Parameters of water quality.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5109",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Electrodeposition of Composite Materials",title:"Electrodeposition of Composite Materials",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Nanocomposite coatings have various properties that can be utilized for corrosion protection and tribological improvements. Synthesis of the nanocomposite coatings using an electrodeposition method allows unique control of the experimental parameters. By fine tuning the experimental parameters, various compositions and properties can be obtained for the nanocomposite coatings. This book covers some of the electrochemical methods used for nanocomposite coating deposition as well as discusses in detail examples of several nanocomposite coating. The corrosion and tribological performance of the nanocomposite coatings are also covered and some nanocomposite coatings are discussed for specific technological areas, such as fuel cells and microelectronics.",isbn:"978-953-51-2270-8",printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4205-8",doi:"10.5772/60892",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"electrodeposition-of-composite-materials",numberOfPages:284,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"61bd4e025aa5b652ff9cc39254813472",bookSignature:"Adel M. A. Mohamed and Teresa D. Golden",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5109.jpg",numberOfDownloads:27182,numberOfWosCitations:63,numberOfCrossrefCitations:49,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:77,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:189,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 3rd 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 24th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 28th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 27th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 26th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"148964",title:"Dr.",name:"A.M.A",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",slug:"a.m.a-mohamed",fullName:"A.M.A Mohamed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148964/images/4390_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel Mohamed holds a Ph.D. degree in metallurgical engineering from Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC), Quebec, Canada, and MSc and BSc degrees in metallurgical engineering and materials from the Suez Canal University (SCU), Suez, Egypt. He has also completed postdoctoral studies at UQAC. He is working as Associate Professor at Faculty of Petroleum and Mining Engineering, SU, Egypt. He is also working as Research Professor at the University of North Texas (UNT), Texas, USA. His research focuses on the development of light metals for automotive applications and production of ceramic materials and nanotechnology of composite coatings for industrial applications. His accomplishments include around 70 publications in various international journals and conferences, and he has been Editor-in-Chief of a journal, Associate Editor of a journal, and a Reviewer for many international journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"180074",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa Golden",middleName:null,surname:"Golden",slug:"teresa-golden-golden",fullName:"Teresa Golden Golden",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180074/images/4913_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Teresa D. Golden holds a PhD degree in analytical chemistry from NMSU. She is a Full Professor in the chemistry department at the UNT, Texas. Her research focuses on the electrodeposition of nanomaterials for corrosion protection, deposition of metals and other materials using several techniques, and development of new coating for the oil and gas industry. She has published over 85 peer-reviewed journal articles and chapters.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of North Texas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"932",title:"Nanotechnology",slug:"materials-science-composite-materials-nanotechnology"}],chapters:[{id:"49991",title:"Electrochemical Synthesis of Nanocomposites",doi:"10.5772/62189",slug:"electrochemical-synthesis-of-nanocomposites",totalDownloads:2374,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents an overview of research efforts focused on both fabrication and properties of nanocomposites prepared by electrodeposition. The nanoparticles can improve the base material in terms of wear resistance, damping properties, and mechanical strength as well as electrical properties. Different kinds of matrix, such as metals, polymers, and ceramic matrix, have been employed for the production of composites reinforced by nano-ceramic particles such as carbides, nitrides, and oxides as well as carbon nanotubes. Theoretical aspects and mechanisms related to the electrodeposition process of nanocomposite films, from aqueous solutions, are discussed.",signatures:"Randa Abdel-Karim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49991",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49991",authors:[{id:"165102",title:"Prof.",name:"Randa",surname:"Abdel-Karim",slug:"randa-abdel-karim",fullName:"Randa Abdel-Karim"}],corrections:null},{id:"49651",title:"Effects of Electroplating Characteristics on the Coating Properties",doi:"10.5772/61745",slug:"effects-of-electroplating-characteristics-on-the-coating-properties",totalDownloads:2443,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Electroplating parameters that can be listed as bath temperature, pH of the bath, current density, surfactant addition or type, coating thickness must be controlled during the deposition process since they determine the properties of the coating. However, it is difficult to manage the effects of this high number of parameters including their interaction effects. At this point, fractional factorial design that is a statistical method steps in that have the advantage of evaluating the influences and the complex variable interactions of parameters with a plausible number of experiments. In the design low and high values must be attributed to the parameters before the experiments and these values are selected according to the solution used. There are suitable plating conditions (written in handbooks) for each bath without particle addition and low – high values can be chosen between these ranges or just below or above them. For instance, the temperature range is 40-60°C, current density range is 2-7 A/dm2 and pH range is 3.5-4.0 for nickel electroplating [36]. Besides the coating property, the electroplating parameters influence the hydrogen evolution reaction that is a side reaction that takes place at the cathode and may lead to morphological problems on the coated surface. The aim of this chapter is to provide information about how the parameters affect the amount of particles in the deposit. Because the reason of adding the particles to the bath is to improve the matrix properties by the particles