\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7650",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"As one of the largest consumers of energy, the housing sector and its unconscious occupants' activities negatively affect the environment. Architects and engineers have a major role in resolving the associated problems while maintaining comfort for occupants. Also very important are environmental education and awareness of appropriate environmental development in designing activity and selecting building materials and products. There are different architectural strategies that are aimed to achieve a low-energy built environment. Determining the needed strategy according to function, economy, and occupant comfort and affordability is the crucial step. This book helps the reader to achieve a sustainable development without destruction of the resources while maintaining a growing universal awareness of protecting the living and non-living environment.",isbn:"978-1-78984-386-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-385-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-677-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77454",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",numberOfPages:104,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a7228ca821b354d974a45eac0ca0eff8",bookSignature:"Ayşem Berrin Çakmaklı",publishedDate:"November 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7650.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6254,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:21,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 17th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 7th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 6th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 27th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 26th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"220974",title:"Dr.",name:"Aysem",middleName:"Berrin",surname:"Cakmakli",slug:"aysem-cakmakli",fullName:"Aysem Cakmakli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220974/images/system/220974.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşem Berrin Çakmaklı is an instructor in Department of Architecture at METU. She received her B.Arch. and M.S. degrees from the Middle East Technical University, Faculty of Architecture. She also received her Ph.D. from Middle East Technical University, Faculty of Architecture in Building Science. Her master thesis is about sustainable architecture and sustainable building materials and their effects on human and environment health. The title of her Ph.D. thesis is 'Life Cycle Assessment of Building Materials in Hotel Refurbishment Projects: A Case Study in Ankara”. \r\nHer main fields of interest are ecological and sustainable architecture and building materials, energy efficiency and life cycle assessment of buildings, building performance evaluations and lighting in architecture. She is teaching environmental design lectures, energy and environment lectures, appropriate building materials lectures, building detailing modelling and basic design studio.",institutionString:"Middle East Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"852",title:"Sustainability",slug:"environmental-design-sustainability"}],chapters:[{id:"69562",title:"Introductory Chapter: Healthy and Affordable Housing Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89790",slug:"introductory-chapter-healthy-and-affordable-housing-strategies",totalDownloads:726,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Aysem Berrin Cakmakli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69562",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69562",authors:[{id:"220974",title:"Dr.",name:"Aysem",surname:"Cakmakli",slug:"aysem-cakmakli",fullName:"Aysem Cakmakli"}],corrections:null},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84786",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1405,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65804",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65804",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}],corrections:null},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85141",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:965,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. In this chapter, the role of the early-stage building design as well as the correct occupant behavior is presented as essential to develop a naturally ventilated dwelling, which is an excellent alternative to achieve proper levels of indoor environment in a sustainable manner.",signatures:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66000",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66000",authors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}],corrections:null},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86278",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1365,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67084",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67084",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}],corrections:null},{id:"67105",title:"Social Innovation and Environmental Sustainability in Social Housing Policies: Learning from Two Experimental Case Studies in Italy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86279",slug:"social-innovation-and-environmental-sustainability-in-social-housing-policies-learning-from-two-expe",totalDownloads:1011,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter critically examines approaches and solutions developed by social housing to sustainably respond to the housing emergency plaguing contemporary cities and Italian cities in particular. In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67105",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67105",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}],corrections:null},{id:"68731",title:"Socioeconomic Influences on Affordable Housing Residents: Problem Definition and Possible Solutions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86960",slug:"socioeconomic-influences-on-affordable-housing-residents-problem-definition-and-possible-solutions",totalDownloads:783,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Socioeconomic status (SES) is a powerful social determinant of health. Often, affordable housing is an important step in promoting reliable economic and social health among individuals living in poverty. However, we argue that we must go further to improve the long-term health outcomes of these individuals and families. First, we use survey data and geographical analysis to identify the socioeconomic status of neighborhoods and residents of affordable housing in a major urban center. SES levels are certainly lower among affordable housing residents, and SES was significantly lower in public housing development neighborhoods than other neighborhoods. We offer solutions from our own and other research experiences that identify potential changes to affordable housing to promote and maximize health of residents. These data have implications for multilevel intervention.",signatures:"Deborah J. Bowen and Lisa Quintiliani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68731",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68731",authors:[{id:"182794",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",surname:"Bowen",slug:"deborah-bowen",fullName:"Deborah Bowen"},{id:"287786",title:"Dr.",name:"Lisa",surname:"Quintiliani",slug:"lisa-quintiliani",fullName:"Lisa Quintiliani"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9916",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",subtitle:"New Approaches and Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b533ca4c0a7f4f0307e4e4ec474594",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",bookSignature:"Jesús Alberto Pulido Arcas, Carlos Rubio-Bellido, Alexis Pérez-Fargallo and Ivan Oropeza-Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9916.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"172801",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Alberto",surname:"Pulido Arcas",slug:"jesus-alberto-pulido-arcas",fullName:"Jesus Alberto Pulido Arcas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5692",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"83bab2850ca5c3aea1dd9c25cd2aee8c",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",bookSignature:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5692.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Catenary arches are one of the main features of Art Nouveau architecture in Spain. Their shape is based on the modern theory of masonry arches. This theory was developed during the nineteenth century and claimed the work of Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926) as its main exponent [1]. Architect Cèsar Martinell i Brunet (1888–1973) built the so-called wine cathedrals (1918–1924) which were built by the Commonwealth of Catalonia (1907–1925).
