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\r\n\tThe book is intended to cover a broad spectrum of leukemia-related topics such as: \r\n\t-novel and still evolving insights into the biology and diagnosis and how these result in new drug approvals and new therapeutic options with a focus on molecular and immunotherapeutic targeted therapeutics, \r\n\t- the molecular and functional features of leukemic stem cells and their interaction with the microenvironment, \r\n\t- preleukemic hematopoiesis and clonal diversity, \r\n\t- new standard treatment algorithms, \r\n\t- mechanisms of resistance and disease progression \r\n\t- diagnosis and management of rare acute leukemia subtypes, \r\n\t- Covid-19 aspects in specific leukemia categories, \r\n\t- real-world data \r\n\t- new drugs in development
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1. Introduction
Recognition of the close link between sustainable natural resource management and rural development and a pervasive decline of wildlife due to traditional centralized wildlife management practices prompted the introduction of Community-Based Wildlife Management (CBWM) in Tanzania [1, 2, 3]. CBWM approach intends to fill the gaps emanating from ‘protectionist’ wildlife management practices whereby local communities were strictly excluded from utilization and management of wildlife [4]. The main assumption of CBWM approach is that access of economic benefits from wildlife-related enterprises among the local communities improves their standard of living and, consequently, motivate them to support wildlife conservation efforts [5, 6, 7]. The endorsement of Wildlife Policy in 1998 laid out the initial underpinnings of Tanzania’s approach to CBWM through the establishment of WMAs. The concept “represents an important option for wildlife conservation outside the core protected areas and acts as a buffer against human impacts while enhancing rural economic development” [8]. These community-managed areas are established within the village lands, whereby groups of villages set aside land for sustainable wildlife conservation and derive benefits from investment options provided by the land [9].
Despite the governance and conservation challenges undermining the success and sustainability of WMAS [5, 10, 11], WMAs are thought to represent a feasible option for conserving wildlife outside the core protected areas in Tanzania while enhancing rural economic development [12, 13]. A 2012 status report on WMAs by WWF, highlights some evidence that the creation of WMAs has led to improved biodiversity conservation and increased protection of areas that are considered ecologically important [5]. WMAs have also given villages a framework within which they can better manage their land and benefit from the wildlife through tourism activities [11].
Literature shows that tourism in community lands outside the core protected areas, particularly in northern Tanzania, has expanded and many villages earn considerable revenues through joint ventures [14, 15, 16]. By forgoing land uses such as farming, livestock grazing or settlement, and allowing investors to use the land for photographic and hunting tourism, the villagers receive a set of payments. Currently, several options for utilizing and creating benefits from wildlife resources exist in the WMAs. These include non-consumptive (photographic tourism) and consumptive (trophy hunting, resident hunting) uses that are carried out in a manner that does not interrupt the ecological processes and the ecosystem functions. For example, tourist lodges in IKONA and Burunge WMAs generate over one million US$ per annum (See Table 1). Concessions are shared among the villages and used to fund the development and maintenance of social infrastructures like schools, dispensaries, or water projects. These benefits have, consequently, instilled positive attitudes towards conservation among the villagers, who are actively taking part in conservation through patrols, intelligence, and de-snaring [12]. Besides generating revenues, tourism development in WMAs provides local employment and market for local goods such as foods, souvenirs, and handicrafts. The income from tourism represents a growing source of economic diversification, poverty alleviation as well as economic incentives for community stewardship towards wildlife resources. Community Conservation Banks (COCOBA), also known as village savings and loan groups, have emerged as a popular strategy in guaranteeing the local livelihoods and the future of wildlife populations found on village lands outside the core protected areas [17]. Through the strategy, the communities are supported financially by allowing them to invest in environmentally-friendly businesses and, thus, lessening the dependence on ecologically damaging activities such as bushmeat hunting, farming, or cattle grazing.
WMA
District
Revenues from Hunting
Revenues from Photographic Tourism
Total revenues
1. IKONA
Serengeti
735,510
933,076
1,668,586
2. Burunge
Babati
78,261
1,189,785
1,268,046
3. Makao
Meatu
14,861
N/A
14,861
4. Enduimet
Longido
117,834
132,799
250,633
5. Randilen
Monduli
N/A1
332,801
332,801
Table 1.
Revenues (US$) from hunting and photographic tourism disbursed to five WMAs of northern Tanzania from 2016/2017 to 2017/2018.
Source: Respective Authorized Associations.
1N/A: No operation of the respective activity.
1.1 COVID-19 pandemic, tourism and WMA
In December 2019, the Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19), caused by a Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome CoronaVirus2 (SARS-CoV-2), was first reported in Hubei Province, which is a famous animal market in the Chinese city of Wuhan [18]. On 30 January and 11 March 2020, the disease, was declared ‘A Public Health Emergency of International Concern’ and ‘a pandemic’, respectively [19]. The anthropogenic impact on nature and biodiversity loss through deforestation and the modification of natural habitats have been associated with the outbreak of this pandemic [20, 21, 22].