emerged. So the more particles present and disperse in the coating, the more they will contribute to the coating property. Another important effect is the internal stress that led to departure of the deposit.",signatures:"Ebru Saraloğlu Güler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49651",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49651",authors:[{id:"177161",title:"Dr.",name:"Ebru",surname:"Saraloğlu Güler",slug:"ebru-saraloglu-guler",fullName:"Ebru Saraloğlu Güler"}],corrections:null},{id:"50050",title:"Parametric Variables in Electro-deposition of Composite Coatings",doi:"10.5772/62010",slug:"parametric-variables-in-electro-deposition-of-composite-coatings",totalDownloads:2400,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, synergy of the attractive properties of materials while avoiding limitations of their use in isolation is a major driver for flexibility in design and manufacture. This allows tailoring of materials’ properties to meet specifications. Composite technology utilizes an excellent combination of properties: strength, stiffness, light weight, wear, chemical, corrosion, and temperature resistance, which transcend those of the constituent materials. Engineering structures, equipment, and vessels in key industries that are material-dependent are susceptible to deterioration process and damage over time in their service conditions. Composite coatings through electro-deposition offer a reliable cost-effective means of impacting special surface properties for corrosion protection, better appearance, and mechanical properties’ enhancement. The properties of the composite coatings can be optimized by varying the type, size, amount and distribution of the particles content incorporated among others.",signatures:"Peter Odetola, Patricia Popoola, Olawale Popoola and David\nDelport",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50050",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50050",authors:[{id:"169258",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Popoola",slug:"patricia-popoola",fullName:"Patricia Popoola"},{id:"177716",title:"Dr.",name:"Olawale",surname:"Popoola",slug:"olawale-popoola",fullName:"Olawale Popoola"},{id:"178039",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Odetola",slug:"peter-odetola",fullName:"Peter Odetola"},{id:"179784",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Delport",slug:"david-delport",fullName:"David Delport"}],corrections:null},{id:"49726",title:"A New Approach — In-Situ Codeposition of Composite Coatings",doi:"10.5772/61935",slug:"a-new-approach-in-situ-codeposition-of-composite-coatings",totalDownloads:1819,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Present chapter is organised to give general information about electrolytic coating and electro codeposition, factors affect the coating structure and the main layers’-property relation in details. This relation is expressed by a simple schematic and electrolytic codeposition parameters affect the process such as pH, zeta potential, agitation and etc. are explained. Additionally, in-situ codeposition, the new approach is given with examples, and some experimental results belonging to our research group and with comparison to approaches belonging to some others.",signatures:"Orkut Sancakoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49726",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49726",authors:[{id:"177188",title:"Dr.",name:"Orkut",surname:"Sancakoğlu",slug:"orkut-sancakoglu",fullName:"Orkut Sancakoğlu"}],corrections:null},{id:"49957",title:"Electrodeposition of Cu–Ni Composite Coatings",doi:"10.5772/62111",slug:"electrodeposition-of-cu-ni-composite-coatings",totalDownloads:2535,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The electrodeposition of Cu–Ni incorporated with nano- to microparticles to produce metal matrix composites has been reviewed in this chapter. The inclusion of particles into the metal matrix produced enhanced properties in the areas of electronics, mechanics, electrochemistry, and corrosion. In electronics, an increase in the magnetic properties and durability for microactuators was observed. Measurements of the mechanical properties showed an increase in hardness, wear resistance, shear adhesion, and tensile strength for the material. The corrosion resistance of the metal matrix coatings was improved over that of pure Cu–Ni. As the accessibility of nanoparticles continues to increase, the interest in reduced cost and low-temperature electrodeposited metal matrix composites continues to rise. However, only a small number of articles have investigated Cu–Ni composite coatings; these composite coatings need further examination due to their advantageous properties.",signatures:"Casey R. Thurber, Adel M.A. Mohamed and Teresa D. Golden",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49957",authors:[{id:"148964",title:"Dr.",name:"A.M.A",surname:"Mohamed",slug:"a.m.a-mohamed",fullName:"A.M.A Mohamed"},{id:"180074",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa Golden",surname:"Golden",slug:"teresa-golden-golden",fullName:"Teresa Golden Golden"},{id:"180073",title:"Dr.",name:"Casey R",surname:"Thurber",slug:"casey-r-thurber",fullName:"Casey R Thurber"}],corrections:null},{id:"49739",title:"Nanocomposite Coatings Deposited by Sol-Enhanced Electrochemical Methods",doi:"10.5772/62042",slug:"nanocomposite-coatings-deposited-by-sol-enhanced-electrochemical-methods",totalDownloads:1782,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nano-composite coatings have wide applications for their superior mechanical and corrosion properties. Many efforts have been devoted to the development of different types of nano-composite coatings in the last decade. Various techniques are used to modify the coating microstructure at the nano scale in order to further improve the properties of coatings. We recently developed a novel method which combines sol-gel process and electrochemical deposition process to produce nano-composite coatings. This simple method can lead to a highly dispersed distribution of oxide nano-particles in the metal coating matrix, resulting in significantly improved mechanical properties. This Chapter introduces the principle of this innovative method, the basic theory behind the deposition process, and an overview of current results. It also describes the dopant technology that is derived from this novel technique. The future development potentials and industrial applications of these coatings are also discussed.",signatures:"Yuxin Wang and Wei Gao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49739",authors:[{id:"177244",title:"Dr.",name:"W",surname:"Gao",slug:"w-gao",fullName:"W Gao"},{id:"177270",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuxin",surname:"Wang",slug:"yuxin-wang",fullName:"Yuxin Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"49689",title:"Electrodeposition of Ni-P/SiC Composite Films with High Hardness",doi:"10.5772/61858",slug:"electrodeposition-of-ni-p-sic-composite-films-with-high-hardness",totalDownloads:2109,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes the effect of SiC particle concentrations on the metallic continuous phase of the coating and the effect of heat treatment on the crystalline structure, hardness, and wear resistance of electrodeposited Ni-P-SiC coatings. The deposits were obtained via electrodeposition onto an AISI 1018 steel electrode and then heat treated at various temperatures ranging from 300 °C to 600 °C for 60 min in air. The tribological characteristics studied included hardness, friction coefficient, and wear resistance. The results indicated that the dispersion of SiC particles in the metallic matrix improves coating tribological properties such as hardness and wear resistance while diminishing the friction coefficient. The Ni-P-SiC alloy was originally amorphous and was transformed into a mixture of amorphous and crystalline phases when was thermally treated in the range from 400 °C to 500 °C. This phase transformation was associated with the precipitation of a mixture of Ni3P intermetallic compound and pure Ni crystals. In addition, the results showed that the wear resistance of the Ni-P-SiC coating increased with hardness. The maximum hardness (1453.4 HV) was obtained when the Ni-P-SiC coatings were thermally treated at 500 °C.",signatures:"Alma Martínez-Hernández, Federico Manríquez-Guerrero, Julieta\nTorres, Raúl Ortega, José de Jesús Pérez-Bueno, Yunny Meas,\nGabriel Trejo and Alia Méndez-Albores",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49689",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49689",authors:[{id:"89467",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose De Jesus",surname:"Perez-Bueno",slug:"jose-de-jesus-perez-bueno",fullName:"Jose De Jesus Perez-Bueno"},{id:"177189",title:"Dr.",name:"Trejo",surname:"Gabriel",slug:"trejo-gabriel",fullName:"Trejo Gabriel"},{id:"177264",title:"Dr.",name:"Mendez",surname:"Alia",slug:"mendez-alia",fullName:"Mendez Alia"},{id:"177265",title:"Dr.",name:"Torres",surname:"Julieta",slug:"torres-julieta",fullName:"Torres Julieta"},{id:"177266",title:"Dr.",name:"Ortega",surname:"Raúl",slug:"ortega-raul",fullName:"Ortega Raúl"},{id:"177267",title:"Dr.",name:"Meas",surname:"Yunny",slug:"meas-yunny",fullName:"Meas Yunny"},{id:"177268",title:"MSc.",name:"Manríquez",surname:"Federico",slug:"manriquez-federico",fullName:"Manríquez Federico"},{id:"177269",title:"MSc.",name:"Martínez",surname:"Alma",slug:"martinez-alma",fullName:"Martínez Alma"}],corrections:null},{id:"49980",title:"A review of Corrosion Resistance Nanocomposite Coatings",doi:"10.5772/62048",slug:"a-review-of-corrosion-resistance-nanocomposite-coatings",totalDownloads:2418,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The deterioration of materials, particularly metals, under the influence of electrochemical corrosion is a high cost problem faced by nearly all industries. The reduction of corrosion processes and the prevention of future problems require a detailed knowledge of these processes and of the strategies to avoid them. In this context, it is essential to use methodologies that may prevent the electrochemical deterioration of materials as well as monitor their performance in aggressive environments. Among them, it is possible to cite the use of functional coatings, particularly nanocomposite coatings. Therefore, this chapter proposes a review concerning the production of nanocomposite coatings with anticorrosive application obtained by electrodeposition technique (electrochemical codeposition). The production of such coatings is in agreement with the current needs of innovation, which drives a requirement for scientific advancement and the need for fundamental research. In this context, nanocomposite coatings with anticorrosive properties promote changes in metal surfaces, creating new materials with improved characteristics compared to those originally observed and maintaining the integrity of these surfaces.",signatures:"Thais G.L. Rezende, Deborah V. Cesar, Dalva C.B. do Lago and Lilian\nF. Senna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49980",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49980",authors:[{id:"100986",title:"Prof.",name:"Lilian",surname:"Senna",slug:"lilian-senna",fullName:"Lilian Senna"},{id:"179324",title:"MSc.",name:"Thais",surname:"Rezende",slug:"thais-rezende",fullName:"Thais Rezende"},{id:"179325",title:"Prof.",name:"Deborah",surname:"Cesar",slug:"deborah-cesar",fullName:"Deborah Cesar"},{id:"179326",title:"Prof.",name:"Dalva",surname:"Lago",slug:"dalva-lago",fullName:"Dalva Lago"}],corrections:null},{id:"49995",title:"Parametric Analysis of Electrodeposited Nano-composite Coatings for Abrasive Wear Resistance",doi:"10.5772/62153",slug:"parametric-analysis-of-electrodeposited-nano-composite-coatings-for-abrasive-wear-resistance",totalDownloads:1893,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nano-composite coatings have become the focus of widespread research in recent years due in part to their superior properties when compared to purely metallic films. The benefits of using these types of coatings include high-specific heat, optical non-linearity, novel magnetic properties, enhanced mechanical behavior (large hardness and wear resistance), and good corrosion resistance. This chapter presents a parametric study of electrodeposited nano-composite coatings for improved abrasive wear resistance. The following physical parameters were investigated using a Taguchi L18 fractional factorial design of experiments (DOEs): current density, pH, bath temperature, nano-particle concentration, and electrolyte agitation (stir rate). The results were evaluated using the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio to develop a non-dimensional relationship between the physical parameters and the abrasive wear resistance of the coating. The relationship showed that the abrasive wear resistance of the coating increases as the quantity of nano-particle in the solution and the agitation frequency increase. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that the particle concentration had the greatest significance to the wear resistance of the coating.",signatures:"Kavian O. Cooke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49995",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49995",authors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],corrections:null},{id:"49998",title:"Tribological and Corrosion Performance of Electrodeposited Nickel Composite Coatings",doi:"10.5772/62170",slug:"tribological-and-corrosion-performance-of-electrodeposited-nickel-composite-coatings",totalDownloads:2530,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The inclusion of second-phase particles in nickel-based matrix to fabricate composite coatings presents a promising solution to combating corrosion and wear deterioration of materials during service. Composite coatings possess better surface properties such as wear resistance, high microhardness, thermal stability, and corrosion resistance than the traditional nickel coatings. Their excellent properties