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Heston and Sujoy Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9566.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"79616",title:"Dietary Iron",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101265",slug:"dietary-iron",body:'Iron has an essential physiologic role, as it is involved in oxygen transportation and energy formation. The body cannot synthesize iron and must acquire it. Though the human body recycles and reutilizes iron, it also loses some iron daily; these lost pools require replacement. However recycling the iron from senescent erythrocytes meets most of the body’s iron needs by macrophages; only 5–10% of iron requirements come from food [1].
Iron differs from other minerals because iron balance in the human body is regulated by absorption only and there is no physiologic mechanism for excretion [2].
Haem iron derived from animal sources is better absorbed than non-haem iron derived from plant sources, whole cereals, whole pulses, and vegetables, particularly green leafy vegetables, contribute to a significant intake of dietary iron [3].
Dietary iron bioavailability depends primarily on the availability of iron for absorption in the GI tract, determined by the physicochemical form of iron in the lumen of the GI tract, largely dictated by the composition of meals, and secondarily by an individual’s absorptive efficiency, which depends on physiological requirements for iron and homeostatic mechanisms designed to maintain null balance. Bioavailability factors have been derived based on the balance of enhancers and inhibitors of iron absorption in diet [4].
Various strategies can be adopted to enhance bioavalibility and to combat iron deficiency which includes dietary diversification, food fortification, weekly iron and folic acid supplementation among others [1].
Iron is found naturally in many foods and is added to some fortified food products; recommended amounts of iron can be obtained by eating a variety of foods, including non-vegetarian food viz. lean meat, seafood, and poultry etc. in addition to the iron-fortified breakfast cereals and breads, white beans, lentils, spinach, kidney beans, and peas, nuts and some dried fruits [5].
Food diversification approach designed to increase micronutrient intake through diet represents the most desirable and sustainable method for preventing iron deficiency [3].
Reference intakes are used for a wide range of activities, such as planning diets, formulating complementary foods, setting levels of food fortification, implementing biofortification programs, and food labeling [4].
Dietary iron has two primary forms: haem and non-haem [1, 2, 6]. Haem iron has a higher bioavailability and is absorbed easier without the need for absorption-enhancing cofactors (Figure 1) [1, 2].
Types of iron.
Haem iron is estimated to contribute 10–15% of total iron intake in meat-eating populations, but, because of its higher and more uniform absorption (estimated at 15–35%), it could contribute 40% of total absorbed iron during iron deficiency to about 10 percent during iron repletion [7].
Non-haem iron, which is the most important dietary source in vegetarians, shows lower bioavailability [1, 2]; All non-haem food iron that enters the common iron pool in the digestive tract, however, it is important to note that not all fortification iron enters the common pool [2]; 17% of dietary non-haem iron gets absorbed [1].
Studies shows that, iron bioavailability is estimated to be 14–18% for mixed diet consumers and 5–12% for vegetarian diet consumers. Thereby, less than one-fifth of the dietary iron gets absorbed by the body [1].
Iron absorption in humans is dependent on physiological requirements, but may be restricted by the quantity and availability of iron in the diet [8]. Body absorbs iron from plant sources better when eaten with meat, poultry, seafood, and foods that contain vitamin C, like citrus fruits, strawberries, sweet peppers, tomatoes, and broccoli [5].
The diets of omnivores contain relatively small quantities of haem iron derived from meat and fish, which is always well absorbed [7, 8]. The remainder of the soluble iron forms a common non-haem iron pool and absorption is very variable, depending on meal composition, but its absorption is strongly controlled by iron stores [8].
High nutrition benefits of coarse cereals point to the need for an increase in their consumption and even higher production (Figure 1a).
a. Sources of non-heme iron. b. Sources of heme iron.
Top five pulses with respect to iron content are horse gram dal, soybean, moth beans, lentil (whole), and Bengal gram (whole). Horse gram dal, soybean, and moth beans provide as much as twice the iron in comparison to green gram dal and red gram dal. Arhar and moong, though lowest in iron content.
Bajra, ragi, rice flakes (poha) wheat flour, and jowar provide a higher amount of iron than maize and rice. Rice has the lowest iron content.
Green leafy vegetables are considered to be rich sources of iron and calcium. For example, beet greens, pumpkin leaves, colocasia leaves, and radish leaves having very high-iron content is usually not consumed by people and rather discarded as waste. There are others such as curry (8.7 mg/100 g), mint (8.6 mg), parsley (5.5 mg), coriander (5.5 mg), and drumstick (4.6 mg) though high in iron content, are consumed either less frequently or in small quantities. Greens like spinach, mustard leaves, and bathua leaves though popular are those with the least iron content [3].
