifest the adverse effects of the environmental exposure. However, the exact mechanism of action by which HPT axis may directly, or
Currently, it is clear that electric light not only has remarkable anthropological advantages, but also severe adverse ecological and public health concerns. One of the most alerting impacts of ALAN on public health is the potential association between SWL exposure and cancer development, particularly in urbanized regions worldwide. ALAN effects are suggested to be mediated at the cellular level by inducing epigenetic modifications
Schematic representation of the mechanism of ALAN in eliciting adverse health effects. Light signal, including short wavelength ALAN (SWL-ALAN), is detected by intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) that propagate it to the SCN
These effects are presumably mediated by aberrant epigenetic modifications. Therefore, DNA methylations, which are a reversible modification in genes, triggered by melatonin, are a promising mechanism linking between environmental exposures like ALAN and hormonal/cellular pathway mediating carcinogenic activities like metastasis activity, tumor cell proliferation, and estrogen-related responses [89]. Melatonin may affect DNA methylation by modulating the activity of DNA methyltransferases involved in the regulation of gene expression by changing DNA methylation patterns. The well-established fact that different tissues present specific patterns of epigenetic modifications [118] may account for the observed tissue-specific effects of ALAN and melatonin on DNA methyl-transferase activity and GDM levels. Tissue differential effects on the activity of DNA methyl-transferases and GDM levels in response to ALAN exposure may present tissue-specific responses to genes that are involved in circadian regulation of several transduction pathways including cancer cell proliferation and metastatic activity. Since humans are diurnal species and most studies have been conducted on nocturnal animals, a diurnal experimental model should be of a great clinical interest.
The authors of this chapter would like to thank the Vice President and Dean of Research at the University of Haifa, Prof. Ido Izhaki for allocating the funding to the publication fee.
\nThis chapter is dedicated to the memory of Professor Abraham Haim, who passed away before publication of this work. His contribution was foremost among the authors of this chapter.
\nALAN | artificial light at night |
AA-NAT | aryl-alkyl-amine-N-acetyltransferase |
Wb | body mass |
GDM | global DNA methylation |
HIOMT | hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase |
SCN | hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus |
HPA | hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal |
HPG | hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal |
HPT | hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis |
ipRGCs | intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells |
LED | light-emitting diodes |
RHT | retinohypothalamic tract |
SWLs | short wavelengths |
SCG | superior cervical ganglion |
TSH | thyroid-stimulating hormone |
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Due to its advantages of abundant resources, less in cost, great workability and high physical properties, fly ash leads to achieving high mechanical properties. Fly ash is considered as one of the largest generated industrial solid wastes or so-called industrial by-products, around the world particularly in China, India, and USA. The characteristics of fly ash allow it to be a geotechnical material to produce geopolymer cement or concrete as an alternative of ordinary Portland cement. Many efforts are made in this direction to formulate a suitable mix design of fly ash-based geopolymer by focusing on fly ash as the main prime material. The physical properties, chemical compositions, and chemical activation of fly ash are analyzed and evaluated in this review paper. Reference has been made to different ASTM, ACI standards, and other researches work in geopolymer area.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Aissa Bouaissi, Long Yuan Li, Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah, Romisuhani Ahmad, Rafiza Abdul Razak and Zarina Yahya",authors:null},{id:"73729",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93500",title:"Solar Energy and Its Purpose in Net-Zero Energy Building",slug:"solar-energy-and-its-purpose-in-net-zero-energy-building",totalDownloads:610,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The Net Zero Energy Building is generally described as an extremely energy-efficient building in which the residual electricity demand is provided by renewable energy. Solar power is also regarded to be the most readily available and usable form of renewable electricity produced at the building site. In contrast, energy conservation is viewed as an influential national for achieving a building’s net zero energy status. This chapter aims to show the value of the synergy between energy conservation and solar energy transfer to NZEBs at the global and regional levels. To achieve these goals, both energy demand building and the potential supply of solar energy in buildings have been forecasted in various regions, climatic conditions, and types of buildings. Building energy consumption was evaluated based on a bottom-up energy model developed by 3CSEP and data inputs from the Bottom-Up Energy Analysis System (BUENAS) model under two scenarios of differing degrees of energy efficiency intention. The study results indicate that the acquisition of sustainable energy consumption is critical for solar-powered net zero energy buildings in various building styles and environments. The chapter calls for the value of government measures that incorporate energy conservation and renewable energy.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan",authors:[{id:"317852",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mostafa",middleName:null,surname:"Esmaeili Shayan",slug:"mostafa-esmaeili-shayan",fullName:"Mostafa Esmaeili Shayan"}]},{id:"67105",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86279",title:"Social Innovation and Environmental Sustainability in Social Housing Policies: Learning from Two Experimental Case Studies in Italy",slug:"social-innovation-and-environmental-sustainability-in-social-housing-policies-learning-from-two-expe",totalDownloads:1019,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"This chapter critically examines approaches and solutions developed by social housing to sustainably respond to the housing emergency plaguing contemporary cities and Italian cities in particular. In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",middleName:null,surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}]},{id:"57401",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71325",title:"Basic Schemes: Preparations for Applying Control Science to Sustainable Design",slug:"basic-schemes-preparations-for-applying-control-science-to-sustainable-design",totalDownloads:1251,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"It is the ultimate goal for humankind to deal with various problems and achieve sustainability. Control science can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks and has already produced remarkable results. Accordingly, applying control science to the task of achieving sustainability is a rational and reliable approach. In order to apply control science to sustainability issues, our first study has shown the “basic control system for sustainability” as well as the “model of sustainability.” After that, in order to identify system components of practical control systems for promoting sustainable design, we have devised “two-step preparatory work for sustainable design.” The two steps of this