\r\n\t(i) Quantum dots of very high-quality optical applications, Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LED) and ‘QD-White LED’, Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs), Quantum dot solar cells (Photovoltaics).
\r\n\r\n\t(ii) Quantum Computing (quantum bits or ‘qubits’), (vii) The Future of Quantum Dots (broad range of real-time applications, magnetic quantum dots & graphene quantum dots), Superconducting Loop, Quantum Entanglement, Quantum Fingerprints.
\r\n\r\n\t(iii) Biomedical and Environmental Applications (to study intracellular processes, tumor targeting, in vivo observation of cell trafficking, diagnostics and cellular imaging at high resolutions), Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes and Bacterial Cells, Resonance Energy-Transfer Processes, Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality, Water and Wastewater Treatment, Pollutant Control.
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Ochoa Palacios",authors:[{id:"15033",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Alfredo Flores",slug:"alfredo-flores"}]},{id:"41052",title:"Aluminium Alloys in Solar Power − Benefits and Limitations",slug:"aluminium-alloys-in-solar-power-benefits-and-limitations",signatures:"Amir Farzaneh, Maysam Mohammdi, Zaki Ahmad and Intesar Ahmad",authors:[{id:"52898",title:"Prof.",name:"Zaki",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Zaki Ahmad",slug:"zaki-ahmad"},{id:"52910",title:"Dr.",name:"Amir",middleName:null,surname:"Farzaneh",fullName:"Amir Farzaneh",slug:"amir-farzaneh"},{id:"154698",title:"Mr.",name:"Maysam",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",fullName:"Maysam Mohammadi",slug:"maysam-mohammadi"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2460",title:"New Features on Magnesium Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"53dc0d4a1e2c1d85bd0d14191457a343",slug:"new-features-on-magnesium-alloys",bookSignature:"Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2460.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"118821",title:"Dr.",name:"Waldemar Alfredo",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"waldemar-alfredo-monteiro",fullName:"Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5693",title:"Two-dimensional Materials",subtitle:"Synthesis, Characterization and Potential Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9994602d3fd66838486e295d630b12e",slug:"two-dimensional-materials-synthesis-characterization-and-potential-applications",bookSignature:"Pramoda Kumar Nayak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5693.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38997",title:"Dr.",name:"Pramoda Kumar",surname:"Nayak",slug:"pramoda-kumar-nayak",fullName:"Pramoda Kumar Nayak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2467",title:"Metal Forming",subtitle:"Process, Tools, Design",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ecf504bf8f0102a2926dde3c1c334d67",slug:"metal-forming-process-tools-design",bookSignature:"Mohsen Kazeminezhad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2467.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"131481",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",surname:"Kazeminezhad",slug:"mohsen-kazeminezhad",fullName:"Mohsen Kazeminezhad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6057",title:"Austenitic Stainless Steels",subtitle:"New Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9d535d6a795541ead4919f3fcfa82ff0",slug:"austenitic-stainless-steels-new-aspects",bookSignature:"Wojciech Borek, Tomasz Tanski and Zbigniew Brytan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6057.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186373",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",surname:"Borek",slug:"wojciech-borek",fullName:"Wojciech Borek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2472",title:"Metallurgy",subtitle:"Advances in Materials and Processes",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"412003cc957104555d0738fbfbf22d48",slug:"metallurgy-advances-in-materials-and-processes",bookSignature:"Yogiraj Pardhi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"137697",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogiraj",surname:"Pardhi",slug:"yogiraj-pardhi",fullName:"Yogiraj Pardhi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"217",title:"Recent Trends in Processing and Degradation of Aluminium Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6b334709c43320a6e92eb9c574a8d44d",slug:"recent-trends-in-processing-and-degradation-of-aluminium-alloys",bookSignature:"Zaki Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/217.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52898",title:"Prof.",name:"Zaki",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"zaki-ahmad",fullName:"Zaki Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"80995",title:"Drugs and Drug Candidates for the Treatment of Lymphoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103705",slug:"drugs-and-drug-candidates-for-the-treatment-of-lymphoma",body:'1. Introduction
Lymphoma is lymphoid system malignancy developed from lymphocytes of the immune system with diverse morphologic and distinct clinical findings. Three classes of lymphocytes are natural killer cells (NK), T cells, and B cells. They function in cytotoxic innate immunity, cytotoxic adaptive immunity, and humoral antibody-driven adaptive immunity, respectively. The lymphatic system (lymph, lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, collecting ducts) is a network of tissues, vessels, andorgans (spleen, thymus, tonsils and adenoid, bone marrow, Peyer’s patches, appendix), and lymphoma can develop in these organs. However, lymphoma is classified into two classes: Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Non-Hodgkin lymphomas are more frequently seen, approximately 8 times more, than the others. Distinct lymphomas arise from immune system cells at different stages of differentiation. In addition, all groups are divided into different types within themselves. Each one of these have different clinical course, response to treatment, and drugs used in their treatment [1, 2, 3].
