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The question what the intermediate results of a calculation actually tell us about the physical processes that are going on, remained much more mysterious. Opinions diverged considerably, up to today, one hundred years later.
The historical events that led to this situation are well-known, and have been recounted in excellent reports [1]; there is no need to repeat these here extensively. It was realised that all oscillatory motion apparently comes in energy packets, which seem to behave as particles, and that the converse should also be true: all particles with definite energies must be associated to waves. The original descriptions were somewhat vague, but the year 1926 provided a new landmark: Erwin Schrödinger’s equation [2]. Originally, the equation was intended to describe just one particle at the time, but soon enough it was found how to extend it to encompass many particles that may be interacting.
Indeed, in his original paper, Schrödinger went quite far in discussing Hamilton’s principle, boundary conditions, the hydrogen atom and the electromagnetic transitions from one energy level to an other. One extremely useful observation was made by Max Born [3]: the absolute square of a wave function, at some spot in position space, must simply stand for the
But then, many more questions were asked, many of them very well posed, but the answers sound too ridiculous to be true, and, as I shall try to elucidate, they
In contrast, an apparently quite reasonable conclusion was already reached in discussions among scientists in the 1920s, centred around Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, called the ‘Copenhagen Interpretation’. They spelled out the rules for formulating what the equations were, and how to elaborate them to make firm predictions. Indeed, we know very well how to use the equation. The properties of atoms, molecules, elementary particles and the forces between all of these can be derived with perplexing accuracy using it. The way the equation is used is nothing to complain about, but what exactly does it say?
Paul Dirac for instance, advised not to ask questions that cannot be answered by any experiment; such questions cannot be important. We know precisely how to use Schrödinger’s equation; all that scientists have to do is insert the masses and coupling parameters of all known particles into the equation, and calculate. What else can you ask for? Many of my colleagues decided to be strictly ‘agnostic’ about the interpretation, which is as comfortable a position to take as what is was for 19
The Copenhagen verdict was:
The present author accepts all conclusions the Copenhagen group had reached, except this last one. It will be important to ask for models that can elucidate the events that take place in an experiment. We do wish to know which sensible models can in principle explain the Schrödinger equation and which will not.
What happens to its wave function when you actually observe a particle? What does it mean if the Schrödinger equation suggests that interference takes place between different possible paths a particle can take? Those questions I can now answer, but others are still way out of reach: the masses and coupling parameters of the elementary particles have been determined by experiment, but we do not have acceptable theories at all to explain or predict their values. If the history of science is something to be taken to mind, it may be that asking unconventional questions will lead to better insights.
The Schrödinger equation is simple and it works, but some of the explanations why it works seem to get the proportions of a Hieronymus Bosch painting. This does not sound right. Almost a full century has passed since the equation was written down, and we still do not know what or whom to believe, while other scientists get irritated by all this display of impotence [7]. Why is it that we still do not agree?
I think I know some of the answers, but almost
What
Today’s theories give us little to proceed further from where we are now. The Standard Model explains a lot, but not everything. This is why it is so important to extend our abilities to do experiments as far as we can. Recently, audacious plans have been unfolded by the European particle physics laboratory CERN, for building a successor of its highly successful Large Hadron Collider (LHC). While the experimental groups working with the LHC have provided for strong evidence supporting the validity of the Standard Model up to the TeV domain, theoreticians find it more and more difficult to understand why this model can be all there is to describe what happens further beyond that scale. There must be more; our present theoretical reasoning leads to questions doubting the extent to which this model can be regarded as ‘natural’ if more of the same particles at higher energies are allowed to exist, while the existence of totally new particles would be denied.
Inspired by what historians of science are telling us about similar situations in the past history of our field, investigators are hoping for a ‘paradigm shift’. However, while it is easy to postulate that we ‘are doing something wrong’, most suggestions for improvement are futile; suggesting that the Standard Model would be ‘wrong’ is clearly not going to help us. The ‘Future Circular Collider’ is a much better idea; it will be an accelerator with circumference of about 100 km, being able to reach a c.m. collision energy of 100 TeV. The importance of such a device is that it will provide a crucial background forcing theoreticians to keep their feet on the ground: if you have a theory, it better agree with the newest experimental observations.
