Chapter 1: "Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors"\n
Chapter 2: "The Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Premolar Teeth"\n
Chapter 3: "Dental Anatomical Features and Caries: A Relationship to be Investigated"\n
Chapter 4: "Anatomy Applied to Block Anaesthesia"\n
Chapter 5: "Treatment Considerations for Missing Teeth"\n
Chapter 6: "Anatomical and Functional Restoration of the Compromised Occlusion: From Theory to Materials"\n
Chapter 7: "Evaluation of the Anatomy of the Lower First Premolar"\n
Chapter 8: "A Comparative Study of the Validity and Reproducibility of Mesiodistal Tooth Size and Dental Arch with the iTero Intraoral Scanner and the Traditional Method"\n
Chapter 9: "Identification of Lower Central Incisors"\n
The book is aimed toward dentists and can also be well used in education and research.',isbn:"978-1-78923-511-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-510-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-247-8",doi:"10.5772/65542",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"dental-anatomy",numberOfPages:204,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"445cd419d97f339f2b6514c742e6b050",bookSignature:"Bağdagül Helvacioğlu Kivanç",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5814.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13558,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:14,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 4th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 25th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"178570",title:"Dr.",name:"Bağdagül",middleName:null,surname:"Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",slug:"bagdagul-helvacioglu-kivanc",fullName:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178570/images/7646_n.jpg",biography:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç is a dentist, a teacher, a researcher and a scientist in the field of Endodontics. She was born in Zonguldak, Turkey, on February 14, 1974; she is married and has two children. She graduated in 1997 from the Ankara University, Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey. She aquired her PhD in 2004 from the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Endodontics, Ankara, Turkey, and she is still an associate professor at the same department. She has published numerous articles and a book chapter in the areas of Operative Dentistry, Esthetic Dentistry and Endodontics. She is a member of Turkish Endodontic Society and European Endodontic Society.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"174",title:"Dentistry",slug:"dentistry"}],chapters:[{id:"56461",title:"Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69542",slug:"permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-incisors",totalDownloads:2626,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The permanent incisors are the front teeth that erupt between 6 and 8 years of age. They are eight in number, four upper and four lower, two centrals and two laterals. They have sharp biting surfaces designed for shearing and cutting of food materials into small chewable pieces. They are the teeth most visible to the others during eating, smiling and talking, and thus, they have high aesthetic value for the individuals. The unique characteristics, arch position, function, development and chronological age of each tooth will be highlighted. In addition, the different aspects with their geometric outlines, outlines and surface anatomy of these teeth will be described. A brief explanation about the pulp cavity, tooth socket and normal occlusion for each tooth will be included.",signatures:"Mohammed E. Grawish, Lamyaa M. Grawish and Hala M. Grawish",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56461",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56461",authors:[{id:"82989",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Grawish",slug:"mohammed-grawish",fullName:"Mohammed Grawish"}],corrections:null},{id:"62386",title:"The Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Premolar Teeth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79464",slug:"the-permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-premolar-teeth",totalDownloads:2759,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The permanent premolar teeth are placed between the anterior teeth and molars. Eight premolars are found in the permanent dentition, four per arch and two in each quadrant. The main function of premolars is to assist the canines in regard to tear and pierce the food and supplement the grinding of the molars during mastication. The other functions are to support the corners of the mouth reinforce esthetics during smiling and maintain the vertical dimension. Detailed morphology of the permanent premolar teeth is narrated in a pointwise and systematic manner