To treat lymphomas, different treatment approaches have been developed, including chemotherapies, radiotherapies, and bone marrow transplantation. Radiotherapies create extensive damage and leave permanent effects on cancer patients even they are effective in treatment of lymphomas. Further, bone marrow transplantation is a challenging way due to suppressed immunity and may lead rising of infectious diseases in the patients. However, in certain cases, immunotherapies (i.e. with rituximab antibody which binds cell surface protein CD20) can lead to complete responses in lymphomas with minimal side effects. Nevertheless, to benefit from the effect of metabolites from plants several studies are underway to find a better therapeutic approach [2].
1.1 Plants in the treatment of lymphoma
Several approaches in the treatment of these diseases resulted in successful outcomes and yet some have adverse effects. Plants ingredients constitute more than 90% of commercial medical drugs and different plants may be employed for treating distinct malignant diseases [3].
1.1.1 Quercetin
This agent has anti-malignant effects and it possesses a cytotoxic effect over transformed lymphoid cells by targeting key pathways such as PI3K and Wnt. Synergetic and/or additive effects of quercetin in combination with other drugs are underway to display its therapeutic effects in various lymphoma types [4].
1.1.2 Salvianolic acid from Salvia miltiorrhiza extracts
The phenolic salvianolic acid A display anti-tumoral activity. Diffuse B cell lymphoma treatment options are limited and the activity is used against diffuse B cell lymphoma cells. The salvianolic acid inhibited the viability of the cells by inducing apoptosis. The apoptotic pathway induces by upregulation of Bax and cleavage of PARP. In vivo xerograph models also displayed tumor growth suppression with salvianolic acid A and the agent showed promising anti-tumoral activity for diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) [5].
1.1.3 Annona muricata Linn leaf extracts
The activity of the leaf extracts is attributed to the secondary metabolites (phenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, acetogenins). The extracts were tested against Dalton’s Lymphoma Ascites (DLA) and Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma (EAC) cells and anti-tumoral effects compared to cisplatin. Cytotoxic studies indicated poor outcomes at lower microgram concentration per milliliter but tumor burden is decreased in dose-dependent manner and tumor volume is reduced significantly with a prolonged lifespan [6].
1.1.4 Amomum subulatum
Methanolic extracts of Amomum subulatum dry fruits administration induces apoptosis on Dalton’s Lymphoma Ascites cells both in vitro and in vivo. The extracts further increase mouse life span through regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and NF-κB pathway by promoting apoptosis of cancer cells. The research employed cyclophosphamide drug as positive control and the extracts displayed better activity compared to the drug. Therefore, the study proposed A. subulatum as a potential nutraceutical (nutrition-based therapeutic) against cancer [7].
1.1.5 Gymnopilus purpureosquamulosus extracts
The extract activates apoptosis indicated by annexin V-positive cells and further, production of reactive oxygen species, PARP1 cleavage, and mitochondrial membrane potential decrease upon extract treatment. The extract also displayed apoptosis in lymphoma patient cells but not in healthy patient cells [8].
1.1.6 Ingenol mebutate extract
A new therapeutic agent from ingenol mebutate extract displayed apoptotic activity against cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. The agent activated caspase by downregulating c-FLIP and XIAP and can be employed as a potential drug candidate [9].
1.1.7 Cucurbitacin B
Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) is an aggressive B cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma that has been seen in immunocompromised patients. Cucurbitaceae B is a triterpene extracted from Cucurbitaceae plant that has several anti-cancer activities. The effect of Cucurbitaceae B was examined at distinct PEL cell lines. The agent inhibited cell proliferation of PEL cell lines Further, a xenograft model was also employed and the agent suppressed solid tumor growth. The reports proposed that Cucurbitaceae B is a promising agent as an antitumoral activity for PEL [10].
1.1.8 Achyranthes aspera L. leaf extract
The extract was tested against Dalton’s lymphoma (DL) both in vitro and in vivo. The extract suppresses DL through attenuation of the PKCα signaling pathway and mitochondrial apoptosis [11].
Therefore, several metabolites from plant extracts potentially display anti-tumoral activity and can be used both for nutraceutical and drug design for lymphoma treatment but further research is required to optimize these agents for drug development.