The central core of our theory consists of a set of models whose logic is entirely classical and deterministic. Deterministic does not mean
The equations will be
Our deterministic theory will be formulated in terms of integer numbers only, which can be defined exactly without the need of infinitely many decimal places. This kind of precision in defining theories may well be what is needed to understand quantum mechanics.
For simplicity, we imagine a universe with finite size and finite time. As for their mathematical structure, all deterministic models are then very much alike. All finite-size discrete models must have finite Poincaré recursion times. There will be different closed cycles with different periods, see Figure 1. Counting these cycles, one finds that the rank of a cycle is physically a conserved quantity, almost by definition. For simplicity, we constrain ourselves to
Generic evolution law for a realistic model with different periodicities. In this example we see 5 cycles, with ranks 2, 3, 6, 8 and 11.
We now emphasise that the evolution law of such a deterministic system can be exactly described in terms of a legitimate, conventional Schrödinger equation. We say that quantum mechanics is a
By diagonalising this matrix, one finds all its eigenvectors and eigenvalues. Within one cycle, the eigenvalues of
where
At first sight, this does not look like quantum mechanics; the series of eigenvalues (2) seems to be too regular. In [9] it was proposed to add arbitrary additive energy renormalization terms, depending on the cycle we are in, but the problem is then still that it is difficult to see how this can reproduce Hamiltonians that we are more familiar with. The energy eigenstates seem to consist of large sequences of spectral lines with uniform separations. A more powerful idea has been proposed recently [10, 11]. More use must be made of locality. We wish the Hamiltonian to be the sum of locally defined energy density operators,
Now this is really possible. The price to be paid is to add
The fast variables,
To a good approximation, the fast variables will be non-interacting. This means that the energy levels will take the form
Note that energy is exactly conserved. Therefor we may assume that, if an initial state is dominated by the state
Now consider the quantum model that we wish to mimic. Let that have a basis of
Two states
Here, the ‘vicinity’ must be a well-defined notion for these states. In the case of non-relativistic particles, it means that we defined the states as the particle(s) in the coordinate representation
One can describe these classical interchange transitions in terms of a ‘quantum’ perturbation Hamiltonian.
where
Some special points on the orbits of the fast variables
In Eq. (4), we used a discretised notation, where the time unit is chosen such that it is the time needed to advance the fast variables by only one step in their (discretised) orbits. One may check that the factor
describes a classical interchange, without generating superpositions. The minus sign is unavoidable but causes no harm. We chose the Pauli matrix
The Hamiltonian describing the evolution of the slow variables is now derived by assuming that the fast variables never get enough energy to go to any of their excited energy states. Their lowest energy states are
so that the expectation value of a Kronecker delta is
where
Eq. (5) could als be used if we had only one Kronecker delta in Eq. (4), but this would cause exactly one transition during one period of the fast variable, which makes the effective Hamiltonian too large to be useful. Choosing two Kronecker deltas causes one transition only to take place after much more time, making the insertion (4) of the desired order of magnitude to serve as a contribution in the effective Hamiltonian of the slow variables.
By adding a large number of similar transition events in the orbits of all fast variables, causing transitions for all pairs of (neighbouring) slow variables, we can now generate any desired contributions to the effective Hamiltonian elements
where the numbers
We encounter the restriction that the matrix elements will come with rational coefficients in front. The fundamental reason for the coefficients to be rational is that, eventually, all discretised classical models have finite Poincaré recursion times. In practice one may expect that this problem goes away when, for realistic classical systems, the Poincaré recursion times will rapidly go to infinity.
We have now achieved the following. Let there be given any Hamiltonian with matrix elements
The system obeys the Schrödinger equation dictated by this Hamiltonian, and, by construction, all probabilities evolve as is mandated by the Copenhagen doctrine. The reader may ask how to obtain the diagonal elements of the Hamiltonian, and how to make it contain complex numbers. The answer is that these can also be generated by using an additional binary degree of freedom as mentioned above.