enable them to be used in advanced industrial applications where they will be constantly exposed to severe and degrading environments. There are various surface modification techniques that are employed to produce these coatings and electrodeposition has received wide range of use in fabrication of nickel matrix composites. This technique is associated with low cost, simplicity of operation, versatility, high production rates, and few size and shape limitations. To produce advanced electrodeposits with better performance during application, the optimization and further developments of the process remain vital. Therefore, this chapter aims to review the electrofabrication and properties of nickel composite/nanocomposite coatings for corrosion and wear applications.",signatures:"Nicholus Malatji and Patricia A.I. Popoola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49998",authors:[{id:"169258",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Popoola",slug:"patricia-popoola",fullName:"Patricia Popoola"},{id:"177718",title:"Mr.",name:"Nicholus",surname:"Malatji",slug:"nicholus-malatji",fullName:"Nicholus Malatji"}],corrections:null},{id:"49990",title:"Electrodeposition of Functional Coatings on Bipolar Plates for Fuel Cell Applications – A Review",doi:"10.5772/62169",slug:"electrodeposition-of-functional-coatings-on-bipolar-plates-for-fuel-cell-applications-a-review",totalDownloads:2747,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The issue of corrosion and degradation has been evaluated as one of the major sources of concern in the history and trend of materials development and their applications in engineering. Design, process, and production consideration of materials hinge on the motive of built-to-last technology in their lifetime applications. The “World Corrosion Organization” has calculated that the direct cost of corrosion worldwide is over 3% of global gross domestic product (GDP)—approximately US$2.2 trillion—every year.",signatures:"Peter Odetola, Patricia Popoola, Olawale Popoola and David\nDelport",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49990",authors:[{id:"169258",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Popoola",slug:"patricia-popoola",fullName:"Patricia Popoola"},{id:"177716",title:"Dr.",name:"Olawale",surname:"Popoola",slug:"olawale-popoola",fullName:"Olawale Popoola"},{id:"178039",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Odetola",slug:"peter-odetola",fullName:"Peter Odetola"},{id:"179784",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Delport",slug:"david-delport",fullName:"David Delport"}],corrections:null},{id:"49897",title:"Pulse Electrodeposition of Lead-Free Tin-Based Composites for Microelectronic Packaging",doi:"10.5772/62036",slug:"pulse-electrodeposition-of-lead-free-tin-based-composites-for-microelectronic-packaging",totalDownloads:2134,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:27,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides a detailed overview of the various Sn-based composites solders reinforced with ceramic nanoparticles. These solders are lead free in nature and are produced by various process like powder metallurgy, ball milling, casting as well as simple and economic pulse co-electrodeposition technique. In this chapter, various electrodeposited composite solders, their synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of various properties for microelectronic packaging applications, such as microstructure, microhardness, density and porosity, wear and friction, electrochemical corrosion, melting point, electrical resistivity, and residual stress of the monolithic Sn-based and (nano)composite solders have been presented and discussed. This chapter is divided into the following sections: such as introduction to microelectronic packaging, synthesis routes for solders and composites, various nanoreinforcement, and the mechanism of incorporation in solder matrix, the pulse co-electrodeposition technique, the various factors affecting composite deposition, and the improved properties of composite solders over monolithic solders for microelectronic packaging applications are also summarized here.",signatures:"Ashutosh Sharma, Siddhartha Das and Karabi Das",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49897",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49897",authors:[{id:"145236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashutosh",surname:"Sharma",slug:"ashutosh-sharma",fullName:"Ashutosh Sharma"},{id:"175206",title:"Prof.",name:"Siddhartha",surname:"Das",slug:"siddhartha-das",fullName:"Siddhartha Das"},{id:"175209",title:"Prof.",name:"Karabi",surname:"Das",slug:"karabi-das",fullName:"Karabi Das"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited 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As a result, water quality has been described extensively in the scientific literature. The most popular definition of water quality is “it is the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water” [1, 2]. Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and/or to any human need or purpose [3, 4].
Based on its source, water can be divided into ground water and surface water [5]. Both types of water can be exposed to contamination risks from agricultural, industrial, and domestic activities, which may include many types of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers, hazardous chemicals, and oils [6].
Water quality can be classified into four types—potable water, palatable water, contaminated (polluted) water, and infected water [7]. The most common scientific definitions of these types of water quality are as follows:
There are three types of water quality parameters physical, chemical, and biological [8, 9]. They are summarized in Table 1.
Turbidity is the cloudiness of water [10]. It is a measure of the ability of light to pass through water. It is caused by suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and other particulate materials in water [2].
Turbidity in drinking water is esthetically unacceptable, which makes the water look unappetizing. The impact of turbidity can be summarized in the following points:
It can increase the cost of water treatment for various uses [11].
The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and thereby shield them from the disinfection process [12].
Suspended materials can clog or damage fish gills, decreasing its resistance to diseases, reducing its growth rates, affecting egg and larval maturing, and affecting the efficiency of fish catching method [13, 14].
Suspended particles provide adsorption media for heavy metals such as mercury, chromium, lead, cadmium, and many hazardous organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many pesticides [15].
The amount of available food is reduced [15] because higher turbidity raises water temperatures in light of the fact that suspended particles absorb more sun heat. Consequently, the concentration of the dissolved oxygen (DO) can be decreased since warm water carries less dissolved oxygen than cold water.