Some of the nuts and oilseeds such as gingelly seeds (14.9 mg), mustard seeds (13.5 mg), cashew nuts (5.9 mg) and almond (4.5 mg), are fairly rich sources of dietary iron. Most of the fruits and vegetables, except lotus stem (3.3 mg iron/100 g), are a poor source of iron.
Jaggery, though rich in iron (4.6 mg iron per 100 g), is usually consumed in small amounts. Promoting traditional Indian snacks like gur chana or tilbugga prepared from jaggery and Bengal gram or gingelly seeds can contribute to significantly higher intake of jaggery and thus iron [5, 7].
Among poultry, chicken liver is the richest source of iron (9.9 mg/100 g) followed by duck meat (4.3 mg/100 g) (Figure 2b).
Animal meat, particularly liver and spleen, is very rich source of iron.
Boiled egg yolk is rich in iron as compared to egg white.
Fish on the contrary are not a very good source of iron [3].
Iron is present in a variety of foods, so eating a varied and healthful diet is important. Since Vitamin C enhances the absorption of iron, eating iron rich foods along with a source of vitamin C (citrus fruits and juices, etc.) can help replenish your body’s iron stores. Nevertheless, iron may be absorbed into foods that have been cooked in iron cookware [9].
Common sources of Iron are depicted in Table 1.
Iron contamination: For cooking, sometimes an iron skillet is a utensil used for cooking vegetables and other food to increase iron content in that food. Such a source of contaminated iron is sometimes practiced in some regions of the world [1].
Victuals | Portion size (approx.) | Amount of iron |
---|---|---|
Beef liver | 85 g | 5.2 mg |
Beef-ground | 85 g | 2.2 mg |
Canned clams | 85 g | 23.8 mg |
Chicken breast | 85 g | 1.1 mg |
Chicken liver | 85 g | 10.8 mg |
Fish, tuna canned | 85 g | 1.3 mg |
Lamb | 85 g | 3.0 mg |
Large egg | 1 | 1.0 mg |
Oysters | 85 g | 13.2 mg |
Pork | 85 g | 2.7 mg |
Sirloin streak | 250 g | 1.6 mg |
Shrimp | 85 g | 2.6 mg |
Salmon | 100 g | 1.28 mg |
Tofu | 100 g | 8 mg |
Turkey, dark meat | 85 g | 2.0 mg |
Turkey,light meat | 85 g | 1.1 mg |
Greens/veggies: | ||
Beets, canned | 64 g | 1.5 mg |
Brussel sprouts | 64 g | 2.0 mg |
Collards or beet | 64 g | 1.2 mg |
Dried thyme | 5 g | 1.2 mg |
Greens | 125 g | 2.2 mg |
Mushrooms | 64 g | 1.4 mg |
Peas, frozen | 64 g | 1.2 mg |
Potato, baked with skin on | Medium size | 1.9 mg |
Swiss chard | 64 g | 2.0 mg |
Spinach cooked/raw | 64 g/128 g | 3.0 mg |
Sweet potato, baked with skin on | Medium size | 1.1 mg |
Sauerkraut, canned | 64 g | 1.7 mg |
Tomato Sauce | 64 g | 1.3 mg |
Nuts | ||
Almonds or pistachios | 32 g | 1.3 mg |
Walnuts | 85 g | 1.0 mg |
Dried peaches | 64 g | 1.6 mg |
Dried raisins | 64 g | 1.4 mg |
Dried plums | 64 g | 1.3 mg |
Dried apricots | 64 g | 1.2 mg |
Pine or cashews | 85 g | 1.6 mg |
Prune juice | 125 g | 3.2 mg |
Strawberries | 1 pint | 1.5 mg |
Beans: | ||
White | 100 g | 5.8 g |
(Black, pinto) | 64 g | 1.6–1.8 mg |
(Kidney, lima) | 64 g | 2.6–3.9 mg |
Soybeans | 64 g | 4.4 mg |
Tofu, firm | 64 g | 3.4 mg |
Chickpeas | 100 g | 2.4 mg |
Double beans (cooked) | 125 g | 4.5 mg |
Tomato (sun dried) | 125 g | 4.9 mg |
Soy milk | 300 ml | 2.7 mg |
Quinoa | 125 g | 2.8 mg |
Kale | 125 g | 1.1 mg |
Grains: | ||
Lentils | 64 g | 3.5 mg |
Pumpkin seeds | 28 g | 4.2 mg |
Cereal | 64 g | 2–12 mg |
Cream of wheat | 64 g | 5.2 mg |
Oat meal | 64 g | 1.7 mg |
Oatmeal Instant fortified with iron | 64 g | 5.0 mg |
Common Sources of Vitamin C are depicted in Table 2.