In principle, one could have used any orthonormal basis of states to be used in our construction, but in practice we would like to recover locality in some way. The demand of locality in the classical system implies that we should demand locality for the fast variables and the slow ones. This appears to be straightforward. For non-relativistic particles, one may use the basis of states defined by the position operators
The theory we arrive at appears to be closely related to Nelson’s ‘stochastic quantum mechanics’ [13]. We think our construction has a more solid mathematical foundation, explaining how the quantum entanglement arises naturally from the energy conservation law, associated to time translation invariance.
The interpretation of the Schrödinger equation that we obtained is that it merely describes the evolution of the probability distribution for the slow variables, after averaging over the positions of the fast variables. The fast variables dictate the evolution, but they act too fast for us to observe this directly. The new thing in our procedure is that we have the choice to also describe the fast variables using quantum mechanics as a tool: fast and slow variables together go into a vector representation of what happens.2
In statistical treatments of moving variables, with well-determined evolution laws, it should be completely clear that the probability distributions of the final state are the result of our choices for the probability distributions of the initial states.
At first sight, the group of rotations can also be regarded as pure permutations, and, although the lattice structure of our local coordinate space
However, more severe problems arise if we consider the notion of spin in a particle. We need to take spin into account when analysing Bell’s theorem. In the treatment displayed in the previous section, the spin variable of a particle would be a discretised variable
It is clear that, in this case, rotation transformations transform the ‘real states’
The superimposed states obey exactly the same Schrödinger equations as the basis elements do, and we had chosen the latter at will. So one possible answer could be: it does not matter which of the states we call real; there is no experiment to help us make the distinction. But this is debatable. The Stern-Gerlach experiment in its vertical orientation distinguishes particles with spin up from particles with spin down, these have different orbits. Remember that, in this chapter, we focus on going beyond the usual statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics, aiming at a description of pure, real states. The only accepted probabilities are 1 and 0.
The real physical states we work with form a basis of Hilbert space, and the equations we work with ensure that any state that starts off being real, occurring either with probability 1 or with probability 0, continues to be a real state forever. This must also hold for any Stern-Gerlach set-up or any of the other paradoxical contraptions that have been proposed over the years. Real state in
At first sight it seems that a Stern-Gerlach experiment, after a rotation over an arbitrary angle, turns into a superposition of several real states. This is true in the mathematical sense. It is the easiest way to visualise what the rotation group stands for. However, if we physically rotate a Stern-Gerlach experiment, by undoing and re-arranging nuts and bolts, We do something else. The new experiment again goes into one of the realistic states; the nuts and bolts also go into new physical states, so this is not quite the same kind of rotation.
Notice however, that if a particle with spin leaves one Stern-Gerlach instrument and continues its way in an other, rotated, device, then, as we know from standard quantum mechanics, it emerges in a superposition, or more accurately, in a probabilistic distribution. Where does this stochastic behavior come from? What happens if we do interference experiments with the various emerging beams of particles?
Apparently, there are other variables that play a role. We can blame the fast variables for this. The fast variables for the rotated device do not coincide with the previous fast variables. In specifying the state of the particle in the first device, we forgot to observe where exactly the fast variable was. We couldn’t observe this, as it was moving too fast. The transformation (in this case that is the rotation), formally involved the excited energy modes of the fast variables. In practice, we know that the energies of the quantum particles in both devices are too low to detect the excited modes, but in formulating the interactions, using the special points in Figure 2b and c, the excited modes do play a role because the interaction points are localised.
The periodic orbits of the fast variables. Points where interactions take place are indicated. If these occur in the orbit of a single fast variable (a), they will be difficult to miss, but in the case of two or more (b), the special points will be hit much less frequently, so that the interactions become slow. The orbit takes the shape of a (multidimensional) torus (c).
From these considerations, we claim that whatever is left of the various paradoxes should be nothing to worry about.
Yet, this conclusion is often criticised. To set the stage, let us recapitulate J.S. Bell’s theorem [15]: a source is constructed that emits two entangled photons simultaneously. Such sources exist, so no further justification of its properties is asked for. If
where the
All probabilities
Figure 3 shows what assumptions go in Eq. (10). It seems to be obvious that observers in regions 1 and 2 may choose any setting
Bell’s definition of locality. 1 and 2 are two small regions of space–time, space-like separated. “Full specification of what happens in region 3 makes events in 2 irrelevant for predictions about 1 if local causality holds”.