The COVID-19 pandemic has pushed the world to a devastating economic recession, the tourism industry, being one of the hardest hit [15, 16, 23]. Lockdown and travel restrictions imposed around the world due to this pandemic have halted operations in the tourism industry as a result of the decline of cash flow from incoming tourists [24]. The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) assessment of the economic impact of the pandemic on international tourism estimated a loss of US$300–450 billion in 2020 compared to 2019 figures [25]. Monthly surveys conducted by SafariBookings.com from March to October 2020, involving hundreds of safari tour operators reported an over a three-quarter decline of bookings and massive cancelations of the bookings [26]. Also noted in these surveys, was a failure among the operators to meet their administrative costs [17].
Loss of revenues from tourism poses a severe threat to the survival of protected areas as these revenues are reinvested for the management of wildlife species and habitats. Tourism revenues are crucial for funding conservation operations and support the benefit sharing schemes among the communities. Furthermore, these revenues enable conservation as a land-use to compete effectively with other economic activities that are ecologically damaging. WMAs, like many other categories of wildlife protected areas in Tanzania, rely entirely on tourism revenues and partly on conservation donors for their operations. The collapse of tourism, therefore, increases their vulnerability to the global impacts of COVID-19. The COVID-19 pandemic is likely to strip off the vital funding for WMAs needed to manage the wildlife resources and reward communities for the opportunity cost of coexisting with wildlife. Tourism income contributes to almost 90–95% of conservation management costs in WMAs. The WMA’s administrative costs include the remuneration of the staff - mainly community rangers, purchase of equipment and supplies needed for rangers to remain active in combating illegal uses of wildlife resources. Without adequate funding, the operational budget for anti-poaching surveillance and other activities for WMAs will seriously be affected. Further to impact on WMA operations, compromised livelihoods options as a result of reduced tourism incomes will likely intensify threats to wildlife resources through increased illegal activities pursued to cope with economic hardship. Evidence-based literature indicates that poverty is one of the critical drivers of wildlife and environmental crimes in Africa [27, 28, 29, 30, 31].
Considering the importance of WMAs in securing wildlife space around the core protected areas and creating incentives for local communities to conserve wildlife resources, it is apparent that the failure of these areas to function properly will bear the negative repercussions on the local livelihoods and biodiversity. Understanding how WMAs can sustain their vital roles of conservation and improving the livelihoods of the vulnerable communities during the current unprecedented circumstance of COVID-19 is critical for their survival and management. This paper, therefore, analyses the extent to which the collapse of tourism activities due to COVID-19 pandemic has affected WMAs operational activities and local livelihoods. Our findings will contribute to further understanding of the effects that contemporary issues such as infectious diseases and, COVID 19, in particular, have on conservation, tourism, and local livelihoods. These findings are quite robust in recommending possible mechanisms of enhancing resilience and preparedness of community-managed conservation areas such as WMAs to emerging global pandemics.
2. Methodology
2.1 Study area
The study was conducted in the five purposively selected WMAs, namely; Makao, Burunge, Enduimet, Randileni, and IKONA located in Northern Tanzania (Figure 1). These five WMAs along with 33 others, covers a total area of 29,000 km2 which is about 3% of the country’s land surface area. Details of these WMAs are shown in Table 2 below.
Figure 1.
Location of selected WMA’s in the northern Tanzania.
WMA
District
Size (Km2)
Year of establishment
Participating villages
GN and Date of gazettement
IKONA
Serengeti
242.3
2003
5
GN 57 (09.03.2007)
Burunge
Babati
617.0
2003
10
GN 37 (31.06.2006)
Makao
Meatu
768.9
2007
7
GN 369 (20.11.2009)
Enduimet
Longido
751.4
2003
9
GN 57 (09.03.2007)
Randilen
Monduli
312.0
2011
6
GN 21 (01.02.2013)
Table 2.
Status of selected wildlife management areas.
The selection of the five WMAs was based on their performance in generating revenues from tourism activities compared to other WMAs in the country. For example, from 2016 to 2018 hunting and photographic tourism earned these WMAs a total of US$ 3.55 million (US$0.95 million from tourist hunting and 2.6 million from photographic tourism [32].
2.2 Study participants and sampling method
The study population consisted of Village Game Scouts (VGS), village government leaders, leaders of the WMAs and ten community members residing in each of the five selected WMAs. The WMA leaders were purposively selected based on their positions and roles they play in the management of WMAs. The community members consist of villagers who have no leadership role in the village governments or WMAs but who derive benefits from tourism activities taking place in the WMAs, directly or indirectly. These participants (Table 3) were selected using both purposive and snowball sampling methods, considering their diverse roles in the community as far as WMAs, conservation, and tourism are concerned. In addition, with purposive sampling technique, efforts were made to consider gender of respondents considering different roles that males and females play in conservation and tourism.