\nThese buildings in the nineteenth-century style named as Noucentisme may be regarded as the last ig cluster of constructions featuring Catalan masonry [2]. The catenary arches designed and built by Cèsar Martinell belong to the Catalan modernist architecture Antoni Gaudí i Cornet (1852–1926). Thus, in a hanging chain, any inward pulling force is matched by an equal outward pushing force. Martinell knew Gaudi’s work and inherited his techniques. This is evidenced by his many writings on Gaudí [3], whom he met during a visit to the Sagrada Familia church in 1915, when Martinell was about to complete his studies at the Barcelona School of Architecture. From then on, Martinell joined an exclusive group of disciples who learned a way of doing architecture aside from university teachings [4].
\nFor Martinell, Gaudí was a much more interesting lesson of life and architecture than most of the teachings given at university. Gaudí’s words became architectural when the very statement of the scientific truth and the procedures he himself invented were able to explain problems and geometric concepts which remained unclear in the classrooms of the school of architecture. Antoni Gaudí’s theory of structures relies on the strength of geometry, in particular on the strength of the parabolic and catenary shapes. The construction technique used by Cèsar Martinell stems from the methods applied by Gaudí to calculate the geometric shapes of vaults and arches [5] (Figure 1). Other architects have written about this view; see, for instance, the lecture entitled
Cesar Martinell sketch of transversal section El Pinell de Brai [COAC H101I-6-Reg 2502].
Otherwise, these concepts were introduced in the formation of architects through the Escuela Especial de Arquitectura de Madrid (1844). The work
The theory of the chain, in the shape of a hanging collar, was proposed by Robert Hooke (1635–1703) at the end of his treatise
Simon Stevin (1548–1620), in
The mathematic equation of the catenary would be formulated some years later by David Gregory (1659–1708) and published in the
In Spain, the development and application of this theory take place in the context of the Mathematics Academy of Barcelona (1720). The work of Bernard Forest de Bélidor (1698–1761) is the main reference of the curve of equilibrium theory. In
On 13 January 1710, King Philip V appointed Jorge Prosper Verboom (1665–1744) as engineer in chief. Verboom was a disciple of Sebastián Fernández de Medrano. Together with Alejandro de Retz (c. 1660–c. 1732), chief engineer of the Catalan region, Verboom was the link with the former academy in Brussels. Mateo Calabro was appointed head of the Mathematics Academy of Barcelona (1720–1738), and he had profound disagreements with Jorge Prosper Verboom with regard to the training program. Therefore, in 1738 Verboom offered the head position of the academy to Pedro de Lucuze y Ponce (1692–1779), who held that position until his death. Among other duties, the academy had to build a collection of scientific works which would be used as reference texts for military training. This bibliographic interest led Vicente García de la Huerta (1734–1787) to publish
Some of the most relevant texts available for military engineers in the libraries are
La science des ingénieurs (1729) of Bernard Forest de Bélidor.
Another reference work for engineers is
Yet another work of reference in the libraries of the military engineers was
The
However, the main references for the Spanish military engineers were definetly the works of Bernard Forest of Bélidor (1698–1761): the
Military architecture treatises of José Cassani (1673–1750), developed at the end of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, make reference to the construction of these warehouses, especially if they have an element of high resistance, such as having been made bombproof or having been constructed underground (whether in manmade excavations or in caves) [34].