in this chapter.",signatures:"Işıl Çekiç Nagaş, Ferhan Eğilmez and Bağdagül Helvacioğlu Kivanç",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62386",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62386",authors:[{id:"178570",title:"Dr.",name:"Bağdagül",surname:"Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",slug:"bagdagul-helvacioglu-kivanc",fullName:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç"}],corrections:null},{id:"57546",title:"Dental Anatomical Features and Caries: A Relationship to be Investigated",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71337",slug:"dental-anatomical-features-and-caries-a-relationship-to-be-investigated",totalDownloads:1706,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dental caries is a multifactor disease affecting a significant number of people throughout the world. However, in recent decades the widespread availability of fluoride and other preventive measures have resulted in a decline in the prevalence of caries among children and young adults. Currently, it is accepted that most carious dental lesions are restricted to specific anatomical sites. The aim of this chapter is to review the influence of dental anatomy on dental caries development while taking into account recent findings in cariology. Occlusal fissures in the first permanent molar are generally the first sites in the permanent dentition to develop caries. An increased risk of caries is also found in proximal contacting surfaces between two adjacent teeth. Moreover, a partially erupted tooth, which does not participate in mastication, is also at risk for caries since it may provide a more favorable environment for bacterial accumulation than a fully erupted tooth. Bacterial biofilm on the tooth is frequently a high risk caries environment. Understanding anatomical dental features is of great importance for guiding oral health hygiene and preventive measures. Finally, the development of dental disorders plays an important role in dental caries risk.",signatures:"Marcel Alves Avelino de Paiva, Dayane Franco Barros Mangueira\nLeite, Isabela Albuquerque Passos Farias, Antônio de Pádua\nCavalcante Costa and Fábio Correia Sampaio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57546",authors:[{id:"138852",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Sampaio",slug:"fabio-sampaio",fullName:"Fabio Sampaio"},{id:"213662",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabela Albuquerque",surname:"Passos Farias",slug:"isabela-albuquerque-passos-farias",fullName:"Isabela Albuquerque Passos Farias"},{id:"213663",title:"Prof.",name:"Dayane Franco",surname:"Barros Mangueira Leite",slug:"dayane-franco-barros-mangueira-leite",fullName:"Dayane Franco Barros Mangueira Leite"},{id:"213664",title:"BSc.",name:"Marcel Alves",surname:"Avelino De Paiva",slug:"marcel-alves-avelino-de-paiva",fullName:"Marcel Alves Avelino De Paiva"},{id:"213666",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio De Pádua",surname:"Cavalcante Da Costa",slug:"antonio-de-padua-cavalcante-da-costa",fullName:"Antonio De Pádua Cavalcante Da Costa"}],corrections:null},{id:"56119",title:"Anatomy Applied to Block Anesthesia for Maxillofacial Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69545",slug:"anatomy-applied-to-block-anesthesia-for-maxillofacial-surgery",totalDownloads:1529,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anatomy is a basic knowledge that every clinician must have; however, its full management is not always achieved and gaps remain in daily practice. The aim of this chapter is to emphasize the most relevant aspects of head and neck anatomy, specifically related to osteology and neurology for the application of regional anesthesia techniques. This chapter presents a clear and concise text, useful for both undergraduate and graduate students and for the dentist and maxillofacial surgeon. The most relevant aspects of the bone and sensory anatomy relevant for the realization of regional anesthetic techniques in the oral and maxillofacial area are reviewed, including complementary figures and tables. The anatomy related to the techniques directed to the three major branches of the trigeminal nerve (ophthalmic nerve, maxillary nerve, and to the branches of the mandibular nerve) will be approached separately.",signatures:"Alex Vargas, Paula Astorga and Tomas Rioseco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56119",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56119",authors:[{id:"199400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Vargas",slug:"alex-vargas",fullName:"Alex Vargas"},{id:"202023",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Astorga",slug:"paula-astorga",fullName:"Paula Astorga"},{id:"205059",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",surname:"Rioseco",slug:"tomas-rioseco",fullName:"Tomas