Categories of participants
Wildlife Management Areas
IKONA
Burunge
Makao
Enduimet
Randilen
1. Village Game Scouts (VGS)
3
2
4
1
1
2. Village Leaders
2
2
2
2
2
3. WMAs Leaders
1
1
1
1
1
4. Community members
10
10
10
10
10
Table 3.
Number of participants in each category of respondents in the WMAs.
2.3 Sources of data and methods for data collection
This study was conducted in May, 2020 and employed both primary and secondary data to generate information on the effects of COVID-19 on survival of WMAs and impacts on local livelihoods. Secondary data from different reports complemented the primary data obtained through interviews with key respondents. The use of qualitative data collection methods, and in this case, key informant interviews was deemed appropriate in providing a detailed understanding of WMAs performance amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Key informants were anticipated to provide a broader understanding of socio-ecological dimensions of the current situation facing WMAs in Tanzania and capture the complexities as well as diverse perspectives as the situation unfolds. In particular, key informant interviews with selected community members sought information on how tourism influences their livelihood and how the collapse of tourism activities in the WMAs has been affecting their socio-economic development.
On the other hand, WMAs leaders provided information on tourism revenue sharing mechanisms, the local support for conservation efforts as a result of tourism, and how the decline of tourism activities within each selected WMA has affected both the WMAs’ operational activities and local livelihoods. A checklist of questions was designed to guide an interview based on the key research objectives. The interviews were conducted conversationally to allow probing of the issues which were not included in the interview guide but useful in addressing the research questions. Social distance and other precautionary measures to avoid infection of COVID-19 were observed during the interview.
2.4 Data analysis
Content analysis was employed to analyze data from the interviews after translation from Swahili to the English language. Content analysis is a procedure for analyzing textual material (opinions and perspectives) which involves compressing texts into themes and content categories to uncover frequency of occurrence among texts [33, 34]. In this study, the content of the interview data was classified into important themes that were identified to reflect the objectives of the study. Each theme presented an “idea” and all the data related to a particular theme were added under that unit. The themes were evaluated by making comparisons of responses and determining how often each of the categories appears to conclude a specific aspect. The presentation of the results is also supported by quotes from respondents’ responses for illustration purposes.
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Income generation from wildlife management areas
Results from the interviews show that tourism is an important income-generating activity in the five WMAs. Essentially, about 90% of WMAs income is obtained through various tourism-related opportunities such as photographic safaris, hunting tourism, concession fees, and other fees. The remaining 10% come from donor support in the form of grants and occasionally from penalties in form of fines imposed against various law offenders within the WMAs. The financial contribution of hunting and photographic tourism to five WMAs is corroborated by the 2018 Wildlife Sub-sector Statistical Bulletin [32].
The revenue from the WMAs is shared among the Central Government, Local Government and the respective WMAs. The participating villages in the WMAs receive 50% WMA’s income share from the Government and the rest is used to cover the operational costs. Besides direct revenues, tourism has created numerous opportunities to diversify the local economy. It is important to note that livelihood diversification in WMAs is essential, as most of these areas are on lands that are considered economically marginal, experiencing semi-arid to arid conditions with limited possibilities for generating household income from other activities such as crop farming and livestock production. Tourism in such areas has been widely acknowledged to present opportunities and capitalize on the cultural, landscape, and wildlife assets commonly found on marginal lands that are not particularly valuable for other activities that drive the economy [35].
Further analysis of the income opportunities in the WMAs shows that tourism provides, not only a regular source of income to the member villages, but also adds value to different locally produced products in the course of tourists spending (Table 4). There were several ways through which the local communities in the WMAs village members have been able to benefit from the presence of tourists in their areas. For example, it was revealed that some community members could derive benefits through working as local tour guides, direct employments in the tourist lodges and hotels as well as selling a range of locally made products such mats and baskets, beaded necklaces, earrings and bracelet, and Maasai attires to the tourists. It was revealed that, on average, community members engaging in selling local products and/or providing services to tourists might earn up to TZS 300,000 (approximately USD 130) per month. The local communities have also been hired occasionally by the tourist lodges and hotels to entertain tourists through performing traditional dances, where on average; each earns about 50,000 Tanzanian shillings per performance. There is a general understanding that tourism income within the WMAs positively influences the livelihoods of those who directly engage in tourism-related activities. Hence the collapse of tourism has affected the livelihood of several members of the communities who have not been able to derive any income from such activities for the past 6 months. One of the respondents working as a Village Game Scout (VGS) in Burunge WMA underscored the importance of tourism income by reiterating that;
Categories of opportunities
Description
1. A partnership between investors and communities
Annual concession fees from contracts made between the WMA member villages and investors
Tourist lodges and hotels in the WMA employing local staff
2. Locally controlled small enterprises
Community members selling cultural/ traditional products and handicrafts to tourists
3. Local services to tourists and lodges
Local tour guiding
Supplying agricultural-based products, vegetables, and meat to tourist lodges
Performing traditional dances to entertain the tourists
4. Income share from WMA to local communities
The participating villages receive 50% of WMA’s income share after Government deductions
Table 4.