Writing
The correlation between Alice’s and Bob’s measurement is then written as.
Standard quantum mechanics allows one to choose the entangled photon state (9) as if it is oriented towards either Alice or Bob, since it is rotation independent. The outcome is then.
In the fashionable hidden variable language, Eq. (10) is assumed to be valid, which implies that the photon must take care of giving Alice and Bob their measurement outcome whatever their choices
Several ‘loopholes’ were proposed, having to do with the limited accuracy of the experiments, but these will not help us, since we claim that our theory exactly reproduces quantum mechanics, and therefore Eq. (13) should be reproduced by our theory. It violates CHSH. How can this happen?
Our short answer is that we have a classically evolving system that exactly reproduces the probability expressions predicted by the Schrödinger equation, including Eq. (13), in a given basis of Hilbert space. The model is local and allows for any initial state; it does not require any kind of ‘conspiracy’ or ‘retrocausality’, or even non-locality.
This should settle the matter, but it is true that the violation of the CHSH inequality is quite surprising.
The difficulty resides in assumption (10). Bell derives it directly from causality. If no signal can travel from the space–time point where Alice does her measurement to the point where Bob does his experiment, and
It amounts to the statement that the variables
where
One can read this to mean that the settings
When we say that the photons (together with the fast variables) ‘affect’ the settings chosen by Alice and Bob, it implies that Alice and Bob have no ‘free will’. Of course they haven’t, their actions are completely controlled by the equations. We can’t change setting
It is important then to realise that our theory is
We can add to this an important observation when the classical degrees of freedom are considered:
We note that this aspect of our scenario implies the absence of ‘free will’ for Alice and Bob in choosing their settings. Alice and Bob are forced to obey classical laws, such that the rule
At first sight we may seem to be a long way from describing quantum field theories such as the Standard Model. In principle, one may expect something resembling a cellular automaton, where we may be able to project the various field variables as data on a cellular lattice. However, as described in Section 3, we have to deal with the question how continuous and discrete symmetry patterns, essential for the Standard Model to work, can be introduced. As is well-known, once we have all local and global symmetries in place, the entire Standard Model is almost fixed, with only a few dozen interaction parameters to be determined. We make a gentile attempt at finding some sign posts that could indicate to us where to start.
In a very important paper [17], F. Jegerlehner describes the Standard model as a minimalistic outcome of an algebraic structure whose basic interaction properties are essentially natural near its ultimate cut-off scale, the Planck length, except that the Higgs field self coupling happens to vanish, or almost vanish, at that scale. It seems as if the universe is metastable, or perhaps just at the edge of stability. When we scale towards the TeV scale, using the renormalization group equations, one discovers that the Higgs self-coupling slowly grows towards its present value, and this appears to explain the recently observed Higgs mass remarkably well.
There are important new questions that may be raised in connection with the present work. One is where in the cellular automaton this copious algebra is generated; and of course we want to know how any kind of fast oscillating variables can arise. Previously, this author was just thinking of very heavy virtual particles such as the vector bosons that represent the remaining grand unification symmetry, but there is a problem with that: as described in Section 2, Figure 2, the dynamical fast variable must have the geometry of a multi-dimensional torus, whereas fields have a more trivial topological structure if they indeed form vector representations of the unifying algebra, see Section 2.
This perhaps can be done better [18]. The general philosophy that might be useful here starts from a fundamental observation. Fields that describe data at the Planck scale, can only propagate as fields at much more conventional scales (from milli-electronVolts to nearly a TeV), if there is a mechanism that prevents them from obtaining effective mass terms. To be precise, the dynamical field equations must allow them to be shifted by a constant with only minor effects on the energy of the state. At our scale of physics (to be referred to as the SM scale), fields can be shifted in any way, depending on space and time, such that energies also change within the energy domain of our SM scale. This means that the effective mass term must be at the SM scale. When we move towards the Planck scale, this mass term must rapidly approach to zero. Physically, the only mechanism that can do this is the Goldstone mechanism:
Only if a field effectively describes a symmetry transformation, and if, at the Planck scale, our world is invariant under this symmetry transformation, then we can understand how this field can propagate all the way to the SM scale.