\nThe principal work of reference is
In the Spanish treatise
In
The work of Bélidor is translated into English by John Müller (1699–1784) and published under the title
Tratado de fortificación, ó Arte de construir los edificios militares, y civiles (1769), John Müller.
Gunpowder magazine projects made by the Spanish military engineers of the eighteenth century are based on previous military architecture treatises. Therefore, most of these ancillary constructions are built bombproof by shielding the roof. A distinction is made between two types of designs: vaults and wooden structures. The latter are protected by elastic components capable of cushioning the impact of a pyroballistic weapon. From a morphological point of view, gunpowder magazines can be classified depending on their protecting enclosures. From a formal point of view, a distinction is made between the following three morphologies:
\nGunpowder magazines having a simple construction body, with the outer wall directly exposed to hostile fire. This is the case of the gunpowder magazines built in Zaragoza (1729) [MPD, 39, 041] (Figure 4), Cádiz (1749) [MPD, 56, 029], San Sebastián (1738) [MPD, 27, 092], or Peñíscola (1739) [MPD, 18, 262].
\nZaragoza (1729) [MPD, 39, 041].
Gunpowder magazines having an outer protection enclosure and a simple enclosure for storing the gunpowder. This is the most common type of magazine in the military treatises. Examples that stand out are the gunpowder magazines in Cardona (1718) [MPD, 19, 028] (Figure 5), San Sebastián (1722) [MPD, 28, 034], Ceuta (1724) [MPD, 39, 083], Málaga (1724) [MPD, 59, 046], and Gerona (1738) [MPD, 01, 018].
\nCardona (1718) [MPD, 19, 028].
Lastly, gunpowder magazines having an outer protection enclosure and a two-element central construction body (where the inner wall is at ground level and the main magazine is above ground level). This is the case of the gunpowder magazines built in Tortosa (1721) [MPD, 64, 019], Málaga (1721) [MPD, 59, 044] (Figure 6), Barcelona (1726) [MPD, 10, 060], Cádiz (1728) [MPD, 08, 236], or Zaragoza (1729) [MPD, 28, 010].
\nMálaga (1721) [MPD, 59, 044].
These gunpowder magazines are built on load-bearing walls which are parallel to the vault’s longitudinal axis, with a perpendicular framework of wooden beams. Where the width is small (until about three toises), the project is built with a single span. Examples that stand out are the gunpowder magazines in Tortosa (1721) [MPD, 64, 019] (Figure 7), Málaga (1721) [MPD, 59, 044], Barcelona (1726) [MPD, 10, 060], Cádiz (1728) [MPD, 08, 236], or Zaragoza (1729) [MPD, 28, 010]. Where the width is greater, there are two structural spans. The latter projects are divided into three types: firstly, projects where the central body has load-bearing walls and the two vaulted spans are connected by small doors, such as in Cádiz (1728) [MPD, 08, 237] and Cartagena (1745) [MPD, 18, 258] or Alicante (1750) [MPD, 65, 088 and MPD, 65, 092]; secondly, projects where the two spans are separated by pillars and the roof is supported by wooden main beams, such as the gunpowder magazines in Hondarribia (1733) [MPD, 65, 044], Cartagena (1745) [MPD, 18, 257], and Tortosa (1798); and thirdly, projects where the roof is supported by masonry arches, such as in the gunpowder magazines of Ceuta (1735) [MPD, 07, 179] or Lleida (1739) [MPD, 07, 001].
\nTortosa (1721) [MPD, 64, 019].
Military architecture treatises require the outer walls of the gunpowder magazines to be reinforced with buttresses. Thus, buttresses were used very often as the abutment of diaphragm arches. These types of design emerged later, and structures thus generated may have a single span. This is the case of the gunpowder magazines in Benimàmet (1751) [MPD, 06, 169] (Figure 4), Valencia (1756) [MPD, 07, 028] (where the arch abutment is built outwards), and A Coruña (1774) [MPD, 28, 027] (where the abutment is concealed in the interior space, as Müller set out in his treatise (1769)). Other larger powder magazines feature two parallel vaulted spans, for instance, the one in Barcelona (1761) [MPD, 20, 031], with a central pillar between each pair of arches.