Opportunities for communities to benefit from WMAs.
“…It is through this job that I was able to build a decent brick house for my parents and I am capable of paying for my children’s school fees…”.
Tourism-related income in the WMAs was also found to directly influence households’ access to basic education, health care, and other social services for the community members who do not have direct engagement with tourism activities. Results from interview indicate that the majority of the members of the communities benefit through collective income earned at the community level. This collective income is usually obtained either through WMAs’ share to the communities or when villages earn profits through leasing part of their land to tourism business investors. The communal income is usually invested in improving the provision of social infrastructure such as water, schools, roads, and dispensaries within the community. Some tour operators have been offering both financial and material support to support the communities rehabilitating school buildings as well as purchasing equipment required for schools and health care operations. Community development projects have generally been the fundamental means of extending tourism benefits to all community members. The funding of social services projects through tourism revenues relieves the communities from the burden of contributing to these services, thus making the money available to cater for alternative household requirements.
3.2 Effects of COVID-19 pandemic on WMAs’ operational activities and wildlife resources
Discussion with leaders of the WMAs uncovered that, following an outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic and, subsequently, loss of revenues from tourism, none of the five WMAs was able to effectively implement its administrative activities including the funding of the village development projects. For example, the Enduimet WMA was forced to defer implementation of the infrastructure development projects that were planned during the 2019/2020 financial year, among others, being the renovation of the ranger posts, construction of game viewing routes and a visitor centre in Engikaret. Other administrative activities that were put on hold include the review of village land use plans, tree planting activities, environmental conservation education through cinemas, and the Annual General Meeting (Table 5).
BURUNGE
Failure to put in place a Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool (SMART) System for data collection and anti-poaching activities
Failure to purchase field gears for the scouts and crop protection tools
24 local staff working in the hotels within the WMA were laid-off
Various village development projects in the WMA member villages were put on hold
Small scale businesses such as the sale of souvenirs closed
50 local tour guides in the WMA lost their jobs
A planned improvement of the road networks within the WMA stopped
Could not conduct environmental education program to the local communities
Overfishing by the local communities within the WMA
ENDUIMET
15 employees laid off
Anti-poaching operations are confined within the WMA Borders, very little or no extension beyond borders and neighbors
Failure to implement social development projects such as water, education, and health infrastructures within the participating villages
Failure to develop and renovate the planned tourism facilities such as tented camps, Visitor Center in Engikaret, Game viewing Routes, and the Ranger posts.
Failure to undertake and review the village land-use plans
Failure to implement conservation projects and plans including tree planting, conservation and environmental education through Cinema
RANDILEN
The collapse of local businesses especially those selling souvenirs for the past 3 months
Traditional dancers have no jobs
The number of patrols has decreased due to a lack of funding Village development projects have been put on hold
IKONA
Nearly all local tour guides have lost their jobs
26 employees who have been paid by the village given leave without pay
Village Game Scouts (VGS) have been reduced in number from 25 to 14
VGS undertake patrols without payment, they are just given food and no payments
Many activities like cultural activities are currently implemented
Closure of tourists hotels and local Business closed
Failure to fund development projects and support students who have been sponsored the villages
MAKAO
VGS are temporally given leave without pay while others are working on loan
Lack of donation from the tour operators
Road construction project has stopped
Reduced numbers of patrols, giving rise to increasing of illegal activities
Table 5.
Negative effects of COVID-19 on WMA resources and local livelihoods.
In Burunge WMA, the planned projects that were affected included the development of the well-equipped permit infrastructures at the WMA common entry gate; establishment of a smart system database for patrol, wildlife monitoring, and data collection as well as the purchase of crop protection tools and field gears for the scouts. Other plans which are deferred pending returning of the situation to normality are the construction of different tourism user facilities like picnic sites and viewpoints, improvement of the road networks to stimulate tourism activities within the WMA, and implementing Conservation Education programs to local communities (Table 5).
The effects of COVID-19 have also been notable in the anti-poaching operations. For instance, IKONA WMA has been forced to retrench 11 out of its 25 village game scouts alongside reducing the number of patrol days. Furthermore, the remaining scouts have been working without pay and are either facing reduced salaries or unpaid leave. In Randilen WMA, no payment is offered to scouts participating in patrols other than meals. In Makao WMA, 15 scouts participate in patrols work on a rotational basis and receive no pay. The anti-poaching operations in Enduimet WMA are currently being confined within the WMA borders, with no extension beyond the borders (Table 5). Inadequate workforce to patrol the entire WMA areas and surrounding areas along with reduced working morale among the rangers due to minimal incentives, has translated into inefficient anti-poaching operations and, therefore, render the WMAs and surrounding areas vulnerable to poaching and other illegal activities. On the other hand, loss of income as a result of retrenchment and interruption of livelihood strategies prompts illegal use of resources. The effects of COVID-19 on conservation operations in WMAs are illustrated by views from some WMA leaders provided in Box 1 below.