Fruits | Vegetables |
---|---|
Amla, Cashew fruit, Guava, Lakuch, Korukkapalli, Papaya, Lime, sweet (Malta) Musambi, Lemon, Muskmelon Orange Pineapple Ripe tomato Zizypus | Amaranthus Agathi Brussels Carrot Coriander Cabbage Drumstick, Fetid cassia, Knol-khol radish, Turnip, Parsley *Sprouts are richer source of ascorbic acid. |
Sources of vitamin C [7].
The bioavailability of dietary iron is the proportion of iron that is actually available for absorption and utilization by the body (Figure 3) [11]. In humans, haem iron is well absorbed and its absorption varies little with the composition of the meal. Absorption is inversely related to the quantity of iron stores in the body [6].
Iron bioavailability.
Iron status of subject: absorption ranges from 15 to 25 percent in normal subjects and 25–35 percent in iron-deficient subjects.
Amount of dietary haem iron, especially from meat
Content of calcium in meal (e.g. milk, cheese)
Food preparation (time, temperature): Baking and prolonged frying have been shown to reduce haem iron absorption by about 40 percent.
Iron status of subject: The absorption of non-haem iron ranges from 2 to 20 percent. Severely iron-deficient individuals absorb non-haem iron at higher rates than those with normal iron levels. Absorption was shown to be the highest (5–13 percent) in pregnant anemic women.
Concomitant diet: The specific rate of absorption of non-haem iron is highly dependent on the effect of concomitantly ingested dietary components (reducing substances such as ascorbic acid keep iron in the reduced ferrous form) and the amount of body iron stores.
Food preparation (time, temperature): Cooking of cereals and pulses was shown to cause a loss of 22–24 percent of their iron, however, baking chapatti on an iron plate raised the iron content by 19 percent.
Fermentation can degrade the phytate and increase the bioavailability of iron in bread made from whole wheat flour.
Household processes such as germination, malting of grains/pulses and fermentation should be used to over come phytates and enhance the ascorbic acid and B-vitamins.
Amount of potentially available non-haem iron (adjustment for fortification iron and contamination iron).
Many different dietary components either enhance or inhibit dietary iron absorption when they are simultaneously present in the diet [1]. The bioavailability of food and dietary iron is influenced by certain factors, some of which are briefly described below [6].
Iron Absorption Enhancers foods are those, when you eat them together with a natural source of iron or an iron supplement, they help aid body’s ability to effectively absorb the iron into body system [1]. There’s no point in ingesting iron if the body cannot absorb it [10].
Meat/fish/poultry—these are also sources of the most potent form of iron (haem iron)
Acidic fruits—oranges/orange juice /cantaloupe/strawberries/grape fruit etc.
Vegetables—broccoli/brussels, sprouts/tomatoes/tomato Juice/potatoes/green and red peppers etc. [6, 10]
Fermented vegetables (e.g. sauerkraut), fermented soy sauces, etc. [6]
MFP Factor: It is a peptide present in meat, fish, and poultry. It enhances the absorption of non-haem iron present in the same meal. The detailed underlying mechanism is still not known. However, evidence suggests that cysteine-containing peptides present in the meat act by inhibiting luminal inhibitors and eventually form luminal carriers for iron transportation.
Studies consistently showed an enhanced effect on vegetarian iron absorption by 2-3-fold by adding animal proteins.
Ascorbic Acid (Vit C): This effect is mainly due to its iron-chelating and reducing abilities, converting ferric iron to ferrous iron, which has higher solubility and better absorption by 75–98 percent. The addition of ascorbic acid to cereals and pulses enhanced the available iron. [6] Vitamin C also has been shown to have an inhibitory effect on iron absorption inhibitors such as phytate, polyphenols, and calcium. Studies have convincingly shown the dose-dependent enhancing effect of natively present or added vitamin C on iron absorption [1].
The comprehensive review has shown that a food source containing 50 mg of ascorbic acid consumed with the main meal providing most of the daily intake of iron enhances iron bioavailability significantly.
Examples
Meat, fish, poultry
The addition of 90–100 g of meat, fish or poultry to the daily diet, significantly improves the bioavailability of iron. Meat and fish taken even in small amounts markedly improve the bioavailability of non-haem iron.
A non-vegetarian diet containing 3 oz. (approximately 85 g) of meat provides the same increase in non-haem iron absorption as 75 mg of ascorbic acid
Eggs are rich in iron content, but its bioavailability is poor. However, as a source of iron, eggs should be eaten along with a fruit or any other source containing 100 mg of ascorbic acid, or between meals [6].