\nThese are gunpowder magazines having a pitched roof and a timber framing. In some instances a joggle-truss is used, i.e., in the projects for Cádiz (1718) [MPD, 64, 020] and Gerona (1755) [MPD, 10, 073]. In other instances a collar-beam truss is used, i.e., in Barcelona (1731) [MPD, 18, 100 and MPD, 18, 101]. But mainly these magazines are built using the Spanish double-framed roof. This is the case of the gunpowder magazines in Zaragoza (1729) [MPD, 28, 009], Zamora (1734) [MPD, 65, 042], El Ferrol (1772) [MPD, 04, 089], or Cartagena (1795) [MPD, 46, 051 and MPD, 46, 052]. Sometimes they are Spanish double roofs with small variations affecting the inclined tie beams, i.e., in Pamplona (1723) [MPD, 64, 023] and El Ferrol (1738) [MPD, 47, 094]. Other projects feature scissors trusses, i.e., in Monzón (1740) [MPD, 54, 049], Palma (1748) [MPD, 65, 047], and Valencia (1754) [MPD, 06, 170]. The project for Barcelona (1796) [MPD, 46, 035] features a double-framed roof but with two horizontal rafters as tie beams. In other cases, such as the project for Málaga (1721) [MPD, 64, 022] (Figure 8), there is a mansard truss with two horizontal rafters (this structure is more similar to the models used in the upper body of military barracks).
\nMálaga (1721) [MPD, 64, 022].
Masonry barrel vaults are the most commonly used type of bombproof vaults. The gunpowder magazines are the direct result of military architecture treatises. Because it is such a common construction technique, most of the engineers do not even mention the material used for the vault of the magazine. This is what happened in the projects for Ceuta (1724) [MPD, 39, 083], Longone (1725) [MPD, 12, 222], A Coruña (1738) [MPD, 17, 058], San Sebastián (1738) [MPD, 27, 092], Peñíscola (1739) [MPD, 18, 262 and MPD, 18, 263], Játiva (1748) [MPD, 54, 012], Palma (1748) [MPD, 65, 048], San Sebastián (1750) [MPD, 27, 093], Viveiro (1778) [MPD, 19, 241], and Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1792) [MPD, 05, 033]. With regard to the projects which do specify the material used for the construction of the barrel vault, a distinction must be made between those which use stone for the first layer of the vault and those which use ceramic bricks.
\nThe main projects which use stone masonry include those for Barcelona (1715) [MPD, 18, 097] and Dénia (1748) [MPD, 65, 085]. There is a variant which uses an ashlar arch with wooden beams on top, such as the project for Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1758) [MPD, 18, 050] (this variant was already used by Fernández de Medrano in the previous century). In other cases, ashlar masonry is substituted by brick masonry with a lime and pebble covering, as in the case of San Sebastián (1722) [MPD, 28, 034] (Figure 9).
\nSan Sebastián (1722) [MPD, 28, 034].
As for the projects which use ceramic bricks, a distinction must be made between four different types: firstly, those which feature a single-layer ceramic vault, like the ones for Zamora (1738) [MPD, 13, 113] or Ciudad Rodrigo (1739) [MPD, 12, 154]; secondly, those which feature a bottom layer of ceramic bricks, an intermediate layer of stone, and a top layer of lime and pebble, like the gunpowder magazine in Cardona (1718) [MPD, 18, 028]; thirdly, vaults designed with a double layer of ceramic bricks and a top fill of lime and pebble, like in the projects for Pamplona (1718) [MPD, 31, 032; MPD, 31, 033; MPD, 31, 034; MPD, 31, 035; MPD, 31, 036]; and lastly, projects which feature three layers of ceramic bricks, for instance, in Longone, Italy (1728) [MPD, 12, 221], or even four layers, like in Badajoz (1749) [MPD, 65, 045].