Opinions of WMA leaders on effects of COVID-19 on wildlife conservation.
“...A steep decline of tourism due to COVID-19 has a devastating effect on the cash flow to WMA. The purchasing power of the WMA has drastically declined to the extent that no procurement is currently being made.”
Chairperson, IKONA WMA
“...The layoff of one-third of employees who were mainly responsible for carrying out anti-poaching operations has intensified pressure on natural resources. A WMA cannot do frequent patrols as there are no funds for fuel, vehicle repairs, and allowances for rangers. A few number staff are required to patrol a relatively large chunk of land and, thus making the anti-poaching operations a huge burden to WMA…”
Chairperson, Enduimet WMA
“...Loss of jobs, reduced salaries, and unpaid leaves have caused food insecurity among the members of the communities who are currently resorting to poaching and destruction of wildlife habitat if they are not assisted immediately. If this situation persists, I am afraid it might lead to overexploitation of the resources that attract tourists …”
Chairperson, Burunge WMA
Patrols in WMAs are essential in monitoring wildlife, preventing poaching, and in minimizing human-wildlife conflicts. Effective implementation of anti-poaching patrols in terms of the adequate number of personnel is, therefore, essential in providing an effective deterrent against illegal activities in an area [36].
3.3 Effects of COVID-19 crisis on local livelihoods
Assessment of the effects of the COVID-19 crisis on local livelihoods was crucial in understanding the livelihood losses due to the decline of tourism activities in the WMAs. This is important due to direct and indirect correlations between the loss of livelihood options and destruction of wildlife habitats and species [28, 30, 31].
The findings of this study show that COVID-19 pandemic has had far reaching consequences on the livelihoods of the local communities. All WMAs participating villages have failed to implement various social development projects such as water, education, and health infrastructure, to mention a few, as there are no more dividends to finance these projects. The pandemic has also led to the temporary closure of all businesses that entirely rely on tourists for revenues. It was noted that each surveyed WMA had at least one hotel investment all of which have been closed down following the pandemic, a situation that has made many locals working as casual employees for the hotels to lose their jobs.
Loss of livelihood is further contributed by the closure of small scale local businesses that were conducted by the majority of community members. It was found that the owners of these small scale enterprises were unable to run their businesses due to a lack of tourists and the consequential diminished demand for their products. Other respondents reported that they had debts and loans which they could hardly service due to the impact of COVID-19. Box 2 below summarizes some respondents’ views on impacts that have brought by COVID-19 on their livelihoods.
Respondents opinions on effects of COVID-19 on local livelihoods
“...Villagers who were employed by tourist hotels are now at home without any jobs. As a consequence, the tourism multiplier effect in society has dropped drastically due to the poor performance of other economic activities…”
Nata Village Executive Officer, IKONA WMA
“...I used to supply vegetables and goats and sheep meat to the Singita-Grumeti Reserves Hotel Ltd. and earn at least one million Tanzanian Shillings per week from selling such products, but currently, I earn nothing because the business has collapsed…” .
A villager of Robanda, IKONA WMA
“..I used all the money I had to buy materials for making handicrafts anticipating profits from selling such products to the tourists. Currently, I am just at home left with no money or business. If this situation continues for a long period, I will not be able to cater for my household basic needs...”
Member of the Cultural Women Group in Enduimet WMA
“...I took a loan from the Village Community Bank to buy raw materials for making handcrafts…but I am unable to repay the loan because over the past three months I have not sold a single item that I made for tourists...”
A respondent, Enduimet WMA
Tanzania Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture (TCCIA) indicate that Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in the country comprise 95% of the businesses in the country and contribute about 35% of the country’s GDP. Compared to more prominent firms, SMEs are unlikely to survive economic shocks such as COVID-19 due to limited resources. The high concentration of SMEs in the tourism industry including their multiplier effects translate into disruption of value chains and, consequently, economic hardship to the majority of the people. A survey conducted in April 2020 by Launchpad Tanzania and Maarifa Hub to determine the severity of the economic impact of COVID-19 on small and medium businesses as well as entrepreneurs in Tanzania revealed that 97% of those surveyed had been economically impacted by the pandemic whereby 40% have experienced a loss of half of their income and 10% have experienced a total loss of income [37]. The tour companies dealing with hotel operations in the surveyed WMAs have also reported crises caused by COVID-19 due to the ongoing accommodation cancelations without payment of cancelation fees coupled with a drop in future booking requests. It is important to note that the lodge and hotel establishments in the WMAs have created several job opportunities, the majority of which are held by members of the communities. This was attested by the campsite manager for IKONA Bush Camp in IKONA WMA with a viewpoint that;
“…each staff working in our lodge has at least ten dependents. This means hundreds of individuals and families across the community are supported by jobs created by our lodge. The layoffs of staff and unpaid leaves have devastating effects on the livelihoods of the majority of members of the community…”.