Since the Standard Model has a rich spectrum of possible fields (fermionic and bosonic), this would force us to suspect that each of these fields must represent a symmetry transformation under which the Planck-scale theory is either exactly invariant (when the mass term vanishes) or invariant in a very good approximation (when the mass is of SM scale or smaller). Indeed, this should also hold for the fermionic fields, and this points towards supersymmetry at the Planck scale.
In short, every field component in the SM represents a generator for an almost exact symmetry of the Planck scale model. If we would be dealing with only scalar fields in the Standard Model, this would give us all the symmetry transformations, including estimates on how well the system is invariant.
Unfortunately, the real situation will be a lot more complicated. We have fermionic fields that transform as spinors under rotation, and we have vector fields that themselves again obey local gauge symmetries. How do we deal with that? It would be a great assignment for a team of PhD students to design and elaborate a logically coherent mathematical scheme.
This scheme might eventually produce logical guidelines for setting up cellular automaton models in such a way that their behavior at SM scales indeed reproduce the SM. But this is not all. The resulting automaton will still be a
Finally, there is General Relativity. This theory must be regarded as just an other theme of the general concept of local gauge theories. It represents a non compact gauge group of curved coordinate transformations and it may well be that it can be handled similarly. It is important to remember that this theory is not renormalizable when presented in its usual form. We do observe that the addition of one further interaction term, the square of the conformal Weyl curvature term
Theories for quantum mechanics that also aspire to include General Relativity, must address the fundamental black hole question. Black holes that are sufficiently large and heavy compared to the Planck scale of units, can be perfectly well described by classical,
The present author found that there exists a unique procedure to neutralise the firewalls, but it does not happen automatically. To see what may well happen, one should compute the effects that particles entering a black hole have on the Hawking particles leaving. It is not an act of destruction but a precisely calculable effect of repositioning those rays of out going material. The bottom line is that the
These findings allow one to construct a unique expression for the
However, we also hit upon a more sobering difficulty, The region behind the horizon has to be used to describe the
The only answer that we could find is that we should act in a way similar to what P.A.M. Dirac did in order to overcome the negative energy problem in the Dirac equation. Now in a black hole, we have bosons and electrons alike, but we can achieve the same result by assuming that the entire band of energy eigenstates in a field theory should be bounded from below
The region beyond the vacuum then represents a CPT inversion of the region at our side of the horizon. This picture appears to make perfectly sense, and we believe it to be likely that it resolves the energy inversion problem in black hole physics.
This solution of the energy inversion problem replaces the infinite energy spectrum of all harmonic oscillators generated by the fields outside the horizon, with a spectrum of evenly separated energy levels that have both a beginning and an end, the end being the highest possible energy level. We note that this is not only the energy spectrum of an atom with finite spin inside a homogeneous magnetic field (the Zeeman atom), but it also represents the energy levels of a periodic system with finite time steps
Indeed, we find that black holes may be telling us something about the origin of quantum mechanics.
Our aim was to rescue the concept of ontology as opposed to epistemology in quantum mechanics. This tells us that the atoms, molecules, electrons and other tiny entities are features of things that really exist. They evolve into different states or objects that also exist, according to universal physical laws. We find that this makes perfect sense if what we now perceive as quantum mechanics is understood as a vector representation of the states as they exist and evolve. Vector representations themselves allow superposition, and one finds that the superpositions of ‘ontological’ states evolve through the same Schrödinger equations as the original states themselves. This in turn implies that one may ignore everything that is said about ontological existence as long as we use Born’s dictum that the absolute squares of the superposition coefficients represent probabilities. The reason why we nevertheless attach much importance to our ontological interpretation is that it implies a severe restriction for the evolution laws; asking for the existence of an ontological representation forces us to redesign the set of elementary basis elements of Hilbert space, which might implicate new constraints on what kinds of Standard Model we may suspect to describe our world.
An ontological interpretation is also of great help in resolving the numerous ‘paradoxes’ that have been around confusing scientists as well as young students as to what ‘reality’ really is about. Questions such as the physical process that seems to be associated to the ‘collapse of the wave function’, the ‘measurement problem’, as well as the difficulties raised in the EPR paper as well as Bell’s theorem, questions surrounding the features of entanglement, and the Greenberger - Horne - Zeilinger (GHZ) paradox, all become much less counter intuitive and mysterious than what they look like in their original quantum settings.