\nPointed vault structures were described by Bélidor (1729), and Müller (1769) said they are less resistant to bomb impacts than barrel vaults. They belong to the Gothic building tradition, and they need a smaller abutment than barrel vaults, even though magazine walls in military treatises are dimensioned depending on the impact of pyroballistic weapons (those employing gunpowder) and not on the basis of masonry mechanic criteria. This is the case of the gunpowder magazines in Zaragoza (1729) [MPD, 39, 041] and San Fernando de Cádiz (1749) [MPD, 56, 029], which have only one enclosure. It is the same construction type as the projects for Gerona (1738) [MPD, 01, 018] and San Sebastián (1749) [MPD, 27, 094], but these two magazines are protected by an encircling wall, and therefore they have two enclosures. The gunpowder magazine projects for Gibralfaro Castle in Málaga (1724) [MPD, 59, 046 and MPD, 59, 047] (Figure 10) and Ceuta (1737) [MPD, 07, 180] feature two parallel vaulted vans which are separated by square pillars supporting round arches, thus forming the central valley of the roof.
\nGibralfaro Castle in Málaga (1724).
In the construction of gunpowder warehouses, barrel and pointed vaults are generally used, although there are some examples with elliptical vaults, such as that one built in 1694 by Hércules Torelli in Pamplona. This construction was remodelled by Francisco Larrando de Mauleón (1718) [MPD, 31,031] (Figure 11) [43]. Mauleón was professor at the Mathematics School of Barcelona and Zaragoza and authored the
Warehouse of Pamplona, Francisco Larrando de Mauleón (1718) [MPD, 31,031].
The simple vault of the warehouse of Montjuïc mountain in Barcelona (1731) [MPD, 07, 057], a project attributed to Miguel Marín (Figure 12), is not generated through an arch of circumference. The geometric study reveals that the vault has a length of 16 feet in toise, a rise of 11.5 feet, a width of 3 feet, and a buttress of 7 feet. A geometric element having the shape of a catenary can be drawn running through the springing points and the key of the vault (Figure 13). The shape of this element, which has the same span and rise as the vault, is very similar to the shape drawn in the project.
\nGunpowder warehouses: Marín (1731), Marín (1733), and Feriére y Valentín (1736).
Metrology of the projects for the gunpowder magazines.
Other projects, such as the project from Miguel Marín for Tortosa (1733) [MPD, 13, 035] (Figure 12), have a span of 21 feet in toise, a rise of 14 feet, a width of 3.5 feet, and a buttress of 7 feet (Figure 13). Another similar project is the simple warehouse layout by Juan de la Feriére y Valentín in A Coruña (1736) [MPD, 17, 057] (Figure 12), which contains a span of 22 feet in toise, a rise of 14 feet, a width of 3 feet, and a buttress of 7 feet (Figure 13).
\nThe design of the pointed vault is initially compared with the catenary, as obtained with a chain over a reproduction of the plans on a larger scale (Figure 14). Thus, the arch described by the chain is very similar but not coincidental to the profile of the vault because there are small deviations near the springline of the vault. This deviation is because it is not possible to lay out the catenary with traditional drawing tools, such as rulers and compasses.
\nChaînette method applied to the projects for the gunpowder magazines.
The assessment of the original section drawing of the warehouse reveals three compass marks. One point is made over the vertical axis of symmetry of the figure, while the other two are made over the perpendicular axis, slightly below the springline of the vault. An oval was drawn on each project using these compass marks, and the obtained curves were coincident with the curves of the projects. Thus, to draw the projects of the warehouses, both Miguel Marín and Juan de Feriére y Valentín used the geometrical solution of an oval. Therefore, the curves drawn in the three projects are oval, but the major axes of the oval are higher than the springline of the arch. As a consequence, the curves are not tangential at the springing. So, the military engineers drawn the curve of the vault as an arch
Oval method applied to the projects for the gunpowder magazines.
The geometric layout of these vaults, based on ovals, was well known by the eighteenth-century military engineers. They began from the essential feature that oval vaults are tangential to the springline of these building elements. When the springline is higher than the axis, a non-tangential curve is obtained, which is a feature of the catenary definitions given by Frézier (1738). Concurrently, Bélidor (1729) specifies the method to lay out the true shape of the catenary vault. By knowing the rise and the span of the vault, the architectonic shape is determined with a hanging chain. Thus, a scale model can be built and can easily be taken to the construction site. By contrast, the layout of the catenary in military engineers’ projects is more complex, because it needs the use of an approximation of the catenary through the geometrical shape of a lowered oval.