Vitamin C
In cereal-based diets, absorption was the best for rice and vegetable combinations, which may result from ascorbic acid present in the vegetables. Children who consumed GLV once a week or more frequently had higher iron levels than non-consumers.
Daily intake of guava fruit with the two major meals by young anemic women shows significant increase in iron.
In regional meals, the addition of citrus fruit juices or a portion of potato, cauliflower or cabbage increases iron availability markedly [6].
If 25 mg of ascorbic acid as lemonade is consumed at two meals a day, it doubles the absorption of iron from a meal and improves the iron status [6].
The enhancing effect of ascorbic acid is dose-dependent, but little extra benefit is derived by increasing the intake of ascorbic acid beyond 100 mg in a meal. The influence of ascorbic acid is greatest on meals with low iron bioavailability, such as vegetarian meals [6]. It also improves the availability of iron from fortified foods.
The following are Iron Absorption Inhibitors. i.e. when you have them together with a source of iron, they will either inhibit (limit) or prevent your body from absorbing the iron, you ingested, these foods should be avoided when taking iron rich foods in diet. This also includes any supplementations.
Coffee and tea [6, 10] cocoa, certain spices, certain vegetables and most red wines. (Iron-binding phenolic compounds) [6]
Vegetables—spinach*/chard/beet greens/rhubarb/sweet potatoes whole grains and bran [6, 10].
Bread made from high-extraction flour, breakfast cereals, oats, rice [especially unpolished rice], pasta products, cocoa, nuts, soybeans and peas
Calcium (e.g. milk, cheese) [6].
Isolated soy ingredients—products made with soy flour and isolated soy protein concentrate [6, 10].
Phytates: they are known inhibitors of non-haem iron absorption [10]. Food sources high in phytates include soybean, black beans, lentils, mung beans, and split beans. Unrefined rice and grains also contain phytate [1]. Phytates can decrease non-haem iron absorption by 51–82 percent, and are found in higher concentrations in unrefined, non- or under-milled cereals than in refined, milled cereals [6].
Polyphenols: they are commonly found in tea as tannic acid and also in red wine and oregano. They inhibit non-haem iron by binding within the intestine [1, 6, 10].
Calcium: calcium has been found to have an inhibitory effect on both haem and non-haem iron absorption. Its exact mechanism is unclear [1, 6]. The first 40 mg of calcium in a meal showed no inhibiting effect, whereas 300–600 mg of calcium inhibited iron absorption by 60 percent, which is the maximum inhibition of iron. Studies showed that about 30–50 percent more iron was absorbed when no milk or cheese was served with the main meal, which provided most of the dietary iron [6].
Examples
Approximately 250 ml of black tea can inhibit non-haem iron absorption by approximately 50 percent even when drunk 1 hour after consuming the meal; however, it has no effect when consumed between meals. This inhibition is strongly dose-related, which can be reduced to some extent by serving tea with lemon or adding sufficient milk (100 ml) to the cup of tea [6].
Iron absorption is affected less by coffee than tea.
To overcome the inhibitory effects, tea or coffee should not be consumed with the main iron-containing meals [6].
Milk is better to be avoided with the main meals that contribute most of the daily iron intake, however it can be taken at breakfast, in the evening or at bedtime. Milk intake may be increased to as much as 400 ml per day provided it is distributed as suggested.
The high iron availability of breast milk, which averages 50 percent (compared to 10–20 percent in cow’s milk), is reduced when breast milk is taken together with cow’s milk or weaning foods. Hence weaning foods are recommended to be given separately from the breast milk [6].
Spinach is a good source of iron, too, but it is best to cook the spinach first—it unlocks much of the iron potential for it.
Practical solutions for the competition of calcium with iron is to increase iron intake, increase its bioavailability or avoid taking calcium and iron-rich foods at the same time [6].
The presence of carotene in rice-, wheat- and corn-based diets improved iron absorption from one to more than threefold suggesting that both ascorbic acid and carotene prevented the inhibitory effect of phytates on iron absorption [6].
Dietary factors that influence iron absorption, i.e. enhancers and inhibitors, have been shown repeatedly to influence iron absorption in single-meal isotope studies, whereas in multimeal studies with a varied dietary factor, the effect of single components have been, as expected, more modest [2].