4. Implications of the study findings
It is apparent that COVID-19 has set off unprecedented crisis in the tourism economy given the immense shock to the sector [38]. Findings of this study indicate that the pandemic has posed significant negative repercussions to the majority of local communities through interruptions of their livelihood options. This presents a potential threat to wildlife resources in the surveyed WMAs. As pointed earlier in the study findings, conservation of wildlife in WMAs largely depends on tourism revenue, and hence loss of such revenue due to pandemic has far-reaching implications for local livelihoods and wildlife conservation in particular. It is widely documented that communities living adjacent to core protected areas bear the highest cost of conservation through a loss of their land and human-wildlife conflicts [39, 40]. Loss of tourism revenues has not only increased opportunity costs of conservation to the local communities but also poses a significant threat to WMAs functioning as an alternative conservation approach and a reliable land-use option.
Furthermore, it is estimated that around 80% of all tourism businesses in Tanzania are informal SMEs characterized by low-skilled individuals and vulnerable segments of the population who are either employed or run micro and small enterprises [41]. The contribution of SMEs in creating employment is widely acknowledged globally, and in Tanzania in particular [42, 43, 44]. SMEs constitute over 90% of the businesses in Tanzania and are regarded as the engine for economic growth in the country [45]. Unlike large enterprises, SMEs can be easily established since their requirements in terms of capital; technology, management and even utilities are less demanding. However, when it comes to shocks, such as pandemics, the informal workforce engaging in SMEs bears the highest vulnerability, due to lack of safety nets in terms of limited social protection measures and inadequate savings.
Local communities within the surveyed WMAs experience a similar situation because their household income is barely diversified beyond tourism, and the majority of community members are either employed or self-employed in the informal tourism economy. The decline of tourism in the WMAs has left many households vulnerable due to loss of jobs (for employees) and closure of small businesses as a result of reduced demand for their products. It should further be noted that the closure of hotel businesses within the WMAs, has not only affected the workforce who were laid off and or given leave without pay, but also had a far-reaching impact on families who were supplying vegetables and meat and poultry products to the hotels. The crisis in the WMAs is also believed to have reduced household savings with only very few households having enough savings to meet their household expenses for one month or more. Inadequate savings among the community members intensify the extent of vulnerability for many households in the study area.
Since tourism is the main income-generating activity in the WMAs, its suspension following the outbreak of COVID-19, will bear the major ramifications for wildlife conservation in the country. Our findings suggest that the pandemic has posed a major threat to conservation in the WMAs and hampered the conservation-related activities in numerous ways. Most of the conservation and development programs that were already planned by the WMAs have become uncertain (Table 5). The fact that the five WMAs studied are prototypes representing a success story for other WMAs existing or proposed in the country, there is a risk that the whole concept of WMA may become unpopular if the pandemic results to a total failure in these areas, which have already won the hearts of the communities. This will water down the conviction that wildlife conservation can compete effectively with alternative land uses and, thus, prompt people to claim back their land for these alternative uses, which essentially are ecologically destructive.
Community conservation programs are essential in motivating the local communities to conserve resources and pursue activities that are consistent with the preservation of nature. The drop in tourism revenues and the resultant layoffs of key staff implies inadequate resources for WMAs to conduct effective anti-poaching activities, monitor wildlife, and respond to human-wildlife conflicts. The COVID 19 crisis is also likely to intensify poverty and food insecurity among community members due to the decline of tourism income. In such cases, food-insecure communities are likely to resort to illegal natural resource for the sake of surviving. Additionally, since some WMAs partly depend on donor support for their operations, the dwindling economies may reduce the capacity of donors to provide financial support for wildlife conservation. Reduced donor support will, to a certain degree impair conservation operations by limiting the ability of WMAs to conserve and manage wildlife resources.
5. Survival mechanisms during and after the COVID-19
Addressing the effects of COVID 19 is critical in ensuring the sustainability of WMAs. Here, we describe actions necessary to sustain wildlife conservation and the livelihood of the vulnerable communities in an attempt to stir up further debate on the sustainability of WMAs in Tanzania as a framework for communities to manage and benefit from wildlife resources.
The volatility nature and the over-reliance on international tourism to support conservation and local livelihood subject WMAs to an increased degree of vulnerability to effects of global pandemics such as COVID-19. Creating local revenue mechanisms that are more resilient to global shocks may guarantee the long-term survival of WMAs against the negative effects of the pandemics. Such mechanisms, among others, include the need to expand and promote domestic tourism to locally boost wildlife-based tourism revenues and foster long-term community support for conservation. Currently, Tanzania receives about 1.5 m tourists annually, and domestic tourism represents only 26% of the total number [46]. Domestic tourism when properly developed and managed has the potential to create a more resilient tourism income and, can be a more reliable form of income for vulnerable communities as it does not fluctuate as much compared to international tourism. Among the factors that need to be addressed in boosting domestic tourism include the provision of affordable accommodation and transport to locals in protected areas, raising awareness on the attractions as well as instilling the culture of visiting local attractions among Tanzanians.