\nThe ovals are derived from the centres of the circumferences (the compass center points on the paper). They are referred to (O1) for Barcelona (1731) [MPD, 07, 057], (O2) for Tortosa (1733) [MPD, 13, 035], and (O3) for A Coruña (1736) [MPD, 17, 057]. They are consistent with three different types of ovals, and they all share the common feature that the origin of the vertical tangent to the minor axis of the oval is located 1 foot below the impost line (Figure 16).
\nGeometrical analysis of the vaults of the projects for the gunpowder magazines.
The main ovals’ geometric data are shown in
e1 describes the clear span.
e2 describes the rise.
a1 describes the distance between centres of the minor axis.
a2 describes the distance between the centre of the minor arc and the minor axis.
d1 describes the ratio between the length of the semimajor axis and the vertical distance from the semiminor axis to the springline (feet).
d2 describes the ratio between the length of the minor axis and the distance from the center of the major arc to the point of tangency between the major arc and the minor axis.
d3 describes the ratio between the length of the semimajor axis and the radius of the oval’s minor arc.
p1 describes the ratio between the semimajor axis and the minor axis.
p2 describes the ratio between the center-to-center distance on the minor axis and the distance from the center of the semimajor axis to the minor axis.
The ovals used in the layout of the gunpowder magazines are thus used as a reference for purposes of comparison with the cellar’s layout. The layout of [O1, O2, O3] is based on a ratio between d3 and e2 of [0.39:0.36:0.50].
\nIn addition, the layout of each oval is compared with a catenary that has the same rise and span, which is drawn using InnerSoft software. According to the results, the inner surface defined between the corresponding geometric shape and the springline is different (1.33 m2 vs. 0.98 m2). Furthermore, the ratio between the maximum distance between geometric shapes and the arch’s span ranges from 2.14 to 3.44%. From these data, we can conclude that the approximation made by the engineers by drawing ovals in the three projects considered is sufficiently precise for the drawing scale used, between E: 1:90 and E: 1:70. Finally, the curves are compared with an elipse with the same rise and span. The obtained shape is clearly not coincident with the curves of the projects.
\nAfter the Bourbon dynasty’s ascendancy to the Spanish throne (1700), Catholic diplomatic and military families of Irish and Scottish origin emigrated under royal protection, preserving their status. O’Connor family was installed in Benicarló in the eighteenth century, and they associated with the McDonnells in the wine export business.
\nThe Bourbon dynasty, which established itself in Spain in 1700 with King Philip V (1683–1746), created the Army Corps of Engineers by the Royal Decree of 17 April 1711. Several Irish families moved to eastern Spain in the mid-seventeenth century. Patrick White Limerick, a trader in agricultural products and wine, and the O’Connor family settled in Benicarló in 1749. Gaspar White and the O’Gorman family were based in Alicante, whereas the Lilikells, the Tuppers, and Henry O’Shea lived in Valencia. Against this backdrop, the O’Connor family built a Carlón wine cellar in Benicarló in 1757 [45] (Figure 17).
\nFloor plan and cross section of the O’Connor cellar in Benicarló (1757).
The wine cellar’s construction, using diaphragm arches, is very similar to the gunpowder magazine projects built by the Army Corps of Engineers in a neighbouring geographical area. These include the project by Carlos Beranger [MPD, 06, 169] for Benimàmet (1751) and the one by Juan Bautista French (1756) for Peñíscola [MPD, 07, 208]. In these projects, as opposed to the O’Connor cellar, the arch abutment is on the outside of the building. Nonetheless, there is a subsequent project by Antonio López Sopeña [MPD, 28, 027] for A Coruña (1774), in which he uses diaphragm arches with inside abutments similars to those used in the Benicarló’s wine cellar.