The iron status of the individual and other host factors, such as obesity [2] and medical problems like malabsorptive disorder, Celiac disease, Crohn’s disease and those with history of gastric bypass surgery interferes with iron absorption, play a key role in iron bioavailability, and iron status generally has a greater effect than diet composition. Hence to develop a range of iron bioavailability factors based not only on diet composition but also on subject characteristics, such as iron status and prevalence of obesity is the need of the time [1].
The bioavailability of iron differs in various food sources depending on the types of dietary iron and the presence or absence of iron absorption enhancers or inhibitors among others (Figure 4) [2, 11].
Strategies to improve iron bioavailability.
Food fortification is the addition of micronutrients at the point of manufacture to enhance the nutritional content of the food items, such as meal ingredients or condiments [12].
Fortification is a medium-to-long-term approach that requires a suitable food vehicle and organized processing facilities. About 34 current evidence indicates that food fortification is an effective and cost-effective strategy for reducing the prevalence of iron deficiency. [8, 13, 14] providing extremely good value, with its benefits far outweighing the costs [13] in populations that consume diets containing suboptimal quantities of bioavailable iron [9] and WHO/FAO recommends that the level of fortification is based on the estimated daily iron intake deficit adjusted for bioavailability [8].
Since iron-deficiency anemia is a main indicator of micronutrient deficiencies, one of the safest strategies available to reduce the risk of iron deficiency is fortification with low doses of iron homogeneously diluted in a larger mass of food remains. These considerations are important in the context of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, alongside the several servings of iron per day. Unlike supplementation, iron fortification at the point of manufacture enables the delivery of small doses of the micronutrient in a food vehicle. It is slower to raise body iron levels compared with iron supplementation or iron therapy, but it might be safer [8].
Iron fortification can be done through staple food items such as rice, oils, and wheat; condiments such as fish sauce, soy sauce, lentils (Figure 5) [15], salt and sugar; and lastly through processed commercial food items, including infant complementary foods, dairy products, and noodles.
Lentil iron fortification.
Compared to supplements, the use of fortified complementary foods has been shown to be safer and more effective, since the limitations associated with supplementation includes the need to purchase iron supplements and the need for a higher degree of treatment compliance [13]. The high compliance to fortification is due to the ease of substitution of unfortified staples with fortified foods 34.
Iron salts recommended by WHO for fortification include ferrous sulphate, ferrous fumarate, ferric pyrophosphate, and electrolytic iron powder [2, 13].
The WHO drew up Guidelines for food fortification which included fortification with iron [14]. In a recent directive, the WHO and partner organizations, while providing guidance on national fortification of wheat and maize flours, have endorsed NaFeEDTA to be the only Fe fortificant suitable for use in high-extraction flours [16].
Wheat is currently the primary staple food for nearly one-third of the world’s population. NaFeEDTA protects iron from the phytic acid present in foods by binding more strongly to ferric Fe at the pH of the gastric juice in the stomach and then exchanging the ferric Fe for other metals in the duodenum as the pH rises [12]. It is 2- to 4-fold more bioavailable than ferrous sulfate, particularly in meals with a high-phytate content, thereby making it ideal for use in whole wheat flour [16].
Many research studies were undertaken globally on food fortification with iron; with wheat flour fortification the evidence for reducing iron deficiency among women in reproductive age (WRA) is consistent but on reducing anemia is limited [14].
The three reviews wherein multiple vehicles and various iron sources including electrolytic iron have been used concluded that consumption of iron fortified foods results in:
Improvement in weighted mean difference (WMD) in Hb of 0.42 g/dL, increase in serum ferritin of 1.37 μg/L and reduced risk of being anemic and iron deficient in children;
Improvement in standardized mean difference (SMD) in Hb of 0.55 and 0.64 g/dL, serum ferritin of 0.91 and 0.41 μg/L and reduced risk of being anemic RR 0.55 and 0.68 in children <15 8 years and WRA, respectively;
Improvement in WMD in Hb of 0.51 g/dL in children <10 years [14].
Efficacy of NaFeEDTA, as a fortificant has also been demonstrated in food vehicles such as curry powder, sugar, fish sauce, and maize flour [11, 13, 14, 16].
Salt: The National Institute of Nutrition had developed a technology for fortification of salt with iron and extensively tested its safety and efficacy. Fortification standards were formulated to provide 1 mg of iron (and 15 μg of iodine) per gram of salt which provides about 30–60% of RDA of 17 mg of an adult man consuming 5–10 g salt per day (FSSAI) [14].
Fortification of salt with iron is preferred because it requires only a relatively small volume of the food stuff to be fortified, unlike fortification of cereals. Currently iodisation of salt is nearly universal and using this platform it will be possible to scale up production, distribution and marketing of DFS. Double fortified salt-Iron fortified Iodized salt (providing about 10 mg of iron/day).