Furthermore, diversifying revenue-generating options in WMAs and promotion of income-generating activities that are compatible with nature conservation can also serve as mechanism to cope with the global effects of COVID-19 and other pandemics. The livelihood conditions of local communities could be improved through the adoption of alternative livelihood options that reduce community dependency on tourism for livelihoods. For instance, beekeeping is among the income-generating activities that have a high potential to improve the local livelihoods and is considered compatible with conservation. As a custom, beekeepers need to maintain the natural habitat and reduce the unsustainable use of trees as a source of energy to boost the production of bee products. Many cultures around the globe highly value bee products and if well managed, beekeeping is likely to provide a reliable income for the majority of vulnerable communities that are dependent on tourism.
Moreover, concerted efforts from various stakeholders including the government, Non-Governmental Organizations, and individuals are required to minimize the negative effects of the COVID -19 pandemic in the WMAs. Currently, many WMAs rely entirely on tourism income and partly on donor support to finance conservation activities. There is no specific mechanism that exists for the central government to financially support the WMAs. The right support and funding models would be needed to allow WMAs to sustain their crucial management operations and support local development projects. This includes among other things, restructuring WMA benefit-sharing arrangements to provide the WMA’s member villages with more revenue retention by reducing shares to the Government.
6. Conclusion
This study aimed to understand the nature and extent of the COVID-19 pandemic’s impacts on the selected WMAs found in Northern Tanzania. In particular, the study looked at the impact of declined tourism revenues on conservation of wildlife resources, local employment as well as the potential trickle-down livelihoods effects on the families of community members. This study revealed that COVID-19 pandemic is having considerable devastating effects on the local livelihoods and WMA revenue collections. The pandemic has affected the incomes of enterprises and individuals due to the closure of tourism businesses and the collapse of the community’s small-scale enterprises that are heavily dependent on tourism within the WMAs. Loss of tourism revenue further threatens the conservation of resources and management of WMAs to carry out critical operations for the conservation of wildlife and provide social and economic incentives to the local communities. The current situation thus requires actions to cope with the negative effects of COVID-19 to sustain the functions of the WMAs. Measures put forth include the promotion of domestic tourism, diversification of livelihood options for communities surrounding the WMAs, and concerted efforts by the Government, Non-Government Organizations, and the donor’s community to provide funding for the sustainability of the WMAs.
\n',keywords:"Wildlife Management Areas, COVID-19, local communities, tourism, livelihood, conservation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76660.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76660.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76660",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76660",totalDownloads:272,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 18th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 24th 2021",datePrePublished:"May 7th 2021",datePublished:"December 8th 2021",dateFinished:"May 7th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The establishment of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) has been adopted as intervention to safeguard the wildlife and their habitats outside the core protected areas in Tanzania. Along with their conservation role, WMAs provide an opportunity for local communities to derive economic benefits from wildlife-based enterprises on their land. WMAs primarily rely on revenues generated from photographic and hunting tourism to support operational activities and create incentives for the local communities to conserve wildlife resources. The current global travel restrictions and lockdown caused by an outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic have reduced a vital funding source for WMAs. This, therefore, undermines the ability to manage the wildlife resources and reward communities for the opportunity cost of their land and other costs associated with coexisting with wildlife. This chapter examines the extent to which the decline of tourism revenues as a result of the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic has affected WMAs as a framework for local communities to manage and benefit from wildlife. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews on five WMAs in Northern Tanzania that were purposively selected based on their ability to generate a significant amount of revenues from tourism. Findings show that the decline of tourism revenues triggers unprecedented adverse effects on the conservation of wildlife resources within WMAs. Livelihood of the local communities is also affected due to loss of employment opportunities and drop-off of tourism income obtained from the sales of local goods to the tourists and tourist hotels. We recommend the creation of local mechanisms for revenue acquisition that are more resilient to global shocks, diversifying revenue-generating options within WMAs, and putting in place the right funding model that would warrant WMAs sustainability.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76660",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76660",signatures:"Rehema Abeli Shoo, Elizabeth Kamili Mtui, Julius Modest Kimaro, Neema Robert Kinabo, Gladys Joseph Lendii and Jafari R. Kideghesho",book:{id:"8834",type:"book",title:"Managing Wildlife in a Changing World",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Managing Wildlife in a Changing World",slug:"managing-wildlife-in-a-changing-world",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",bookSignature:"Jafari R. Kideghesho",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8834.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-976-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-975-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-977-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"280695",title:"Prof.",name:"Jafari R.",middleName:null,surname:"Kideghesho",slug:"jafari-r.-kideghesho",fullName:"Jafari R. Kideghesho"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"280695",title:"Prof.",name:"Jafari R.",middleName:null,surname:"Kideghesho",fullName:"Jafari R. Kideghesho",slug:"jafari-r.-kideghesho",email:"kideghesho@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280695/images/system/280695.png",institution:{name:"College of African Wildlife Management",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Tanzania"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 COVID-19 pandemic, tourism and WMA",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Study area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2 Study participants and sampling method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3 Sources of data and methods for data collection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.4 Data analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1 Income generation from wildlife management areas",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2 Effects of COVID-19 pandemic on WMAs’ operational activities and wildlife resources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3 Effects of COVID-19 crisis on local livelihoods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Implications of the study findings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Survival mechanisms during and after the COVID-19",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Songorwa AN, Bührs T, Hughey KFD. Community-Based Wildlife Management in Africa: A Critical Assessment of the Literature. Nat Resour J. 2000;40(3):603–43'},{id:"B2",body:'Nelson F, Agrawal A. Patronage or Participation? Community-based Natural Resource Management Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa. Dev Change. 2008 Jul;39(4):557–85'},{id:"B3",body:'Pailler S, Naidoo R, Burgess ND, Freeman OE, Fisher B. 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College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, Moshi, Tanzania