Turbidity is measured by an instrument called nephelometric turbidimeter, which expresses turbidity in terms of NTU or TU. A TU is equivalent to 1 mg/L of silica in suspension [10].
Turbidity more than 5 NTU can be visible to the average person while turbidity in muddy water, it exceeds 100 NTU [10]. Groundwater normally has very low turbidity because of the natural filtration that occurs as the water penetrates through the soil [9, 16].
Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors, and chemical reactions are influenced by temperature [10]. Thereby, the sedimentation and chlorination processes and biological oxygen demand (BOD) are temperature dependent [11]. It also affects the biosorption process of the dissolved heavy metals in water [17, 18]. Most people find water at temperatures of 10–15°C most palatable [10, 19].
Materials decayed from organic matter, namely, vegetation and inorganic matter such as soil, stones, and rocks impart color to water, which is objectionable for esthetic reasons, not for health reasons [10, 20].
Color is measured by comparing the water sample with standard color solutions or colored glass disks [10]. One color unit is equivalent to the color produced by a 1 mg/L solution of platinum (potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl6)) [10].
The color of a water sample can be reported as follows:
Color is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70 color units. Pure water is colorless, which is equivalent to 0 color units [10].
Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic materials, inorganic compounds, or dissolved gasses [19]. These materials may come from natural, domestic, or agricultural sources [21].
The numerical value of odor or taste is determined quantitatively by measuring a volume of sample A and diluting it with a volume of sample B of an odor-free distilled water so that the odor of the resulting mixture is just detectable at a total mixture volume of 200 ml [19, 22]. The unit of odor or taste is expressed in terms of a threshold number as follows:
where TON is the threshold odor number and TTN is the threshold taste number.
Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension [22]. These two types of solids can be identified by using a glass fiber filter that the water sample passes through [22]. By definition, the suspended solids are retained on the top of the filter and the dissolved solids pass through the filter with the water [10].
If the filtered portion of the water sample is placed in a small dish and then evaporated, the solids as a residue. This material is usually called total dissolved solids or TDS [10].
Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per liter as follows:
freshwater: <1500 mg/L TDS;
brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS;
saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS.
The residue of TSS and TDS after heating to dryness for a defined period of time and at a specific temperature is defined as fixed solids. Volatile solids are those solids lost on ignition (heating to 550°C) [10].
These measures are helpful to the operators of the wastewater treatment plant because they roughly approximate the amount of organic matter existing in the total solids of wastewater, activated sludge, and industrial wastes [1, 22]. Figure 1 describes the interrelationship of solids found in water [22]. They are calculated as follows [10]:
Total solids:
Interrelationship of solids found in water [
where TSA = weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TSB = weight of dish in milligrams.
Total dissolved solids:
where TDSA = weight of dried residue + dish in milligrams and TDSB = weight of dish in milligrams.
Total suspended solids:
where TSSA = weight of dish and filter paper + dried residue and TSSB = weight of dish and filter paper in milligram.
Fixed and volatile suspended solids:
where VSSA = weight of residue + dish and filter before ignition, mg and VSSB = weight of residue + dish and filter after ignition, mg.
The electrical conductivity (EC) of water is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry or conduct an electrical current [22]. Since the electrical current is carried by ions in solution, the conductivity increases as the concentration [10] of ions increases. Therefore, it is one of the main parameters used to determine the suitability of water for irrigation and firefighting.
Units of its measurement are as follows:
U.S. units = micromhos/cm
S.I. units = milliSiemens/m (mS/m) or dS/m (deciSiemens/m)
Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity [2, 10]. Typical conductivity of water is as follows:
Ultra-pure water: 5.5 × 10−6 S/m;
Drinking water: 0.005–0.05 S/m;
Seawater: 5 S/m.
The electrical conductivity can be used to estimate the TDS value of water as follows [10, 22]:
TDS can be used to estimate the ionic strength of water in the applications of groundwater recharging by treated wastewater [22]. The normal method of measurement is electrometric method [10].
pH is one of the most important parameters of water quality. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration [9, 12]. It is a dimensionless number indicating the strength of an acidic or a basic solution [23]. Actually, pH of water is a measure of how acidic/basic water is [19, 20]. Acidic water contains extra hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions [2].
As shown in Figure 2, pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution [2, 24]. Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. Normal rainfall has a pH of approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric carbon dioxide gas [10]. Safe ranges of pH for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for domestic use and living organisms need [24].
pH of water.
A change of 1 unit on a pH scale represents a 10-fold change in the pH [10], so that water with pH of 7 is 10 times more acidic than water with a pH of 8, and water with a pH of 5 is 100 times more acidic than water with a pH of 7. There are two methods available for the determination of pH: electrometric and colorimetric methods [10].
Excessively high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of water. A high pH makes the taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine [21]. The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances [10].
Pollution can modify the pH of water, which can damage animals and plants that live in the water [10].
The effects of pH on animals and plants can be summarized as follows:
Most aquatic animals and plants have adapted to life in water with a specific pH and may suffer from even a slight change [15].
Even moderately acidic water (low pH) can decrease the number of hatched fish eggs, irritate fish and aquatic insect gills, and damage membranes [14].
Water with very low or high pH is fatal. A pH below 4 or above 10 will kill most fish, and very few animals can endure water with a pH below 3 or above 11 [15].
Amphibians are extremely endangered by low pH because their skin is very sensitive to contaminants [15]. Some scientists believe that the current decrease in amphibian population throughout the globe may be due to low pH levels induced by acid rain.
The effects of pH on other chemicals in water can be summarized as follows:
Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and chromium dissolve more easily in highly acidic water (lower pH). This is important because many heavy metals become much more toxic when dissolved in water [21].