Rioseco"}],corrections:null},{id:"55902",title:"Treatment Considerations for Missing Teeth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69543",slug:"treatment-considerations-for-missing-teeth",totalDownloads:989,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Specific terms are used to describe the nature of tooth agenesis. Hypodontia is most frequently used when describing the phenomenon of congenitally missing teeth. Many other terms to describe a reduction in the number of teeth appear in the literature: oligodontia, anodontia, aplasia of teeth, congenitally missing teeth, absence of teeth, agenesis of teeth and lack of teeth. The term hypodontia is used when one to six teeth, excluding third molars, are missing, and oligodontia when more than six teeth are absent (excluding the third molars). The long‐term management of hypodontia in the aesthetic zone is a particularly challenging situation. Although there are essentially two distinct approaches to manage this problem, that is space closure or opening for prosthetic replacements, implant or autotransplantation. These patients often manifest with many underlying skeletal and dental problems and a multidisciplinary approach for management of this condition is recommended. Two treatment approaches including space closure and space reopening are described in details in this chapter.",signatures:"Abdolreza Jamilian, Alireza Darnahal, Ludovica Nucci, Fabrizia\nD’Apuzzo and Letizia Perillo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55902",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55902",authors:[{id:"171777",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdolreza",surname:"Jamilian",slug:"abdolreza-jamilian",fullName:"Abdolreza Jamilian"},{id:"171873",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",surname:"Darnahal",slug:"alireza-darnahal",fullName:"Alireza Darnahal"},{id:"173044",title:"Prof.",name:"Letizia",surname:"Perillo",slug:"letizia-perillo",fullName:"Letizia Perillo"},{id:"198961",title:"MSc.",name:"Fabrizia",surname:"D'Apuzzo",slug:"fabrizia-d'apuzzo",fullName:"Fabrizia D'Apuzzo"},{id:"206137",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ludovica",surname:"Nucci",slug:"ludovica-nucci",fullName:"Ludovica Nucci"}],corrections:null},{id:"55973",title:"Anatomical and Functional Restoration of the Compromised Occlusion: From Theory to Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69544",slug:"anatomical-and-functional-restoration-of-the-compromised-occlusion-from-theory-to-materials",totalDownloads:1288,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many conditions can alter the occlusal interface, from tooth wear to tooth loss. The masticatory system is constituted by many components that can influence each other like muscles, joints, teeth and nervous system. This implies that (a) every change at occlusal level makes the other components to adapt and (b) an occlusal alteration may be the effect of an alteration occurred on muscles or joints. Keeping this in mind, traditional principles of occlusal rehabilitation are analysed, and the choice of the restorative materials is discussed.",signatures:"Nicola Mobilio and Santo Catapano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55973",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55973",authors:[{id:"179565",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",surname:"Mobilio",slug:"nicola-mobilio",fullName:"Nicola Mobilio"},{id:"199397",title:"Prof.",name:"Santo",surname:"Catapano",slug:"santo-catapano",fullName:"Santo Catapano"}],corrections:null},{id:"57245",title:"Evaluation of the Anatomy of the Lower First Premolar",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71038",slug:"evaluation-of-the-anatomy-of-the-lower-first-premolar",totalDownloads:889,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides information about the lower first premolars. This tooth is considered to be one of the most complex teeth and the dentistry graduation students usually have difficulties in identifying it. The aim of this chapter is to present a detailed morphological study of extracted lower first premolars. One hundred lower first premolars, belonging to the collection of the Laboratory of Anatomy of the Department of Morphology of the São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Araraquara, SP, Brazil, were evaluated. Nine measurements were performed through direct observation without any instruments. Other 20 measurements were made by photographs and they were analyzed by the Image Tool 3.0 program. According to the results, it was concluded that most of the teeth presented the following features such as one lingual cusp; the distal occlusal pits were wider than the mesial occlusal pits; an enamel bridge linking the buccal and lingual cusps; the grooves in the lingual surface that emerged from the mesial and