College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, Moshi, Tanzania
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Neema Robert Kinabo",address:null,affiliation:'
College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, Moshi, Tanzania
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Gladys Joseph Lendii",address:null,affiliation:'
College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, Moshi, Tanzania
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jafari R. Kideghesho",address:"jafari.kideghesho2@mwekawildlife.ac.tz",affiliation:'
College of African Wildlife Management, Mweka, Moshi, Tanzania
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Also, he was responsible for safety assessments based on IEC 61508 and MISRA standards. As senior software and system architect he worked in the AUTOSAR consortium for architecture and safety issues.\n\nSince 1st September 2004 he is professor for computer science at Regensburg University of Applied Sciences. Prof. Dr. Jürgen Mottok is head of the Laboratory for Safe and Secure Systems (LaS³, www.las3.de). Lectures like software engineering, programming languages, operating systems and functional safety are performed by him. His research area is automotive software engineering and automotive safety.\n\nHis research area is automotive software engineering and automotive safety. Currently he manages the research projects DynaS³, VitaS³, S³OP and S³EMO, which are arranged with PhD students. The projects are performed in private public partnership with Continental Corporation, former SIEMENS VDO Automotive AG, and with iNTENCE Automotive electronics GmbH. 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Nahhas received his Master’s degree in Computer Engineering from Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois, USA in 1996 and a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering (Electronics) from the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA in 2001. Professor Nahhas’s research has been centered on developing new photonic and electronic devices at micro and nano-scales involving various functional materials such as rare-earth-doped oxides, wideband gap semiconductors, and nanostructured materials. Prof. Nahhas’s research investigates epitaxial growth and fabrication of ZnO and GaN optical devices. Fabrication of MSM photo-detectors has been developed on a macro-scale area of wafer surface using a directed self-organization method and has been investigated as an interaction medium in optical, electrical, chemical, and biological domains. Surface-Plasmon phenomena occurring in structures are of particular interest since many novel properties can be derived from those and can be incorporated into an on-chip configuration for interaction. Professor Nahhas has participated in reviewing several academic articles and dissertations in the area of electrical, electronics, communications, control engineering, and e-learning. He is an official reviewer of journals such as the American Journal of Nanomaterials—USA, many International conferences, and holds the Associate Professor position at several Saudi Universities. Professor Nahhas served in many prestigious leading positions including Dean of the College of Engineering at Al-Lith, head of the Department, Vice Dean at Umm Al Qura University, Makkah. Currently, he works at the College of Engineering and Islamic Architecture, Umm Al Qura University, Makkah, Kingdom of\nSaudi Arabia.",institutionString:"Umm al-Qura University",institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"about-open-access",title:"About Open Access and Open Science",intro:"
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\n
Carlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
Open Access background
\\n\\n
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\n
At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n
“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\n
Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
\\n\\n
OAI-PMH
\\n\\n
As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\n
License
\\n\\n
Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\n
Peer Review Policies
\\n\\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\n
OA Publishing Fees
\\n\\n
The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\n
Digital Archiving Policy
\\n\\n
IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\n
Open Science
\\n\\n
Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\n
Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\n
Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
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Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
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Reproducible research data and re-analysis
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Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
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Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
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Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
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Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
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Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
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Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
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We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\n
At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n
“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
\n\n
OAI-PMH
\n\n
As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\n
License
\n\n
Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\n
Peer Review Policies
\n\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\n
OA Publishing Fees
\n\n
The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\n
Digital Archiving Policy
\n\n
IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\n
Open Science
\n\n
Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\n
Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\n
Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\n
\n\t
Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
\n\t
Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
\n\t
Reproducible research data and re-analysis
\n\t
Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
\n\t
Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
\n\t
Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
\n\t
Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
\n
\n\n
We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\n\n
\n\t
Open Access
\n\t
Open Data
\n\t
Open Metrics and Impact
\n\t
Open Source
\n
\n\n
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\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. 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He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11967,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11968,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. 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He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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David Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEI9QAO/Profile_Picture_1623656213532",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama in Huntsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72920/images/system/72920.jpeg",institutionString:"Dalarna University, Faculty of Data and Information Sciences",institution:{name:"Dalarna University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/24212",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"24212"},fullPath:"/chapters/24212",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()