1.2 Small molecule inhibitors in lymphoma
Small molecule inhibitors are usually analogs of target protein substrates like ATP or phosphotyrosine. Due to their small size, these inhibitors effectively reach and interact with their targets that are extracellular receptors, cell surface ligand-binding receptors, and intracellular proteins which include anti-apoptotic proteins known for playing an important role in transducing downstream signaling for cell growth and metastasis progression. Anti-cancer small molecule inhibitors are therapeutic agents that target key proteins in pathways involved in cell proliferation and differentiation [12].
Small molecular inhibitors (SMIs) are able to target tumor cells due to the disturbed cellular architecture [13]. Disturbed architecture is an advantage for SMIs to diffuse in the gaps between the tumor cells and reach their targets [14]. With the help of this advantage, SMIs are promising approach for the treatment of multiple tumors. Therefore, researchers develop target-specific SMIs targeting critical malignant pathways. The combination of SMIs with clinical chemotherapy agents may increase treatment efficiency [15, 16].
In the case of lymphoma, similar to other cancer cells, many of the proteins associated with the survival, angiogenesis, and metastasis of cancer cells are hyperactivated. To suppress the hyperactivation, specific proteins in lymphoma are targeted namely Bruton tyrosine kinase, PI3K, HDACs, and proteasomal system proteins [17].
1.3 FDA approved and non-approved small molecule drugs in treatment of lymphoma
The number of drugs for the treatment of lymphoma has increased with the findings of new agents. Regulatory agencies have approved many novel drugs for the treatment of various forms of lymphoid malignancies over the last two decades. Several drugs for the treatment of lymphoma include the B-cell receptor signaling inhibitor ibrutinib, the antibody-drug conjugate brentuximab vedotin, the PI3K-δ inhibitor idelalisib, the novel glycoengineered anti-CD20 antibody obinutuzumab, and the immunomodulatory drug lenalidomide [18].
The majority of novel treatments for NHL were approved for follicular B cell lymphoma. On the other hand, there are only two drugs for relapsed diffuse large B cell lymphoma in the past three decades. In some cases, a unique molecular mechanism is targeted by approved drugs while in others, multiple agents targeted the same oncogenic pathway, including the PI3 kinase pathway and Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK). Furthermore, there are many investigational agents that target the intracellular mechanisms have studied [19].
Several antibody-drug conjugates and the BCL2 inhibitor venetoclax are some examples of unapproved targeted drugs that have shown promising efficacy. Additionally, various immunotherapies, such as mono- and bispecific antibodies, immune-checkpoint inhibitors, and engineered chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, have also shown efficacy in lymphoma patients [18]. Therefore, in view of the multitude of new agents, the finding of drugs for the treatment of lymphoma has grown, demanding the efficient prioritization of drugs for faster development. Here, additional focus will be given to overview of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drugs for the treatment of lymphoma and drug development at new targets.
1.3.1 Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitors
BTK is an important therapeutic target for B-cell NHL because it plays a crucial role in the BCR signaling pathway [20]. Ibrutinib is a BTK inhibitor, that binds to BTK’s Cysteine 481 (C481) site in an irreversible manner, disrupting the antigen-dependent active BCR signaling pathway [21]. This inhibitor is approved by the FDA for the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), mantle-cell lymphoma (MCL), and Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia (WM) [22].
Ibrutinib resistance has been shown to be conferred by acquired mutations in the C481 binding site, as well as gain-of-function mutations in the downstream PLCγ2 kinase increasing BCR signaling [23]. In order to overcome ibrutinib resistance by inhibiting both wild-type and C481-mutated BTK non-covalently, novel highly selective BTK inhibitors are currently being investigated [24]. Ibrutinib was approved by the US FDA-approved for the treatment of WM demonstrating a 90.5% overall response rate (ORR) [25]. Ibrutinib is also FDA approved inhibitor for MCL after ≥1 prior line of therapy and for MZL after ≥1 prior anti-CD20-directed therapy [26, 27]. Because of its capacity to permeate the blood-brain barrier, ibrutinib has shown a promising effect on primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma [28]. Combining therapies, ibrutinib with venetoclax, lenalidomide, second-generation anti-CD20 mAbs, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy are still investigating in different NHLs [22].