The explanation of these features is that the real thing that is happening is the classically evolving collection of microscopic objects, of which the fastest periodically moving things automatically enter into a completely featureless, even distribution over all of their possible states.
Remarkably, the reason why the states of the fastest moving objects stay in an even distribution is better understood in the quantum formalism than when using the original classical picture: the highest energy excitations are difficult or almost impossible to excite, simply because the energy needed for that is usually unavailable to us: in our accelerators we can only reach a dozen or so TeVs, and in cosmic rays the highest detectable energies are still well below the Planck scale. Therefore, the excited modes are only virtually present, and may well be ignored in practice. And, since all superposition coefficients for the ground state are equal, the distribution is featureless, in practice – according to Born.
Thus, what we really find is that the lowest energy states of the slow variables become entangled due to their interactions with the fastest variables. Quantum mechanics ensues; it is mathematically inevitable.
Our work is far from finished. Fresh young minds should probe the remaining mysteries; in particular, the Standard Model is built from fundamental symmetry principles. There are more symmetries than one might have expected from ‘just any’ classical system: there are many continuous symmetries, and also non-compact symmetries such as Lorentz invariance and general coordinate transformation invariance, and there are exact local gauge invariances as dictated by the gauge fields in the Standard Model.
Finally, a natural place must be found where we can put and understand the black hole solutions of Einstein’s equations. They too must obey the laws of quantum mechanics, before we can embrace these remarkable systems in our overall picture of nature. Data obtained from the observations of cosmologists must also be incorporated. What we are searching for is nothing less than a grand picture of the evolution laws shaping our physical world.
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\\n\\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
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\\n\\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\\n\\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\\n\\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
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\\n\\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
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\n\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\n\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\n\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\n\nACCESS
\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\n\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\n\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
\n\n3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\n\n107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
\n\n113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\n\nCURRENT PROJECTS
\n\nTo view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Awareness for increased agricultural production is on the increase, arising from the need to feed the ever-increasing human population. Interestingly, almost all agricultural activities generate wastes, which are generated in large quantities in many countries. However, these wastes may constitute a serious threat to human health through environmental pollution and handling them may result in huge economic loss. Unfortunately, in many developing countries where large quantities of these wastes are generated, they are not properly managed because little is known about their potential risks and benefits if properly managed. There are studies that address some of the challenges of agricultural solid wastes as well as suggestions on how they can be properly managed. In this chapter, we intend to explore the major sources of agricultural solid wastes, their potential risks, and how they can be properly managed.",book:{id:"9873",slug:"strategies-of-sustainable-solid-waste-management",title:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management",fullTitle:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management"},signatures:"Isaac Oluseun Adejumo and Olufemi Adebukola Adebiyi",authors:[{id:"276527",title:"Dr.",name:"Isaac Oluseun",middleName:null,surname:"Adejumo",slug:"isaac-oluseun-adejumo",fullName:"Isaac Oluseun Adejumo"},{id:"328699",title:"Dr.",name:"O.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Adebiyi",slug:"o.a.-adebiyi",fullName:"O.A. Adebiyi"}]},{id:"64270",title:"Decentralization and Solid Waste Management in Urbanizing Ghana: Moving beyond the Status Quo",slug:"decentralization-and-solid-waste-management-in-urbanizing-ghana-moving-beyond-the-status-quo",totalDownloads:2097,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Waste management is competing with more pressing economic and social issues such as social protection programs, education, and health. The government of Ghana has therefore decentralized the waste management system in the country. With this development, local government authorities and private sector actors are now playing key roles in waste management in the country. This study sought to examine decentralized solid waste management in the Berekum and Dormaa Municipalities in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. Specifically, it analyzed the involvement of the private sector in solid waste management, and the quality of waste management services in the two selected municipalities. Through a survey of 