The studies on impact of fortified salt with three types of technologies (FeSO4, 13 encapsulated ferrous fumarate and ferric pyrophosphate) showed;
improvement in SMD of Hb of 0.44 g/dL and ferritin 0.62 μg/L,
anemia risk reduction ratio of 0.16 and IDA 0.20 [14].
Since haem iron is readily bioavailable, there have been some instances of the use of meat-derived products in packaged food as fortificants [12].
Iron fortification is not a standalone strategy to correct iron deficiency. There is a need to improve dietary diversification especially consumption of vitamin C rich fruits along with meals so that iron bioavailability is improved [14]. Point-of-use fortification employs micronutrient powders in the form of packed, single-dose sachets that can be added to prepared food to improve its nutrient value [12].
Food fortification offers many health benefits.
Iron fortification in children led to improvement in iron and hemoglobin status.
Hemoglobin levels significantly increased by 6.2 g/L and the risk of anemia was 50% lower in children receiving fortified milk or infant cereals [13]. Use of fortified milk and cereal-based products are more effective in reducing anemia in young children in developing countries, compared to the use of non-fortified products.
Cereal flour fortification with Fe is the most cost-effective and sustainable way to improve its status in deficient populations [16].
Food-fortification practices vary nationally and the need to adjust the dietary iron bioavailability factor for fortification iron will depend on the proportion of fortification iron in the total iron intake and the iron compounds used [13].
Iron compounds used for the fortification of foods will only be partially available for absorption. Once iron is dissolved, its absorption from fortificants and food contaminants is influenced by the same dietary factors [7].
Bioavailability of fortification iron varies widely with the iron compound used, and foods sensitive to color and flavor changes are usually fortified with water-insoluble iron compounds of low bioavailability [2].
Biofortification involves the targeted breeding of staple food crops in order to increase their intrinsic content of micronutrients, including iron. By combining traditional breeding with modern techniques, biofortification blends the traits of high-yield crop varieties with high iron varieties (Figure 6) [12, 17].
Biofortification.
The levels of iron for wheat and rice fortification is similar and permit additions ranging from a minimum of 33% to a maximum of 100% of RDA of 17 mg [14].
The use of biofortified crops address micronutrient deficiencies by enriching the staple food items that constitute the main portion of the diet. Iron biofortification is applicable to cereals like wheat, rice, and millet [12, 14] and to pulses like beans, peas, and lentils [12].
Therefore, even very small amounts of micronutrients could have a positive impact over time. Secondly, if biofortified crops also possess excellent agronomic characteristics, a self-sustaining public health intervention will result because farmers will favor such crops.
Iron-biofortified millet contains higher concentrations of iron. Iron levels in this type of millet reaches 90 ppm, whereas levels in nonbiofortified millet are around 20 ppm. Several studies indicate that regular intake of biofortified millet can be efficacious against iron deficiency [12].
A pearl millet variety was studied among 12–16 year adolescent girls consuming 200–300 g of pearl millet during lunch and dinner for 4 months revealed the following:
There was no difference in Hb
Ferritin increased significantly and
Positive impact on cognitive function [14].
Biofortified pulses, containing 100 ppm or more, have the highest concentrations of iron. Several studies have examined the bioavailability or efficacy of iron in biofortified beans consumed in developing countries; though phytic acid is present in beans, a high proportion of the iron is contained in phytoferritin. Iron from ferritins has been shown to be highly bioavailable [12].
The overall intake of iron from iron rich foods together with Vitamin C needs to be increased to obtain the optimum level of recommended dietary allowance of iron. This increase should be merged with efforts to cartel appropriate foods in the diet to enhance the bioavailability of iron and reduce inhibitory factors. Even without the haem iron found in fish or poultry, vegetarians are not at greater risk from iron deficiency than non-vegetarians. Cereals and millets, pulses and legumes, Green Leafy Vegetables, nuts and oilseed are good sources of iron.
The food combinations should be designed on the basis of foods that are normally consumed, accustomed, locally available and low-cost; comprising enhancing factors and limiting inhibitors to the extent possible and providing an overall balanced diet to provide all the major nutrients required by the body. In addition, combinations and proportions of foods on the basis of the factors influencing dietary iron absorption, a balanced diet has to be calculated.
Dietary consumption of iron and ascorbic acid could be increased by encouraging the production, processing, marketing and consumption of foods rich in these nutrients. Vitamin C-rich foods must be consumed at the same meal that contributes the major part of daily dietary iron.
Nutrition education could be a means for further promotion of dietary iron.