distal occlusal pits were absent, and where the grooves were present, they emerged from the mesial occlusal pit; one rectilinear root with no root grooves and where the root groove was present, it was observed in the mesial surface.",signatures:"Ticiana Sidorenko de Oliveira Capote, Suellen Tayenne Pedroso\nPinto, Marcelo Brito Conte, Juliana Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos\nand Marcela de Almeida Gonçalves",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57245",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57245",authors:[{id:"87871",title:"Prof.",name:"Ticiana",surname:"Capote",slug:"ticiana-capote",fullName:"Ticiana Capote"},{id:"199157",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcela",surname:"De Almeida Gonçalves",slug:"marcela-de-almeida-goncalves",fullName:"Marcela De Almeida Gonçalves"},{id:"199243",title:"BSc.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Brito Conte",slug:"marcelo-brito-conte",fullName:"Marcelo Brito Conte"},{id:"199244",title:"Prof.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos",slug:"juliana-alvares-duarte-bonini-campos",fullName:"Juliana Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos"},{id:"217420",title:"Mrs.",name:"Suellen",surname:"Tayenne Pedroso Pinto",slug:"suellen-tayenne-pedroso-pinto",fullName:"Suellen Tayenne Pedroso Pinto"}],corrections:null},{id:"57752",title:"A Comparative Study of the Validity and Reproducibility of Mesiodistal Tooth Size and Dental Arch with iTeroTM Intraoral Scanner and the Traditional Method",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70963",slug:"a-comparative-study-of-the-validity-and-reproducibility-of-mesiodistal-tooth-size-and-dental-arch-wi",totalDownloads:922,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Introduction: The introduction of intraoral scanning offers an alternative for measuring mesiodistal tooth sizes.",signatures:"Ignacio Faus-Matoses, Ana Mora, Carlos Bellot-Arcís, Jose Luis\nGandia-Franco and Vanessa Paredes-Gallardo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57752",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57752",authors:[{id:"150456",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanessa",surname:"Paredes",slug:"vanessa-paredes",fullName:"Vanessa Paredes"},{id:"150458",title:"Prof.",name:"José-Luis",surname:"Gandia-Franco",slug:"jose-luis-gandia-franco",fullName:"José-Luis Gandia-Franco"},{id:"212242",title:"Prof.",name:"Ignacio",surname:"Faus",slug:"ignacio-faus",fullName:"Ignacio Faus"},{id:"212243",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Bellot-Arcís",slug:"carlos-bellot-arcis",fullName:"Carlos Bellot-Arcís"},{id:"218390",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana",surname:"Mora",slug:"ana-mora",fullName:"Ana Mora"}],corrections:null},{id:"57378",title:"Identification of Lower Central Incisors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71341",slug:"identification-of-lower-central-incisors",totalDownloads:859,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Unlike the other teeth, the permanent lower central incisors have great symmetry between the proximal surfaces, being difficult to distinguish them. It was intended to facilitate the study of the anatomy of the lower central incisor for dentistry students, that this study searched for a better way to differentiate the third quadrant element (31) from the fourth quadrant element (41). The purpose of this chapter was to evaluate 100 permanent lower central incisors of the didactic collection of the Discipline of Anatomy of the Department of Morphology of the School of Dentistry of Araraquara - UNESP and to verify the presence of correlation between the some anatomical features. Besides, it was evaluated if there was difference between 31 and 41. It was verified that the systematic methodology used for the evaluation of the incisors in this study facilitated the identification of the teeth. There was no statistically significant difference between the measurements of 31 and 41. Distinguishing the right from the left central incisor is difficult, even for experienced practitioners. We could observe that the measurements do not facilitate the identification of teeth of different quadrants. Therefore, the anatomical features are relevant for the study of the dental anatomy in the identification of the lower central incisors.",signatures:"Marcela de Almeida Gonçalves, Bruno Luís Graciliano Silva, Marcelo\nBrito Conte, Juliana Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos and Ticiana\nSidorenko de Oliveira Capote",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57378",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57378",authors:[{id:"199157",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcela",surname:"De Almeida Gonçalves",slug:"marcela-de-almeida-goncalves",fullName:"Marcela De Almeida Gonçalves"},{id:"199243",title:"BSc.