Acalabrutinib is another BTK inhibitor and when it is compared to ibrutinib, it has less off-target kinase inhibition and a better safety profile. Patients with severe liver disease, as well as those using powerful CYP3A inhibitors and inducers or proton pump inhibitors, should avoid acalabrutinib. According to a phase II trial that demonstrates 81% ORR, acalabrutinib was approved by FDA for MCL [29]. In addition, zanubrutinib is FDA BTK inhibitor for MCL ≥1 prior line of therapy. Patients with severe liver disease or who are taking CYP3A inhibitors and inducers at the same time should alter their doses [30].
1.3.2 Immunomodulatory drugs (IMiDs)
Immunomodulators (IMiDs) bind cereblon E3 ubiquitin ligase complex that degrades the transcription factors of Aiolos and Ikraos. In this way, it results in the direct death of malignant B cells as well as overexpression of IL-2, which leads to T and NK cell activation [31]. Teratogenicity, cytopenias, infection, thrombosis, secondary malignancy, and rash are all side effects of the IMiD class [32].
Lenalidomide is a second-generation IMiD that is given at a daily dose of 20–25 mg for the first 21 days of a 28-day therapy cycle. Despite, lenalidomide’s single-agent ORR for relapsed indolent lymphoma is low (23%), this drug is still used in combination with rituximab (R) (anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody (mAb)) for relapsed/refractory follicular lymphoma (FL) and marginal zone lymphoma (MZL) treatment. In addition, lenalidomide has shown activity in patients with relapsed/refractory MCL with an ORR of 28%. In a randomized phase II trial, relapsed MCL patients who got single-agent lenalidomide had a better ORR than those who received other single agents (40% vs. 11%). Lenalidomide was approved by the FDA in the United States for relapsed/refractory MCL after ≥2 prior therapies, including bortezomib [22].
1.3.3 Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitors
PI3K activates AKT and mTOR via the B-cell receptor signaling pathway, resulting in enhanced cell survival. Class 1 PI3K has four distinct isoforms: α, β, γ, and δ with significantly expressed in lymphocytes. In NHL, inhibiting this pathway with PI3K inhibitors is a key focus [22].
Idelalisib is a PI3K inhibitor that targets PI3K specifically, and it has been approved by FDA as a single-agent treatment for patients with relapsed/refractory FL [33]. Copanlisib is the other US FDA inhibitor that targets α and δ isoforms for relapsed FL. In addition, it has specificity for the α isoform that has a role in insulin and glucose metabolism. For this reason, unique toxicity of hyperglycemia, liver toxicity, diarrhea, neutropenia, and infection are observed [34]. Lastly, duvelisib is a dual PI3K FDA approval inhibitor for relapsed/refractory FL after ≥2 prior systemic therapies. Inhibition of both the γ and the δ isoforms is expected to be synergistic since it targets both B cell proliferation and survival as well as the tumor microenvironment. In a phase II clinical trial, duvelisib was tested as a single treatment in indolent NHL and exhibited an ORR of 47.3% [35].
1.3.4 Proteasome inhibitors
Proteasome inhibitors prevent ubiquitin-tagged proteins from being degraded, affecting cellular homeostasis and triggering apoptosis. Bortezomib is a proteasome inhibitor and it was approved by the FDA in the United States for the treatment of MCL based on a phase II study with an ORR of 33% [36]. Additionally, bortezomib also received U.S. FDA approval in combination with R-cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, prednisone (R-CAP) for untreated MCL [37]. Plasmablastic lymphoma, Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia (WM), and peripheral T cell lymphomas (PTCL) had promising activity by bortezomib [38, 39] while randomized trials showed no benefit from adding it to frontline chemoimmunotherapy for DLBCL and FL [40].
1.3.5 Histone deacetylase inhibitors
Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors work against cancer by altering the acetylation of histone and transcription factor proteins, causing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. The inhibitor romidepsin was approved by FDA for the treatment of relapsed/refractory PTCL demonstrating ORR 25–38% in phase II studies [41]. Moreover, romidepsin is being tested for relapsed/refractory NHLs in combination with lenalidomide, the folate antagonist pralatrexate, and the immune checkpoint inhibitor pembrolizumab [22].
The other FDA-approved HDAC inhibitor is belinostat for the treatment of relapsed/refractory PTCL demonstrating a 26% ORR [42]. Vorinostat is also FDA approved HDAC inhibitor after two prior lines of systemic therapies for cutaneous T cell lymphomas (CTCL) that have progressed with a 30% ORR [43].