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
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\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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Liu"},{id:"23596",title:"Prof.",name:"Tieli",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"tieli-sun",fullName:"Tieli Sun"}]},{id:"12652",doi:"10.5772/13281",title:"Auction and Swarm Multi-Robot Task Allocation Algorithms in Real Time Scenarios",slug:"auction-and-swarm-multi-robot-task-allocation-algorithms-in-real-time-scenarios",totalDownloads:2512,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"11",slug:"multi-robot-systems-trends-and-development",title:"Multi-Robot Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-Robot Systems, Trends and Development"},signatures:"Gabriel Oliver and José Guerrero",authors:[{id:"14005",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Oliver",slug:"gabriel-oliver",fullName:"Gabriel Oliver"},{id:"14267",title:"Dr.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero",slug:"jose-guerrero",fullName:"José Guerrero"}]},{id:"12637",doi:"10.5772/13241",title:"Multirobot Cooperative Model Applied to Coverage of Unknown Regions",slug:"multirobot-cooperative-model-applied-to-coverage-of-unknown-regions",totalDownloads:2262,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"11",slug:"multi-robot-systems-trends-and-development",title:"Multi-Robot Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-Robot Systems, Trends and Development"},signatures:"Eduardo Gerlein and Enrique Gonzalez",authors:[{id:"14177",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"enrique-gonzalez",fullName:"Enrique Gonzalez"},{id:"14178",title:"Ing.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Gerlein",slug:"eduardo-gerlein",fullName:"Eduardo Gerlein"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68525",title:"Architecture of a Microgrid and Optimal Energy Management System",slug:"architecture-of-a-microgrid-and-optimal-energy-management-system",totalDownloads:1043,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the growing population trends, the demand for electricity is accelerating rapidly. The policy planners and developers have great focus to utilize renewable energy resources (RERs) to encounter the scarcity of energy since they offer benefits to the environment and power systems. At present, the energy generation is evolving into a smart distribution system that assimilates several energy resources assuring to generate clean energy, to have reliable operational procedures, and to enhance the energy supervision and management arrangements. Therefore, the model of a distributed microgrid (DMG) with optimal energy management strategies based on multi-agent systems (MASs) technique has been focused in this chapter. Distributed energy resources (DER) have been considered for the generation of electrical power to fulfill the consumer’s load demands. Thus, a fully controlled architecture of a grid along with concept of MAS and its development platforms, implementation, and operational procedures have been discussed in detail. In addition, agent’s operations and their coordination within the MG arrangements have been focused by considering the supervision of the entire system autonomously. Moreover, optimal procedures of a microgrid (MG) energy supervision and power distribution system have also been presented considering the cost control and optimal operations of the entire MG at the distributed level.",book:{id:"8872",slug:"multi-agent-systems-strategies-and-applications",title:"Multi Agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi Agent Systems - Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Muhammad Waseem Khan, Jie Wang, Linyun Xiong and Sunhua Huang",authors:[{id:"293464",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Waseem",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-waseem-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Waseem Khan"},{id:"307966",title:"Prof.",name:"Jie",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jie-wang",fullName:"Jie Wang"},{id:"308072",title:"Dr.",name:"Linyun",middleName:null,surname:"Xiong",slug:"linyun-xiong",fullName:"Linyun Xiong"},{id:"308073",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunhua",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"sunhua-huang",fullName:"Sunhua Huang"}]},{id:"70172",title:"Applications of Multi-Agent System in Power System Engineering",slug:"applications-of-multi-agent-system-in-power-system-engineering",totalDownloads:926,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Power system needs a continuous upgrade to overcome the challenges like distributed control, self-healing, power quality, demand side management and integration of renewable system. At present, power system needs an advance and intelligent technology to perform various system level tasks. Centralized control of the system has efficient operation during integration of the renewable resources and lag of communication between the stations. Smart grid provides the intelligent and efficient power management system. Upgrade of present power system with multi-agent system (MAS) provides the solution for most of the power system issues. More number of MAS are used in the power system network based on acquires of the system. MAS are communicating with each other for the more acquired result. Better implantation of MAS can achieved by providing the high speed and secured communication protocol. In this chapter, we discussed about the MAS fundamental architecture and intelligent controller design tools and case study of real time tariff management using MAS.",book:{id:"8872",slug:"multi-agent-systems-strategies-and-applications",title:"Multi Agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi Agent Systems - Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"G.S. Satheesh Kumar and S. Tamil Selvi",authors:[{id:"292525",title:"Mr.",name:"Satheeshkumar",middleName:null,surname:"G S",slug:"satheeshkumar-g-s",fullName:"Satheeshkumar G S"},{id:"293451",title:"Ms.",name:"Tamil",middleName:null,surname:"Selvi S",slug:"tamil-selvi-s",fullName:"Tamil Selvi S"}]},{id:"12646",title:"Time-Invariant Motion Planner in Discretized C-Spacetime for MRS",slug:"time-invariant-motion-planner-in-discretized-c-spacetime-for-mrs",totalDownloads:2125,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"11",slug:"multi-robot-systems-trends-and-development",title:"Multi-Robot Systems",fullTitle:"Multi-Robot Systems, Trends and Development"},signatures:"Fabio Marchese",authors:[{id:"13536",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Mario",surname:"Marchese",slug:"fabio-marchese",fullName:"Fabio Marchese"}]},{id:"68568",title:"A Q-Learning-Based Approach for Simple and Multi-Agent Systems",slug:"a-q-learning-based-approach-for-simple-and-multi-agent-systems",totalDownloads:670,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This study proposes different machine learning-based solutions to both single and multi-agent systems, took place on a 2-D simulation platform, namely, Robocode. This dynamic and programmable platform allows agents to interact with the environment and each other by employing a variety of battling strategies. Q-Learning is one of the leading and popular machine learning-based solutions to be applied to such a problem. However, especially for continued spaces, the control problem gets deeper. Essentially, one of the main drawbacks of reinforcement learning (RL) is to design an appropriate reward function that the function can be described by only employing few parameters for simple tasks, whereas estimating the goal of the reward function may be a challenging problem. Recent studies prove that neural network-based approaches can handle these challenges and achieve to learn control strategies from 2-D or 1-D data. Besides those problems of RL algorithms for single robots, once the number of robots increases and the systems need to behave as multi-agent systems, the overall design requirements become more complex. Accordingly, the proposed system is validated by considering different battle scenarios. The performance of the Q-Learning-based system and the supervised learning techniques are compared by employing different scenarios for this problem. Results reveal the superiority of the ANN-based approach over other methods.",book:{id:"8872",slug:"multi-agent-systems-strategies-and-applications",title:"Multi Agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi Agent Systems - Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Ümit Ulusoy, Mehmet Serdar Güzel and Erkan Bostanci",authors:[{id:"168131",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Serdar",surname:"Guzel",slug:"mehmet-guzel",fullName:"Mehmet Guzel"},{id:"296744",title:"Dr.",name:"Ümit",middleName:null,surname:"Ulusoy",slug:"umit-ulusoy",fullName:"Ümit Ulusoy"},{id:"296745",title:"Dr.",name:"Erkan",middleName:null,surname:"Bostanci",slug:"erkan-bostanci",fullName:"Erkan Bostanci"}]},{id:"70262",title:"Multi-Agent Systems Based Advanced Energy Management of Smart Micro-grid",slug:"multi-agent-systems-based-advanced-energy-management-of-smart-micro-grid",totalDownloads:807,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Microgrids play a major role in enabling the widespread adoption of renewable distributed energy resources. However, as the power generated from renewable resources is intermittent in nature, it impacts the dynamics and stability of the microgrid, and hence their integration needs new approaches to coordination and control. The existing systems lack run-time adaptive behavior. To face these constraints, the electric energy system must adapt by integrating Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). Multiagent system (MAS) is emerging as an integrated solution approach to distributed computing, communication, and data integration needs for smart grid application. Distributed and heterogeneous information can be efficiently processed locally, but utilized globally to coordinate distributed knowledge networks, resulting in reduction of information processing time and network bandwidth. Parallel operations, asynchronous communication, and autonomous actions of agents enable MAS to adapt to dynamic changes of the environment, thereby improving the reliability, responsiveness, fault tolerance, and stability of the microgrid. In this chapter, MAS is implemented with Java Agent DEvelopment (JADE) framework for advanced energy management of a microgrid. Also, MAS is linked with Arduino microcontroller for practical verification of agent operations. Three microgrids are interconnected to form a microgrid testbed, and smart grid features such as demand side management and plug and play are implemented, making it into a smart microgrid.",book:{id:"8872",slug:"multi-agent-systems-strategies-and-applications",title:"Multi Agent Systems",fullTitle:"Multi Agent Systems - Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Leo Raju and Antony Amalraj Morais",authors:[{id:"296152",title:"Dr.",name:"Leo",middleName:null,surname:"Raju",slug:"leo-raju",fullName:"Leo Raju"},{id:"308984",title:"Mr.",name:"Antony Amalraj",middleName:null,surname:"Morais",slug:"antony-amalraj-morais",fullName:"Antony Amalraj Morais"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1263",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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