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Brito Conte",slug:"marcelo-brito-conte",fullName:"Marcelo Brito Conte"},{id:"199244",title:"Prof.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos",slug:"juliana-alvares-duarte-bonini-campos",fullName:"Juliana Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos"},{id:"221435",title:"Mr.",name:"Bruno Luis Graciliano",surname:"Silva",slug:"bruno-luis-graciliano-silva",fullName:"Bruno Luis Graciliano Silva"},{id:"221438",title:"Prof.",name:"Ticiana Sidorenko De Oliveira",surname:"Capote",slug:"ticiana-sidorenko-de-oliveira-capote",fullName:"Ticiana Sidorenko De Oliveira Capote"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8837",title:"Human Teeth",subtitle:"Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac055c5801032970123e0a196c2e1d32",slug:"human-teeth-key-skills-and-clinical-illustrations",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan and Farid Bourzgui",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8837.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"52177",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",middleName:null,surname:"Bourzgui",slug:"farid-bourzgui",fullName:"Farid Bourzgui",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52177/images/system/52177.png",biography:"Prof. Farid Bourzgui obtained his DMD and his DNSO option in Orthodontics at the School of Dental Medicine, Casablanca Hassan II University, Morocco, in 1995 and 2000, respectively. Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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Kosyachenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1288.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72362",title:"Autopsy in Foetal Infant Deaths",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92673",slug:"autopsy-in-foetal-infant-deaths",body:'At present, specialised foetal/child autopsy is more in demand as parents want need to be informed about the cause of death of their child and its effect on future pregnancies. The post mortem examination helps in planning better treatment and caution for the future. The normal anatomy of the adult and child are similar, differences do exist in foetal/neonate anatomy of the cardio-vascular system making the prenatal/paediatric autopsy significantly different from the adult one. The presence of congenital anomalies found in perinatal and foetal autopsies is another confounding factor making meticulous examination during autopsy necessary for getting information to educate families concerning future pregnancies [1]. An autopsy is not required in every case; though debates about the cause of death do necessitate an autopsy to be performed. Normally, a deceased’s body is the property of the relatives. However, in deaths that are unusual, unnatural or suspicious in nature the state has an overriding interest which supersedes the interests of the family; such circumstances fall into the category of medico-legal cases. A death case with an obvious cause and manner of death may require an autopsy for legal purposes. The usual classifications of death are: natural, accident, suicide, homicide or undetermined. A forensic autopsy is normally requested by the police, the coroner or in the Latin countries by that quaint institution ‘the Investigating Judge’ [2]. The age at which a foetus becomes legally viable is defined either by the gestational age or by the body weight, and varies from nation to nation. A foetus exhibiting one or more of the described signs of life are technically considered viable, however foetuses below intrauterine age of 180 days have negligible to no chance of survival. Post mortem examinations are carried out on all foetuses, though the inferences drawn from them are legally applicable only to viable foetuses. Most of the foetal and neonatal autopsies are hospital admitted cases. However, infant post mortems may be medico-legal cases if the cause of death is not known.
(1) Conducted in mortuary only, except spot post mortem. (2) Requisition from police or Magistrate necessary. (3) Avoid delay. (4) Collect information from inquest, accident register, case sheet, etc. (5) Conducted in day-light as far as possible, because colour changes, such as jaundice, P.M. hypostasis and colour of contusions cannot be made out in artificial light. (6) Body should be identified by the police officials. (7) No unauthorised person should be present. (8) Assistant should note findings. (9) Autopsy must be complete and never partial [3].
Embryo – 1–8 weeks of gestation.
Foetus – 8 weeks of gestation to term.
Stillbirth intrauterine/intrapartum foetal death – after the age of legal viability, i.e., born with no “signs of life.”
Perinatal – stillbirths + neonates in first week after birth.
Early neonate – first week after birth.