1.3.6 Selective nuclear export inhibitors (SINE)
Selinexor, a selective inhibitor of nuclear export (SINE) prevents tumor suppressor genes from being exported from the nucleus by inhibiting the shuttling protein exportin 1 (XPO1) [22]. Cytopenias, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tiredness, hyponatremia, infections, and neurological toxicity are the most prevalent significant side effects of selinexor [33]. Selinexor is approved by U.S. FDA for the treatment of relapsed/refractory DLBCL. Moreover, it is being studied in combination with standard R-CHOP chemoimmunotherapy for the initial treatment of DLBCL, as well as in combination with venetoclax or salvage chemoimmunotherapy [22].
1.3.7 EZH2 (enhancer of zeste homolog 2) inhibitors
EZH2 is a histone-lysine N-methyltransferase enzyme; a histone methyltransferase responsible for methylation of lysine 27 of histone H3 (H3Lys27). In addition, a DNA alteration is linked to repressed transcription when it is trimethylated (H3Lys27me3). That is why, abnormal EZH2 activity that activates mutations, has been identified as an oncogenic driver [18].
In 22–29% of patients with FL, mutations in the EZH2 gene have been observed. A phase II study revealed that tazemetostat had an ORR of 69% in EZH2-mutated FL and 35% in EZH2 wild-type FL in 99 patients with relapsed/refractory FL. According to these results, tazemetostat was approved by U.S. FDA for patients with EZH2-mutated FL. Furthermore, the effect of tazemetostat in relapsed/refractory B-cell lymphomas is being investigated in a variety of early-phase studies [23].
1.4 Lymphoma drug candidates
Different approaches have been developed and applied to cure lymphoma [19]. There are few drugs approved by FDA. However, efficient therapeutics to treat lymphomas are still under investigation. Researchers have been working on novel agents. Recent studies have discovered promising drug candidates for lymphoma cancer cells [44]. Researchers have still been working on few drug candidates [45]. These candidates can be classified according to their target signaling pathways as follows:
1.4.1 SYK inhibitors
Cerdulatinib is an inhibitor of SYK, JAK1, JAK3, and TYK2 and was investigated in phase 1 experiments. Preclinical and clinical research showed that cerdulatinib inhibits SYK/JAK signaling cascade activity and showed promising effects on diffuse large B cell lymphoma. In a research report, a phase 1 dose study of cerdulatinib drug in 43 patients with r/r CLL and NHL was completed in 2016 and according to results, SYK and JAK inhibition was well tolerated and antitumor activity of the drug was proved in CLL and FL patients [45].
Entospletinib is a small-molecule inhibitor that specifically binds and inhibits the SYK activity. Phase 2 studies showed that usage of the inhibitor with other drugs as a combined therapy resulted in inhibition of BCL signaling activity [46].
Fostamatinib: Phase 1/2 clinical trial of fostamatinib disodium drug which is classified as the first clinically available oral SYK inhibitor was applied in patients with recurrent B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL). Results showed that the drug has ability to induce apoptosis by inhibition of SYK [47].
Mivavotinib TAK659: Last drug that inhibits SYK activity to block BCL signaling pathway and results in inhibition of activation, adhesion, and proliferation of B-cell. Phase 1 study is completed, however, phase 2 study was not completed due to the lack of step 1 in the designed experiments [48].
1.4.2 IMID inhibitors
Avadomide CC-122 is cereblon-modulating agent that has a potential antineoplastic, antiangiogenic and immunomodulatory activity in the cell. Avadomide has a role in the ubiquitination and rapid proteasomal degradation of Aiolos and Ikaros proteins which are the hematopoietic transcriptional factors and induce apoptosis of DLBCL. Treatment including avadomide with another anti-lymphoma drugs combination is suggested for the best results [49].
1.4.3 PI3K/PI3Kδ-pan PI3K inhibitors
Acalisib (GS-9820, 6-fluoro-3-phenyl-2-[(1S)-1-(9Hpurin-6-ylamino) ethyl]-4(3H)-quinazolinone): acalisib is a drug candidate for all lymphoma types including CLL, NHL. Phase 1 research showed in a human basophil activation experiment that Acalisib molecule suppresses IgE receptor by PI3Kδ-mediated CD63 expression [50].
Fimepinostat CUDC-907: a small molecule inhibits HDAC/PI3K. According to the researchers, at phase 1 experiments, dual HDAC/PI3K inhibition with fimepinostat CUDC-907 showed a well-tolerated activity in suppression of target protein activities and further, low toxicity profile was observed [48].