preparatory work are “determining the relationships between the standard human activities and sustainability” and “sustainability checkup on human activities as an object.”",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"72850",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92725",title:"Computational Analysis of a Lecture Room Ventilation System",slug:"computational-analysis-of-a-lecture-room-ventilation-system",totalDownloads:864,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The level of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) has become a big topic of research, and improving it using passive ventilation methods is imperative due to the cost saving potentials. Designing lecture buildings to use less energy or Zero Energy (ZE) has become more important, and analysing buildings before construction can save money in design changes. This research analyses the performance (thermal comfort [TC]) of a lecture room, investigate the use of passive ventilation methods and determine the energy-saving potential of the proposed passive ventilation method using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Results obtained showed that air change per hour at a wind velocity of 0.05 m/s was 3.10, which was below standards. Therefore, the lecture hall needs external passive ventilation systems (Solar Chimney [SC]) for improved indoor air quality at minimum cost. Also, it was observed that the proposed passive ventilation (SC) system with the size between 1 and 100 m3, made an improvement upon the natural ventilation in the room. There was a 66.69% increase after 10 years in the saving of energy and cost using Solar Chimney as compared to Fans, which depicts that truly energy and cost were saved using passive ventilation systems rather than mechanical ventilation systems.",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Abayomi Layeni, Collins Nwaokocha, Olalekan Olamide, Solomon Giwa, Samuel Tongo, Olawale Onabanjo, Taiwo Samuel, Olabode Olanipekun, Oluwasegun Alabi, Kasali Adedeji, Olusegun Samuel, Jagun Zaid Oluwadurotimi, Olaolu Folorunsho, Jacob Adebayo and Folashade Oniyide",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71982",title:"Net-Zero Energy Buildings: Principles and Applications",slug:"net-zero-energy-buildings-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:2288,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Global warming and climate change are rising issues during the last couple of decades. With residential and commercial buildings being the largest energy consumers, sources are being depleted at a much faster pace in the recent decades. Recent statistics shows that 14% of humans are active participant to protect the environment with an additional 48% sympathetic but not active. In this chapter, net-zero energy buildings design tools and applications are presented that can help designers in the commercial and residential sectors design their buildings to be net-zero energy buildings. Case studies with benefits and challenges will be presented to illustrate the different designs to achieve a net-zero energy building (NZEB).",book:{id:"9916",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",fullTitle:"Zero-Energy Buildings - New Approaches and Technologies"},signatures:"Maher Shehadi",authors:null},{id:"57400",title:"Case Study: Detached House Designed by Following the Control System",slug:"case-study-detached-house-designed-by-following-the-control-system",totalDownloads:1578,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The previous chapter has demonstrated the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Following this control system, we have actually designed and constructed a detached house. To be concrete, the homeowner and the architects of the housing manufacture have designed the home’s parts, or elements, so that as much as possible the elements’ variables meet their desired values. The sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist have been readily accepted because the material and spatial elements are equivalent to real parts of the home. After the home started to be used, we have obtained external evaluations of the home’s sustainability performance. For example, CASBEE for Detached Houses, a comprehensive assessment system, has readily ranked the house in the highest “S.” An energy-saving performance assessment has shown that this home has reduced energy consumption by over 70%, as compared with the average home. On the other hand, the reactions of the occupants and visitors have indicated the comfort, healthiness and safety of this house. Furthermore, this home has received a sustainable housing award, especially due to its extremely high sustainability and energy-saving performance.",book:{id:"5692",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",fullTitle:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1385,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}]},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1420,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",middleName:"Jideofor",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}]},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:982,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. In this chapter, the role of the early-stage building design as well as the correct occupant behavior is presented as essential to develop a naturally ventilated dwelling, which is an excellent alternative to achieve proper levels of indoor environment in a sustainable manner.",book:{id:"7650",slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design"},signatures:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",authors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"128",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82804",title:"Psychiatric Problems in HIV Care",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106077",signatures:"Seggane Musisi and Noeline Nakasujja",slug:"psychiatric-problems-in-hiv-care",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Future Opportunities and Tools for Emerging Challenges for HIV/AIDS Control",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82817",title:"Perspective Chapter: Microfluidic Technologies for On-Site Detection and Quantification of Infectious Diseases - The Experience with SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105950",signatures:"Andres Escobar and Chang-qing Xu",slug:"perspective-chapter-microfluidic-technologies-for-on-site-detection-and-quantification-of-infectious",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82667",title:"Perspective Chapter: Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Indirect Spreading Routes and Possible Countermeasures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105914",signatures:"Cesare Saccani, Marco Pellegrini and Alessandro Guzzini",slug:"perspective-chapter-analysis-of-sars-cov-2-indirect-spreading-routes-and-possible-countermeasures",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kasenga is a graduate of Tumaini University, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania and Umeå University, Sweden. He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. 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\r\n\tThis topic aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the latest trends in Oral Health based on recent scientific evidence. Subjects will include an overview of oral diseases and infections, systemic diseases affecting the oral cavity, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, as well as current clinical recommendations for the management of oral, dental, and periodontal diseases.
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Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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