A change in the pH can change the forms of some chemicals in the water. Therefore, it may affect aquatic plants and animals [21]. For instance, ammonia is relatively harmless to fish in neutral or acidic water. However, as the water becomes more alkaline (the pH increases), ammonia becomes progressively more poisonous to these same organisms.
Acidity is the measure of acids in a solution. The acidity of water is its quantitative capacity to neutralize a strong base to a selected pH level [10]. Acidity in water is usually due to carbon dioxide, mineral acids, and hydrolyzed salts such as ferric and aluminum sulfates [10]. Acids can influence many processes such as corrosion, chemical reactions and biological activities [10].
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from the respiration of aquatic organisms causes acidity when dissolved in water by forming carbonic acid (H2CO3). The level of acidity is determined by titration with standard sodium hydroxide (0.02 N) using phenolphthalein as an indicator [10, 20].
The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity comprised of the total of all titratable bases [10]. The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the amount of lime and soda needed for water softening (e.g., for corrosion control in conditioning the boiler feed water) [22]. Alkalinity of water is mainly caused by the presence of hydroxide ions (OH−), bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), and carbonate ions (CO32−), or a mixture of two of these ions in water. As stated in the following equation, the possibility of OH− and HCO3− ions together are not possible because they react together to produce CO32− ions:
Alkalinity is determined by titration with a standard acid solution (H2SO4 of 0.02 N) using selective indicators (methyl orange or phenolphthalein).
The high levels of either acidity or alkalinity in water may be an indication of industrial or chemical pollution. Alkalinity or acidity can also occur from natural sources such as volcanoes. The acidity and alkalinity in natural waters provide a buffering action that protects fish and other aquatic organisms from sudden changes in pH. For instance, if an acidic chemical has somehow contaminated a lake that had natural alkalinity, a neutralization reaction occurs between the acid and alkaline substances; the pH of the lake water remains unchanged. For the protection of aquatic life, the buffering capacity should be at least 20 mg/L as calcium carbonate.
Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but the presence of relatively high chloride concentration in freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate wastewater pollution [7]. Chlorides may enter surface water from several sources including chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff, and wastewater.
Chloride ions Cl− in drinking water do not cause any harmful effects on public health, but high concentrations can cause an unpleasant salty taste for most people. Chlorides are not usually harmful to people; however, the sodium part of table salt has been connected to kidney and heart diseases [25]. Small amounts of chlorides are essential for ordinary cell functions in animal and plant life.
Sodium chloride may impart a salty taste at 250 mg/L; however, magnesium or calcium chloride are generally not detected by taste until reaching levels of 1000 mg/L [10]. Standards for public drinking water require chloride levels that do not exceed 250 mg/L. There are many methods to measure the chloride concentration in water, but the normal one is the titration method by silver nitrate [10].
Chlorine (Cl2) does not occur naturally in water but is added to water and wastewater for disinfection [10]. While chlorine itself is a toxic gas, in dilute aqueous solution, it is not harmful to human health. In drinking water, a residual of about 0.2 mg/L is optimal. The residual concentration which is maintained in the water distribution system ensures good sanitary quality of water [11].
Chlorine can react with organics in water forming toxic compounds called trihalomethanes or THMs, which are carcinogens such as chloroform CHCl3 [11, 22]. Chlorine residual is normally measured by a color comparator test kit or spectrophotometer [10].
Sulfate ions (SO42−) occur in natural water and in wastewater. The high concentration of sulfate in natural water is usually caused by leaching of natural deposits of sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt) or magnesium sulfate (Epson salt) [11, 26]. If high concentrations are consumed in drinking water, there may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative effects [26], but there is no significant danger to public health.
There are four forms of nitrogen in water and wastewater: organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen [10]. If water is contaminated with sewage, most of the nitrogen is in the forms of organic and ammonia, which are transformed by microbes to form nitrites and nitrates [22]. Nitrogen in the nitrate form is a basic nutrient to the growth of plants and can be a growth-limiting nutrient factor [10].
A high concentration of nitrate in surface water can stimulate the rapid growth of the algae which degrades the water quality [22]. Nitrates can enter the groundwater from chemical fertilizers used in the agricultural areas [22]. Excessive nitrate concentration (more than 10 mg/L) in drinking water causes an immediate and severe health threat to infants [19]. The nitrate ions react with blood hemoglobin, thereby reducing the blood’s ability to hold oxygen which leads to a disease called blue baby or methemoglobinemia [10, 19].
A moderate amount of fluoride ions (F−) in drinking water contributes to good dental health [10, 19]. About 1.0 mg/L is effective in preventing tooth decay, particularly in children [10].
Excessive amounts of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental fluorosis [11, 19, 26]. The maximum allowable levels of fluoride in public water supplies depend on local climate [26]. In the warmer regions of the country, the maximum allowable concentration of fluoride for potable water is 1.4 mg/L; in colder climates, up to 2.4 mg/L is allowed.
There are four methods to determine ion fluoride in water; the selection of the used method depends on the type of water sample [10].
Although iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) do not cause health problems, they impart a noticeable bitter taste to drinking water even at very low concentration [10, 11].
These metals usually occur in groundwater in solution as ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+) ions. When these ions are exposed to air, they form the insoluble ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) forms making the water turbid and unacceptable to most people [10].
These ions can also cause black or brown stains on laundry and plumbing fixtures [7]. They are measured by many instrumental methods such as atomic absorption spectrometry, flame atomic absorption spectrometry, cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry, electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) [10].
Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are nontoxic if found in small concentrations [10]. Actually, they are both essential and beneficial for human health and growth of plants and animals [25]. They can cause undesirable tastes in drinking water. At high concentrations, zinc imparts a milky appearance to the water [10]. They are measured by the same methods used for iron and manganese measurements [10].
Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters [10]. The dissolved minerals in water cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water pipes and difficulty in producing lather with soap [11].
Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions cause the greatest portion of hardness in naturally occurring waters [9]. They enter water mainly from contact with soil and rock, particularly limestone deposits [10, 27].
These ions are present as bicarbonates, sulfates, and sometimes as chlorides and nitrates [10, 26]. Generally, groundwater is harder than surface water. There are two types of hardness:
Water with more than 300 mg/L of hardness is generally considered to be hard, and more than 150 mg/L of hardness is noticed by most people, and water with less than 75 mg/L is considered to be soft.
From health viewpoint, hardness up to 500 mg/L is safe, but more than that may cause a laxative effect [10]. Hardness is normally determined by titration with ethylene diamine tetra acidic acid or (EDTA) and Eriochrome Black and Blue indicators. It is usually expressed in terms of mg/L of CaCO3 [10, 19].
An accepted water classification according to its hardness is as in Table 2 [19].
No. | Types of water quality parameters | ||
---|---|---|---|
Physical parameters | Chemical parameters | Biological parameters | |
1 | Turbidity | pH | Bacteria |
2 | Temperature | Acidity | Algae |
3 | Color | Alkalinity | Viruses |
4 | Taste and odor | Chloride | Protozoa |
5 | Solids | Chlorine residual | |
6 | Electrical conductivity (EC) | Sulfate | |
7 | Nitrogen | ||
8 | Fluoride | ||
9 | Iron and manganese | ||
10 | Copper and zinc | ||
11 | Hardness | ||
12 | Dissolved oxygen | ||
13 | Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) | ||
14 | Chemical oxygen demand (COD) | ||
15 | Toxic inorganic substances | ||
16 | Toxic organic substances | ||
17 | Radioactive substances |
Parameters of water quality.
Water classification | Total hardness concentration as mg/L as CaCO3 |
---|---|
Soft water | <50 mg/L as CaCO3 |
Moderately hard | 50–150 mg/L as CaCO3 |
Hard water | 150–300 mg/L as CaCO3 |
Very hard | >300 mg/L as CaCO3 |
Classification of water according to its hardness.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important parameters of water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of water pollution [10]. The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality.
Oxygen is slightly soluble in water and very sensitive to temperature. For example, the saturation concentration at 20°C is about 9 mg/L and at 0°C is 14.6 mg/L [22].
The actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending on pressure, temperature, and salinity of the water. Dissolved oxygen has no direct effect on public health, but drinking water with very little or no oxygen tastes unpalatable to some people.
There are three main methods used for measuring dissolved oxygen concentrations: the colorimetric method—quick and inexpensive, the Winkler titration method—traditional method, and the electrometric method [10].
Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic substances for food. As they metabolize organic material, they consume oxygen [10, 22]. The organics are broken down into simpler compounds, such as CO2 and H2O, and the microbes use the energy released for growth and reproduction [22].
When this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed is the DO in the water. If oxygen is not continuously replaced by natural or artificial means in the water, the DO concentration will reduce as the microbes decompose the organic materials. This need for oxygen is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The more organic material there is in the water, the higher the BOD used by the microbes will be. BOD is used as a measure of the power of sewage; strong sewage has a high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD [22].
The complete decomposition of organic material by microorganisms takes time, usually 20 d or more under ordinary circumstances [22]. The quantity of oxygen used in a specified volume of water to fully decompose or stabilize all biodegradable organic substances is called the ultimate BOD or BODL.
BOD is a function of time. At time = 0, no oxygen will have been consumed and the BOD = 0. As each day goes by, oxygen is used by the microbes and the BOD increases. Ultimately, the BODL is reached and the organic materials are completely decomposed.
A graph of the BOD versus time is illustrated as in Figure 3. This is called the BOD curve, which can be expressed mathematically by the following equation:
BOD curve [
where BODt = BOD at any time t, mg/L; BODL = ultimate BOD, mg/L; k = a constant representing the rate of the BOD reaction; t = time, d.
The value of the constant rate k depends on the temperature, the type of organic materials, and the type of microbes exerting the BOD [22].
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a parameter that measures all organics: the biodegradable and the non-biodegradable substances [22]. It is a chemical test using strong oxidizing chemicals (potassium dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat, and the result can be available in just 2 h [10]. COD values are always higher than BOD values for the same sample [22].
A wide variety of inorganic toxic substances may be found in water in very small or trace amounts. Even in trace amounts, they can be a danger to public health [11]. Some toxic substances occur from natural sources but many others occur due to industrial activities and/or improper management of hazardous waste [22]. They can be divided into two groups:
There are more than 100 compounds in water that have been listed in the literature as toxic organic compounds [11, 22]. They will not be found naturally in water; they are usually man-made pollutants. These compounds include insecticides, pesticides, solvents, detergents, and disinfectants [11, 21, 22]. They are measured by highly sophisticated instrumental methods, namely, gas chromatographic (GC), high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC), and mass spectrophotometric [10].
Potential sources of radioactive substances in water include wastes from nuclear power plants, industries, or medical research using radioactive chemicals and mining of uranium ores or other radioactive materials [11, 21]. When radioactive substances decay, they release beta, alpha, and gamma radiation [34]. Exposure of humans and other living things to radiation can cause genetic and somatic damage to the living tissues [34, 35].