Neonatal period – first month after birth.
Post neonatal period – between 28 days and 1 year.
Infant – from 1 month of age to 1 years of age.
Preterm – <37 weeks of gestation or weight less than <2500 gram at birth.
Term – 37–41 weeks of gestation.
Post term – >42 weeks of gestation.
Small for dates weight at birth <10th centile expected for gestational age.
Very low birth weight – weight at birth <1500 gram.
Premature – preterm, small for dates and very low birth weight.
Intrauterine growth retardation – weight/other parameters <10th centile expected for gestational age.
To establish the identity of a person.
To determine the cause of death whether Natural or Unnatural.
If death is unnatural whether it is suicidal, accidental, or homicidal.
If death is homicidal, to determine if trace evidence was left behind by assailant.
To determine the time elapsed since death.
The basic procedures remain the same as with adult autopsies. However, the hospital records must be gone through with great detail. A great deal of vital information can be gathered from notes made by the gynaecologist and the paediatrician involved in the delivery process. The demographic details of the mother & family are also important. The number of pregnancies and their outcome, the method of delivery, any hereditary or congenital illnesses, antenatal records and investigations done assume importance while dealing with an autopsy of a neonate. In addition, if a termination of pregnancy (TOP) for foetal abnormality has been done then the copy of the scan report for comparison with the post mortem findings is necessary [1].
A protocol is a signed document containing a written record which serves as proof of something. Autopsy protocol is used in two basic forms:
Narrative
Numerical
A numerical protocol is always better to sum up procedures to be followed at autopsy. It is a checklist of sorts and makes the work of the autopsy surgeon more easy and orderly [3].
Steps to be done before the autopsy.
A summary of the clinical history.
A summary or the documents related to the case in order of time sequence.
Gross external examination of the dead body.
Findings related to identification if the body is unknown or unclaimed.
Internal examination of the dead body in relation to pathological findings.
A full chart of the viscera.
Details of wounds if any.
Exhibits to be preserved and sent for analysis.
Handing over of the exhibits to the police for onward transmission to concerned centres.
The relatives should identify the body, and radiological examination should be done prior to autopsy. Whole-body radiographs (anteroposterior and lateral) are taken. Photographs of the external features—frontal pictures of the entire body and close-ups of the face and side of the head, as well as, any other unusual aspects are taken [4].
It is best to follow standard guidelines or protocols methodically in each case, whether they be national or have been produced locally as required. In this way, mistakes of omission will be avoided. Although the basic autopsy varies little, there are various special investigations that may or may not be necessary, depending on the particular case. Foetal/infant autopsies are having a slightly different protocol than adult autopsies as findings of the umbilicus and the cord, the placenta, scalp hairs, lanugo hairs, nails & their length, skin colour & texture, scrotal sac wrinkling, as well as specific foetal measurements of the head, chest and abdominal circumference are to be noted.
Amniotic infection sequence, oligohydramnios, growth restriction: symmetric, asymmetric (nutritional), viral/protozoal infection (CMV, Parvovirus, toxoplasmosis, other), congenital malformation (all systems), hydrops foetalis, foetal akinesia sequence, placental and umbilical cord disease, changes in the baby and placenta secondary to intrauterine death.
The body should not be embalmed before the autopsy [3]. A careful external examination should be made to assess any external abnormality. The external features may provide the only information necessary to make the diagnosis of a malformation syndrome. In case of foetal bodies, the measurement of head circumference, chest circumference (at the level of the nipples) and abdominal girth should be measured. The total vertex to heel length has to be noted for an idea regarding maturity and intra-uterine age. The head contour assumes importance in such cases as instrumental delivery may produce trauma mimicking actual violence. Other important procedures include assessing the patency of natural orifices such as the nose, mouth, ears, anus. Evidence of petechial haemorrhages should be looked for in the eyes. For hospital deaths or even in cases found dead after delivery, careful examination of the umbilical cord is paramount; the edges should be checked for sharp cuts, evidence of tearing or gnawing. All puncture marks, needle marks and other injuries should be noted. The skin of the foetus should be examined for staining, discolouration and petechiae. Rodents gnaw away soft tissues of body especially ear, nose, lips etc. They produce shallow craters with irregular border nibbling with leave long grooves and lacks vital reaction [5].