\nThe O’Connors family Benicarló’s building was built in 1757. The geometric study of the cellar arches is based on the topographical survey conducted with a laser scanner. The Carlón wine cellar has a rectangular floor plan; its inside measures are 12.42 m in width and 43.01 m in length. In the nave, there are eight diaphragm arches, each having a single two-piece offset-jointed ring and an average depth of 0.60 m. The arches are made of solid ceramic bricks (measuring 0.37 × 0.18 × 0.04 m), and they rest on a limestone base that was brought from Santa Magdalena de Polpís. The top of this base determines the springline of the ceramic arch. The arch’s abutment and the outside walls are made of ordinary uneven masonry. The formal characteristics of the arches are different: arch a1 has a clear span of e1a1 = 9.65 m and a rise of e2a1 = 5.82 m, whereas the other seven arches can be grouped together. Their span is within a range of e1a(2–8) = [9.76–9.69 m], similar to arch a1, but their rise significantly differs from the first arch, within a range of e2a(2–8) = [5.46–5.45 m]. All of the arches share a special feature: they do not have a vertical tangent on the stone base. The angle of incidence (α) of these arches with respect to both vertical sides, left (αa)and right (αb), has the following values: αa.a1 = 13.94° and αb.a1 = 8.97° in arch a1 and αa.a(2–8) = [4.49°–1.80°] and αb.a(2–8) = [7.38°–2.58°] in arches a(2–8) (Figure 8). By statistically analysing the parameters, for arches a(2–8) the average span calculated is e1a(2–8) = 9.72 m, and the average rise is e2a(2–8) = 5.46 m (Figure 18).
\nTransversal section of the O’Connor cellar in Benicarló (1757).
It seems that the measurement units used for the construction of the cellar were the toise (194.90 cm) and the toise foot (32.48 cm). Arches a(1–8) have an average span of 29.92 toise feet (9.71 m), with an error of 0.02 m for 30 feet (5 toises, 9.74 m). The rise of arch a1 is 17.92 feet (5.82 m), i.e., there is an error of 0.02 m in 18 feet (5.84 m), which are 3 toises (Figure 19). Arches a(2–8) have a rise of 16.80 toise feet (5.46 m), i.e., there is an error of 0.06 m in 17 feet (5.52 m). The arches are 0.60 m in width (1 + 10/12 feet). Regarding the outside measurements, the nave is 41.50 feet (13.48 m) wide and 92.36 feet (30 m) long, and the arches’ abutments are structures measuring 5 + 9/12 feet. The inside length of the cellar is 43.01 m, i.e., 132 + 5/12 toise feet. The enclosure wall on the façade is 2 feet thick; thus, the span-to-arch ratio is 5.75/30 feet (Figure 20).
\nGeometrical analysis of the arch 1 in the O’Connor cellar (1757).
Geometrical analysis of the arches 2–8 in the O’Connor cellar (1757).
A metrological analysis of the arches in Benicarló’s cellar reveals that the eight arches show the same metric relations, i.e., a 5 toise span and a 3 toise rise. The dimension of the catenary arch a1 are 30 × 18 feet (exactly 5 × 3 toises). The dimensions of the elliptical or oval-shaped arches a(2–8) are 30 × 17 feet. If we follow the hypothesis that the minor axis (either the ellipse minor axis or the oval minor axis) is 1 foot below the impost, then the geometric relation of arches a(2–8) is also 30 × 18 toise feet.
\nA statistical analysis is now performed on each of the eight arches a(1–8) to determine the difference between the shape of the arches built and the shapes of reference: ellipse (E), catenary (C), and ovals [O1, O2, O3]. The following values are calculated for 29 points on each cellar arch:
The average and maximum deviation of these 29 points
The angle of incidence on the springline
The mean deviation has a spread of only 0.03 m, which is approximately 0.31% of the arch’s span, making it difficult to conclude whether it is a catenary or an oval. The determining feature is that arch a1 has an angle of incidence on the springline [αa.a1 = 13.94°, αb.a1 = 8.97°]. Because the catenary’s angle of incidence is 19.38°, the geometric shape that most closely resembles the arch is the catenary.
\nConversely, the statistical analysis of the remaining seven arches a(2–8) shows that the geometric shape that they most resemble is the ellipse, with an average deviation ranging between 0.001 and 0.015 m. The range for oval-shaped arches is 0.006–0.186 m (
Thus, arch a1 resembles a catenary arch, whereas the other seven arches a2–8 tend to be ellipses. These seven arches do not have a vertical tangent on the springline because their horizontal axis has been moved 1 foot below the arch’s springline. As defined by Frézier (1738), the shape of the catenary has the following essential property: the vertical line which is tangent to the curve at the springline does not form a right angle with the horizontal plane. Therefore, geometrically, the catenary can be understood as any curve that does not have a vertical tangent at its springline. This is what happens in the springline of St. Paul’s dome in London [11], which was designed by Christopher Wren in collaboration with Robert Hooke [46]. Otherwise, it should be noted that from a mechanical perspective, catenary arches are an optimal solution to build masonry arches, since the material has very low tensile strength.