Umbralisib is an oral inhibitor of PI3K-delta and CK1-epsilon. Cellular functions of the PI3K-delta include cell proliferation and survival, cell differentiation, intracellular trafficking, and immunity. CK1-epsilon regulates oncoprotein regulation and the process drives the growth and survival of lymphoma. The inhibitor is in phase 2b and phase 3 trials in NHL and CLL patients. In the phase 1 study, side effects are observed in the lymphoma patients including diarrhea, nausea, and fatigue [51].
1.4.4 mTOR inhibitors
Everolimus is an oral mTOR inhibitor and is used against relapsed lymphomas. A recent phase 2 study have shown that everolimus dramatically increases the efficiency of treatment in lymphoma patients when it is combined with other anti-lymphoma drugs [52].
Temsirolimus is an mTOR inhibitor that inhibits the synthesis of the proteins such as VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) that have role in cell proliferation and survival in mantle-cell lymphoma [53].
1.4.5 HDAC (histone deacetylase) inhibitors
Mocetinostat MGCD0103 is classified as a HDAC inhibitor. Phase 2 study showed that a combination of mocetinostat with other anti-lymphoma agents resulted in higher efficiency in the treatment of lymphomas compared to the application of mocetinostat alone [54].
1.4.6 Aurora A kinase inhibitors
Alisertib is an Aurora A kinase inhibitor. This inhibitor leads to abnormal mitotic spindle formation that causes mitotic cell accumulation and lowers tumor cell proliferation upon treatment of malignant cells. Since Aurora A kinase has a mitotic role in the cancer cells, anti-mitotic agents may have benefits to treat lymphoma [55, 56].
1.4.7 BCL2 inhibitors
Venetoclax is a BLC2 inhibitor and BCL2 is highly expressed at CLL. The protein helps CLL cancer cells to survive and provide resistance to drugs. Venotoclax binds CLL to slow down the progression. Treatment of venetoclax with the other anti-lymphoma agents like ibrutinib displayed higher drug efficiency in patients at phase 2 trials. In the light of phase 2 results, researchers combine venetoclax with anti-lymphoma agents in phase 3 trials [57]. Combination drug treatment of venetoclax with obinutuzumab is FDA approved treatment and currently used against lymphomas [58].
2. Conclusion
Cancer with all of its different types is a big health issue for everyone around the world. Lymphoma is one of the most common types of cancer [1]. Like all other cancer types, it has its own risk factors, causes, and treatments that are still open to discovery. Besides other cancer types, lymphoma is defined as cancer transformation of lymphoid cells. Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma are the main subtypes of lymphoma [1].
The treatment options for lymphoma include chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and bone marrow transplantation but research to develop the treatment options are still underway. As mentioned above, small molecule inhibitor agents are new perspectives found for the traditional treatment options for lymphoma.
The drugs and potential anticancer agents for lymphoma are mentioned in detail in this review.
Acknowledgments
Mervenur Al acknowledges YOK 100/2000 Scholarship.
\n',keywords:"lymphoma, small molecule inhibitor, alternative medicine, herbal treatment, cancer treatments",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80995.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80995.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80995",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80995",totalDownloads:22,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 30th 2021",dateReviewed:"February 14th 2022",datePrePublished:"March 28th 2022",datePublished:"April 20th 2022",dateFinished:"March 28th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Cancer is the biggest health problem worldwide due to its high mortality rate. Lymphoma is defined as a group of malignant diseases that is caused by clonal proliferation of lymphocytes and is classified under two major groups: Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Genetic predisposition and some environmental factors constitute risk factors. Symptoms of the disease include unexplained fever, swelling of lymph glands, swollen abdomen, tiredness, loss of appetite, frequent infections, and weight loss. Positron emission tomography (PET) and computed tomography (CT) scans, along with MRI, are widely used for the diagnosis of lymphoma. Advanced blood and lymph node biopsy tests are used to evaluate treatment effect on blood cells and to confirm the diagnosis of lymphoma, respectively. Current treatment options include chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and bone marrow/stem cell transplantation. Development of new treatment options for cancer medications includes small molecules and monoclonal antibodies for immunotherapy. In addition, the discovery of new phytochemical agents used in complementary and alternative medicine adds perspective to the treatment of lymphoma.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80995",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80995",signatures:"Kubra Acikalin Coskun, Merve Tutar, Elif Cansu Abay, Nazlican Yurekli, Mervenur Al and Yusuf Tutar",book:{id:"10790",type:"book",title:"Lymphoma",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Lymphoma",slug:"lymphoma",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10790.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-112-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-111-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-117-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",email:"ytutar@outlook.