A rough classification exists to help in estimation of maceration (aseptic autolysis) though the changes mentioned are variable depending on temperature and condition of body storage [2].
12 hours – slippage of skin is noted.
24 hours – blebs are formed on the skin.
48 hours – there is sloughing of the skin with blebs rupturing and haemolysis is noted in the viscera.
5 days – the brain liquefies, the cranial sutures overlap (Spalding’s sign) and the calvarium collapses.
7 days – the joints get lax and are dislocated.
As already explained above, the following careful measurements should be made with a ruler and a length of string, and compared to tables of normal values to aid assessment of gestational age and allow assessment of growth retardation:
Body weight in kg.
Crown-rump length (sitting height) in cm.
Crown-heel length (standing height) in cm.
Foot length in cm.
Head circumference in cm.
Abdominal girth (at the level of the umbilicus) in cm.
Chest circumference (at the level of the nipples) in cm.
If any abnormality is suspected, relevant radiological investigations (X-rays) and photography is done [2]. In situ photographs can be very helpful, preserving anatomic relationships and depicting visceral lesions before evisceration and fixation (Figure 1).
Measuring the length of umbilical cord.
There are of three types of primary incisions:
The ‘I’ shaped incision: extending from the chin straight down to the pubic symphysis, passing either side of umbilicus because of excess fibrous tissue in umbilicus which causes the difficult penetration of needle during stitching of body after autopsy.
The ‘Y’ shaped incision: begins at a point close to the acromion process and carried downward to pubic symphysis.
Modified ‘Y’ shaped incision.
Opening of body cavities: preference given to cavities depending upon the findings. Initially open such cavities which give trace evidences and lastly open such cavity which give maximum evidence it reduces the various artefacts.
Evisceration and Block Dissection equipment
Initial Stages of Evisceration: the best incision involves an inverted Y, with a central cut from below the chin to just above the umbilicus and then two branches, one down to each inguinal fossa which allows a good exposure of the umbilical arteries.
During reflection the scalp, note whether there is any subaponeurotic haemorrhage to exclude asphyxia or deep bruises (Figure 2).
Removal of the brain.
Procedure: In foetuses and infants, Beneke’s technique is used to open the skull. The cranium and dura on both the sides are cut with blunt scissors starting at the lateral edge of the anterior fontanelle extending the incisions along the midline and the lateral sides of the skull. The midline strip about 1 cm wide containing the superior sagittal sinus and the falx is left, and also an intact area in the temporal squama on either side, which serves as a hinge when the bone is reflected in a ‘butterfly’ manner [6].
An alternative method of cutting which follows the cranial suture lines i.e. Rokitansky’s method [4]. After carefully inspecting the hemispheres, falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli through the openings, the midline bone and sinus are removed. Injuries to fontanelles (e.g. punctured wounds through anterior fontanelle) and subdural/subarachnoid haemorrhages are looked for [6] (Figure 3).
Opening of skull and dissection of underlying dura and brain.
If the dura is left intact when the skull plates are cut, and carefully dissected from the skull when the bone flaps are reflected, then the entire brain can be removed while intact inside the dura.
It is better to fix the brain before removal of these anomalies. A CSF needle can be used to extract CSF from the ventricles which then can be filled with 50 ml of formalin. An hour of fixation of the brain would help it in maintaining its shape, whereupon removal of the anomaly can be done. If contrast mixture is mixed with the formalin then X-ray films can be taken that will outline the ventricular system [2].