312 households, the study analyzed the performance improvement, regulatory policy, and sustainable service delivery of solid waste management in the municipalities. The study found that there were no mechanisms for full cost recovery to include majority of the residents, who patronize communal collection service. The study therefore recommends the adherence to normative standards and agreed rules, adoption, and use of appropriate cost recovery strategies for low-income groups as well as the restructuring of institutional arrangements to ensure user involvement and enforcement of legislation to improve municipal solid waste management in Ghana.",book:{id:"8580",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",fullTitle:"Municipal Solid Waste Management"},signatures:"Richard Kyere, Michael Addaney and Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu",authors:[{id:"273978",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Addaney",slug:"michael-addaney",fullName:"Michael Addaney"},{id:"273981",title:"Mr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Kyere",slug:"richard-kyere",fullName:"Richard Kyere"},{id:"273982",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas Ayaribilla",middleName:null,surname:"Akudugu",slug:"jonas-ayaribilla-akudugu",fullName:"Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu"}]},{id:"65314",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Disposal in Mangrove Forest: Environmental Implication and Management Strategies in the Niger Delta, Nigeria",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-disposal-in-mangrove-forest-environmental-implication-and-management-strategie",totalDownloads:1062,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Niger Delta is an oil rich region situated in the southern part of Nigeria. It is made up of nine states which hosts oil industries. There are a handful of businesses (super market, manufacturing companies, etc.) that service the over 40 million people living in the cities. This situation had led to the increase in solid waste in the city. Because of the problem of over population, and poor waste management strategies (e.g., lack of recycling habit and lack of equipment) the mangrove forest had become a dumping ground for waste. This action has impacted the health of aquatic and terrestrial organisms, and has created a public health disaster for citizens because of increase in heavy metal concentration up the food chain. This chapter therefore, identifies poverty, lack of planning, poor behavior and poor technology as key factors affecting effective waste management in the Niger Delta. It suggests that good waste management system can be worked out if there is coordination between research institution and government in the implementation of recommendation by research institutes. Attitudinal change is also necessary on the part of citizens and government to enable a healthy interaction for the purpose of managing waste effectively.",book:{id:"8580",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",fullTitle:"Municipal Solid Waste Management"},signatures:"Aroloye O. Numbere",authors:[{id:"215285",title:"Dr.",name:"Aroloye O.",middleName:null,surname:"Numbere",slug:"aroloye-o.-numbere",fullName:"Aroloye O. Numbere"}]},{id:"51114",title:"Overview of Hazardous Waste Management Status in Malaysia",slug:"overview-of-hazardous-waste-management-status-in-malaysia",totalDownloads:6244,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"This chapter reviews the status of hazardous waste management in Malaysia. It highlights the sources of the hazardous waste, government policies on waste generation and management, the involvement of the stakeholders, and the various management procedures adopted in Malaysia. Currently, the manufacturing sector is the major contributor in hazardous waste generated in Malaysia. Other sectors that contribute include household, agriculture, medical, and other industrial sectors. Malaysian government’s resolve on human health protection and safeguarding the environment prompted various acts, regulations, and orders such as the popular Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974. The regulations made pursuant to the Environmental Quality Act have continuously improved to address the issues on the definition and classifications of hazardous waste and the management process in Malaysia. The management of hazardous waste in Malaysia is effectively growing as a result of continuous review of the regulations and enforcement of the acts. The stakeholders in the industries have also been active in keeping to the EQA regulations to keep the environment safe as much as possible.",book:{id:"5242",slug:"management-of-hazardous-wastes",title:"Management of Hazardous Wastes",fullTitle:"Management of Hazardous Wastes"},signatures:"Ogboo Chikere Aja, Hussain H. Al-Kayiem, Mesfin Gizaw Zewge and\nMeheron Selowara Joo",authors:[{id:"181768",title:"Dr.",name:"Ogboo Chikere",middleName:null,surname:"Aja",slug:"ogboo-chikere-aja",fullName:"Ogboo Chikere Aja"},{id:"181769",title:"Dr.",name:"Mesfin Gizaw",middleName:null,surname:"Zewge",slug:"mesfin-gizaw-zewge",fullName:"Mesfin Gizaw Zewge"},{id:"182433",title:"Mr.",name:"Meheron",middleName:null,surname:"Selowara Joo",slug:"meheron-selowara-joo",fullName:"Meheron Selowara Joo"},{id:"184186",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain H.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Kayiem",slug:"hussain-h.-al-kayiem",fullName:"Hussain H. 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Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. 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She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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