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",institution:null},{id:"327653",title:"Ms.",name:"Nazlican",middleName:null,surname:"Yurekli",fullName:"Nazlican Yurekli",slug:"nazlican-yurekli",email:"nazli.yrkl@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"354719",title:"Dr.",name:"Merve",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",fullName:"Merve Tutar",slug:"merve-tutar",email:"mervetutar81@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428812",title:"Mrs.",name:"Mervenur",middleName:null,surname:"Al",fullName:"Mervenur Al",slug:"mervenur-al",email:"biochemistry.merve@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428813",title:"Ms.",name:"Elif Cansu",middleName:null,surname:"Abay",fullName:"Elif Cansu Abay",slug:"elif-cansu-abay",email:"abycansu@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Istanbul Arel University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"428814",title:"Prof.",name:"Kubra",middleName:null,surname:"Acikalin Coskun",fullName:"Kubra Acikalin Coskun",slug:"kubra-acikalin-coskun",email:"kubraacikalincoskun@aydin.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Plants in the treatment of lymphoma",level:"2"},{id:"sec_1_3",title:"1.1.1 Quercetin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.1.2 Salvianolic acid from Salvia miltiorrhiza extracts",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.1.3 Annona muricata Linn leaf extracts",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.1.4 Amomum subulatum",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"1.1.5 Gymnopilus purpureosquamulosus extracts",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"1.1.6 Ingenol mebutate extract",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"1.1.7 Cucurbitacin B",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"1.1.8 Achyranthes aspera L. leaf extract",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"1.2 Small molecule inhibitors in lymphoma",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"1.3 FDA approved and non-approved small molecule drugs in treatment of lymphoma",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"1.3.1 Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"1.3.2 Immunomodulatory drugs (IMiDs)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"1.3.3 Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"1.3.4 Proteasome inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"1.3.5 Histone deacetylase inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"1.3.6 Selective nuclear export inhibitors (SINE)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"1.3.7 EZH2 (enhancer of zeste homolog 2) inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"1.4 Lymphoma drug candidates",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"1.4.1 SYK inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"1.4.2 IMID inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"1.4.3 PI3K/PI3Kδ-pan PI3K inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"1.4.4 mTOR inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"1.4.5 HDAC (histone deacetylase) inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24_3",title:"1.4.6 Aurora A kinase inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_3",title:"1.4.7 BCL2 inhibitors",level:"3"},{id:"sec_28",title:"2. 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Blood. 2020;136:35-37]'},{id:"B25",body:'[Treon SP, Tripsas CK, Meid K, Warren D, Varma G, Green R, et al. Ibrutinib in previously treated Waldenström\'s macroglobulinemia. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;372(15):1430-1440. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1501548]'},{id:"B26",body:'[Dreyling M, Jurczak W, Jerkeman M, Silva RS, Rusconi C, Trneny M, et al. Ibrutinib versus temsirolimus in patients with relapsed or refractory mantle-cell lymphoma: An international, randomised, open-label, phase 3 study. Lancet. 2016;387(10020):770-778. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00667-4. Epub 2015 Dec 7. Erratum in: Lancet. 2016;387(10020):750]'},{id:"B27",body:'[Rule S, Jurczak W, Jerkeman M, Rusconi C, Trneny M, Offner F, et al. Ibrutinib versus temsirolimus: 3-year follow-up of patients with previously treated mantle cell lymphoma from the phase 3, international, randomized, open-label RAY study. Leukemia. 2018;32(8):1799-1803. DOI: 10.1038/s41375-018-0023-2. 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Oncogene. 2006;25(38):5220-5227. DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1209615]'},{id:"B45",body:'[Patriarca A, Gaidano G. Investigational drugs for the treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs. 2021;30(1):25-38. DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2021.1855140. Epub 2020 Dec 21]'},{id:"B46",body:'[Barr PM, Saylors GB, Spurgeon SE, Cheson BD, Greenwald DR, O\'Brien SM, et al. Phase 2 study of idelalisib and entospletinib: Pneumonitis limits combination therapy in relapsed refractory CLL and NHL. Blood. 2016;127(20):2411-2415. DOI: 10.1182/blood-2015-12-683516. Epub 2016 Mar 11]'},{id:"B47",body:'[Friedberg JW, Sharman J, Sweetenham J, Johnston PB, Vose JM, Lacasce A, et al. Inhibition of Syk with fostamatinib disodium has significant clinical activity in non-Hodgkin lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood. 2010;115(13):2578-2585. DOI: 10.1182/blood-2009-08-236471. Epub 2009 Nov 17]'},{id:"B48",body:'[Phillips TJ. A phase 2 study of TAK-659, an investigational reversible dual SYK/FLT3 inhibitor, in patients with relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Blood. 2019;134(Suppl. 1):5310-5310. DOI: 10.1182/blood-2019-125650]'},{id:"B49",body:'[Carpio C, Bouabdallah R, Ysebaert L, Sancho JM, Salles G, Cordoba R, et al. Avadomide monotherapy in relapsed/refractory DLBCL: Safety, efficacy, and a predictive gene classifier. Blood. 2020;135(13):996-1007. DOI: 10.1182/blood.2019002395. Erratum in: Blood. 2021;137(15):2126]'},{id:"B50",body:'[Kater AP, Tonino SH, Spiering M, Chamuleau MED, Liu R, Adewoye AH, et al. Final results of a phase 1b study of the safety and efficacy of the PI3Kδ inhibitor acalisib (GS-9820) in relapsed/refractory lymphoid malignancies. Blood Cancer Journal. 