\nFinally, from the construction point of view, the catenary shape can be approximated using other geometric forms such as ovals or ellipses, under the condition that there is not a vertical tangent at the springline. The catenary shape forms a barycentric axis, which minimizes the tensions on a linear element that is subject to only vertical loads. In the arch, the inverted catenary shape prevents the appearance of stresses other than compression stresses.
\nThus, there are two hypotheses regarding the construction of the wine cellar. The first one is that the construction work was started from the inside toward the façade; thus, arches a(2–8) were constructed before the catenary arch a1. The second hypothesis is that the construction work began with arch a1. According to the second hypothesis, there is also a difference between both types of arches: on the first brick courses from the springline of arch a1 (the first 9 courses on 1 side and the first 17 courses on the other side), the ring is 0.36 m wide. On the remaining seven arches, the ring is 0.60 m wide (just like the arch’s depth). It is clear that less ceramic material is necessary for the construction of arch a1 than for the other seven elliptical arches a(2–8) (Figure 21).
\nSpringing of arches no. 1 and no. 2 in the O’Connor cellar.
The assessment of some drawings of gunpowder warehouses, found in the collection of
This paper addresses the introduction of the concept of the catenary arch in Spain before the nineteenth century. After an exhaustive review of the theoretical framework, some cases are assessed. The aim of the research is to find out if the mechanical concept of the chain was used by the Spanish military engineers and by the exiled English engineers, who built several wine cellars in Spain. Thus, we intend to determine whether there is any geometrical relationship between the layout of several gunpowder magazines made by Spanish military engineers in the 1730s and the construction of a civil building—the Carlón wine cellar in Benicarló (1757)—in which catenary arches may have been used.
\nThe assessments of the gunpowder warehouses by Miguel Marín for Barcelona (1731) and Tortosa (1733) and by Juan de la Feriére y Valentín in A Coruña (1736) are only a mere 4.05% of the projects analysed. However, they prove the intention to lay out the vault as a catenary. These authors knew that in a catenary the tensility in the shape of a hanging chain has the same compression values in the inverted geometrical figure. These engineers had a vast knowledge of the mechanical principles of the modern theory for masonry. From a scientific perspective, catenary vaults are the most interesting because they introduce the principles established by Hooke (1676). Both the arches of gunpowder magazines and the arches a(2–8) of Benicarló were laid out using the geometrical construction of an oval. Otherwise, the location of the horizontal axis of the ovals under the springline reveals the application of one of the characteristics of the catenary. This causes that the vertical line which is tangent to the curve in the springing does not form a right angle with the horizontal, so they used the chain’s theory in the layout of the projects.
\nFormally, if the distance between the axes and the springline of the arch is small, then the angle of incidence has a minimum influence on the thrust and the line of pressure. Otherwise, the location of the axis under the springline reveals the intention to minimize stresses in this point and in the neighbouring areas, even though the final mechanical influence is small.
\nAlthough there is no evidence of the construction of the gunpowder warehouses, it is possible to confirm the use of catenary arches in the construction of the Carlón cellars of the O’Connor in Benicarló (1757). There are significant differences between the measures of the arches of the gunpowder magazines (maximum span: 22 feet; maximum rise: 14 feet) and the arches of the Benicarló cellar (span: 30 feet; rise: between 17 and 18 “toise” feet, until the springline). In addition, the span-to-rise ratio of the oval arches in the gunpowder magazine studies is [1.39:1.57], whereas in Benicarló, this ratio is [1.67:1.76]. It can be concluded that arch a1 is a catenary arch, whereas arches a(2–8) tend to be elliptical. Arches a(2–8) show the special feature that their (x) axis is located below the springline; therefore, the tangent of the curve on the springline does not form a right angle with the horizontal. This is a feature of the definition of the catenary.
\nThe theory of the equilibrium curve, followed by most of the British engineers, became known to the Bourbon military engineers through the academy of mathematics in the eighteenth century, and it was used by some immigrants of English origin, such as the O’Connors, a century before the modernist architecture of Antoni Gaudí.
\nThe author thanks the members of the PatriARQ group research: PhD Agustí Costa Jover, PhD Sergio Coll Pla, and Arch. Mónica López Piquer.
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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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