Radon gas is of a great health concern because it occurs naturally in groundwater and is a highly volatile gas, which can be inhaled during the showering process [35]. For drinking water, there are established standards commonly used for alpha particles, beta particles, photons emitters, radium-226 and -228, and uranium [34, 35].
The unit of radioactivity used in water quality applications is the picocurie per liter (pCi/L); 1 pCi is equivalent to about two atoms disintegrating per minute. There are many sophisticated instrumental methods to measure it [35].
One of the most helpful indicators of water quality may be the presence or lack of living organisms [10, 15]. Biologists can survey fish and insect life of natural waters and assess the water quality on the basis of a computed species diversity index (SDI) [15, 19, 36, 37]; hence, a water body with a large number of well-balanced species is regarded as a healthy system [17]. Some organisms can be used as an indication for the existence of pollutants based on their known tolerance for a specified pollutant [17].
Microorganisms exist everywhere in nature [38]. Human bodies maintain a normal population of microbes in the intestinal tract; a big portion of which is made up of coliform bacteria [38]. Although there are millions of microbes per milliliter in wastewater, most of them are harmless [37]. It is only harmful when wastewater contains wastes from people infected with diseases that the presence of harmful microorganisms in wastewater is likely to occur [38].
Bacteria are considered to be single-celled plants because of their cell structure and the way they ingest food [10, 37]. Bacteria occur in three basic cell shapes: rod-shaped or bacillus, sphere-shaped or coccus, and spiral-shaped or spirellus [19]. In less than 30 min, a single bacterial cell can mature and divide into two new cells [39].
Under favorable conditions of food supply, temperature, and pH, bacteria can reproduce so rapidly that a bacterial culture may contain 20 million cells per milliliter after just 1 day [22, 37]. This rapid growth of visible colonies of bacteria on a suitable nutrient medium makes it possible to detect and count the number of bacteria in water [39].
There are several distinctions among the various species of bacteria. One distinction depends on how they metabolize their food [38]. Bacteria that require oxygen for their metabolism are called aerobic bacteria, while those live only in an oxygen-free environment are called anaerobic bacteria. Some species called facultative bacteria can live in either the absence or the presence of oxygen [37, 38, 39].
At low temperatures, bacteria grow and reproduce slowly. As the temperature increases, the rate of growth and reproduction doubles in every additional 10°C (up to the optimum temperature for the species) [38]. The majority of the species of bacteria having an optimal temperature of about 35°C [39].
A lot of dangerous waterborne diseases are caused by bacteria, namely, typhoid and paratyphoid fever, leptospirosis, tularemia, shigellosis, and cholera [19]. Sometimes, the absence of good sanitary practices results in gastroenteritis outbreaks of one or more of those diseases [19].
Algae are microscopic plants, which contain photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll [37, 39]. They are autotrophic organisms and support themselves by converting inorganic materials into organic matter by using energy from the sun, during this process they take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen [38, 39]. They are also important for wastewater treatment in stabilization ponds [22]. Algae are primarily nuisance organisms in the water supply because of the taste and odor problems they create [2, 16]. Certain species of algae cause serious environmental and public health problems; for example, blue-green algae can kill cattle and other domestic animals if the animals drink water containing those species [37, 39].
Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all genetic information necessary for their own reproduction [19]. They can only be seen by a powerful electronic microscope [39]. Viruses are parasites that need a host to live [39]. They can pass through filters that do not permit the passage of bacteria [37]. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause infectious hepatitis and poliomyelitis [19, 25, 37]. Most of the waterborne viruses can be deactivated by the disinfection process conducted in the water treatment plant [19].
Protozoa are single-celled microscopic animal [19], consume solid organic particles, bacteria, and algae for food, and they are in turn ingested as food by higher level multicellular animals [37]. Aquatic protozoa are floating freely in water and sometimes called zooplankton [37]. They form cysts that are difficult to inactivate by disinfection [19].
A very important biological indicator of water and pollution is the group of bacteria called coliforms [20]. Pathogenic coliforms always exist in the intestinal system of humans, and millions are excreted with body wastes [37]. Consequently, water that has been recently contaminated with sewage will always contain coliforms [19].
A particular species of coliforms found in domestic sewage is
A measured volume of sample is filtered through a special membrane filter by applying a partial vacuum [10, 39].
The filter, a flat paper-like disk, has uniform microscopic pores small enough to retain the bacteria on its surface while allowing the water to pass through. The filter paper is then placed in a sterile container called a petri dish, which contains a special culture medium that the bacteria use as a food source [39].
Then, the petri dish is usually placed in an incubator, which keeps the temperature at 35°C, for 24 h. After incubation, colonies of coliform bacteria each containing millions of organisms will be visible [10]. The coliform concentration is obtained by counting the number of colonies on the filter; each colony counted represents only one coliform in the original sample [10, 39].
Coliform concentrations are expressed in terms of the number of organisms per 100 mL of water as follows:
Water quality requirements differ depending on the proposed used of water [19]. As reported by Tchobanoglous et al. [19], “water unsuitable for one use may be quite satisfactory for another and water may be considered acceptable for a particular use if water of better quality is not available.”
Water quality requirements should be agreed with the water quality standards, which are put down by the governmental agency and represent the legislation requirements. In general, there are three types of standards: in-stream, potable water, and wastewater effluent [19], each type has its own criteria by using the same methods of measurement. The World Health Organization (WHO) has established minimum standards for drinking water that all countries are recommended to meet [25].
The physical, chemical, and biological parameters of water quality are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods. The classification of water according to its quality is also covered with a specific definition for each type.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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