2018;8(2):16. DOI: 10.1038/s41408-018-0055-x]'},{id:"B51",body:'[Aydin E, Faehling S, Saleh M, Llaó Cid L, Seiffert M, Roessner PM. 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Epub 2017 Apr 25]'},{id:"B55",body:'[Yuan CX, Zhou ZW, Yang YX, He ZX, Zhang X, Wang D, et al. Inhibition of mitotic Aurora kinase A by alisertib induces apoptosis and autophagy of human gastric cancer AGS and NCI-N78 cells. Drug Design, Development and Therapy. 2015;9:487-508. DOI: 10.2147/DDDT.S74127]'},{id:"B56",body:'[Friedberg JW, Mahadevan D, Cebula E, Persky D, Lossos I, Agarwal AB, et al. Phase II study of alisertib, a selective Aurora A kinase inhibitor, in relapsed and refractory aggressive B- and T-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2014;32(1):44-50. DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2012.46.8793]'},{id:"B57",body:'[Tam CS, Anderson MA, Pott C, Agarwal R, Handunnetti S, Hicks RJ, et al. Ibrutinib plus venetoclax for the treatment of mantle-cell lymphoma. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2018;378(13):1211-1223. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1715519]'},{id:"B58",body:'[Combination Therapy with Venetoclax Approved for CLL. National Cancer Institute; 2019. 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'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Merve Tutar",address:null,affiliation:'- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Bilkent University, Turkey
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Elif Cansu Abay",address:null,affiliation:'- Division of Medicinal Biology, Department of Basic Sciences, Hamidiye Faculty of Medicine, University of Health Sciences-Turkey, Turkey
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nazlican Yurekli",address:null,affiliation:'- Division of Medicinal Biology, Department of Basic Sciences, Hamidiye Faculty of Medicine, University of Health Sciences-Turkey, Turkey
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mervenur Al",address:null,affiliation:'- Division of Medicinal Biochemistry, Department of Basic Sciences, Hamidiye Faculty of Medicine, University of Health Sciences-Turkey, Turkey
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Yusuf Tutar",address:"yusuf.tutar@sbu.edu.tr",affiliation:'- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Health Sciences-Turkey, Turkey
- Division of Molecular Oncology, Hamidiye Health Sciences Institutes, University of Health Sciences-Turkey, Turkey
- Validebağ Research Center, University of Health Sciences-Turkey, Turkey
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While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\nIn the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\nThe IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n2004
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t- Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n2005
\\n\\n\\n\\t- IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n2006
\\n\\n\\n\\t- IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n2008
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n2009
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n2010
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t- IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n2011
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t- IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t- IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t- IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n2012
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t- IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n2013
\\n\\n\\n\\t- IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n2014
\\n\\n\\n\\t- IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t- IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n2015
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t- Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t- 40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t- Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n2016
\\n\\n\\n\\t- IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n2017
\\n\\n\\n\\t- Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t- Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\\n
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\nIn the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\nThe IntechOpen timeline
\n\n2004
\n\n\n\t- Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t- Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n2005
\n\n\n\t- IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n2006
\n\n\n\t- IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n2008
\n\n\n\t- Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n2009
\n\n\n\t- Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n2010
\n\n\n\t- Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t- IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n2011
\n\n\n\t- Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t- IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t- IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t- IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n2012
\n\n\n\t- Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t- IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n2013
\n\n\n\t- IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n2014
\n\n\n\t- IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t- IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n2015
\n\n\n\t- Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t- Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t- 40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t- Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n2016
\n\n\n\t- IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n2017
\n\n\n\t- Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t- Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/24059",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"24059"},fullPath:"/chapters/24059",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()