The best method is the posterior approach. The skin is incised and at the point of the defect an ellipse shaped piece of the skin is removed, which completely encircles the defect. When the pedicles have been cut above and below the defect with bony forceps, the cord is removed. Once the cord has been removed above and below the defect, the vertebral column can be transacted. This can be fixed and examined histologically after serial sectioning. The resulting skin defect should be covered.
This may be necessary in cases of non accidental injury, to look for retinal haemorrhage, or in cases of intrauterine infection or suspected retrolental fibroplasia.
This may be necessary in cases of suspected birth injury, other causes of trauma, congenital deformity, or tumours.
This would be necessary in cases of suspected neuromuscular disorders or metabolic storage disorders.
This is sometimes when there is suspicion of a urinary tract anomaly or if the external genitalia are ambiguous. The symphysis pubis is bisected with a sharp scalpel. All the connective tissues around the pelvic organs are dissected freeing them anteriorly, posteriorly and sideways. In males, the muscular part of the penis is denuded till the terminal part is reached. The attachment to the glans penis is cut so that the penis can be removed in continuity to the bladder. In females, the skin of the vulva is incised as a circle near the external os. Blunt dissection around the vagina frees the vagina and uterus to be removed. The anus in both sexes, is removed by blunt dissection in a circular manner in the perineum around the anal aperture. Further dissection would allow the anus to be removed with the pelvic organs [2].
All major organs should be accurately weighed after removal, and then compared to normal values. These are produced in terms of both gestational age and body weight, for both live and stillborn babies.
If congenital heart disease is suspected, the heart is dissected along the path of blood flow, as for the adult. Careful inspection of the chambers in the manner of blood flow is done. Any defects or asymmetrical findings are noted. Cardiac wall hypertrophy or dilatation is noted for each chamber. The openings of the valves are examined and their diameters are noted. Any fical myocardial lesions should be looked for during examination of the ostia. The whole heart must be preserved for histo-pathological examination.
The hydrostatic test must be undertaken to come at a conclusion regarding life or dead birth. A piece of the liver acts as a control in such cases. If the liver piece floats when placed on water, it means that putrefaction has set in and then there is no utility of this test as false positive results would be expected when the lungs are placed in the water container. The shape, consistency and weight of the lungs should be noted. It is always better to send the lungs for histo-pathology in such cases where a clearer picture would emerge [1].
A rough estimate of foetal maturity can be got from weight of the lungs: body weight ratio: Lung weight: body weight ratio < 0.012: 1 in gestations ≥28 weeks.
Lung weight: body weight ratio < 0.015: 1 in gestations<28 weeks.
Deep dissection of the brochial & pulmonary arteries should be carried out as far as possible. The pulmonary lobes are best dissected in the coronal plane. The lung parenchyma should be examined for consolidation, abscess, haemorrhage, oedema & focal lesions. Small areas of collapse are seen as depressed reddish areas. All pulmonary lobes should be sampled for histology. If a tracheo-oesophageal fistula is suspected, the trachea should be opened anteriorly and the oesophagus dissected distally and attached to the trachea. The trachea and oesophagus should be sampled for histo-pathology preferably at the level of the laryngeal cartilage so as to include thyroid gland in the same block.
It is always better to locate the caecum which forms the boundary between the small & large gut. The entire intestines should be opened and the mucosa examined. The distribution of meconium should also be assessed. The mesentery of the gut should also be examined during autopsy.
The liver should be weighed after removal before being dissected in a coronal plane to allow comparison between the right and left lobes. Any colour change or focal lesions should be noted and both lobes should be sampled for histo-pathology [7].
The pancreas usually is auto digested before the body reaches the mortuary. However, if present it should also be sent for histo-pathology.
The Genitourinary System: Malformations of the urinary tract are quite common and should be looked for. In males these anomalies are found with obstructive lesions of the urinary tract and may require special attention.
The kidneys should be weighed and dissected coronally. The cortices and medullae should be identified. The renal pelvis and calyces should also be examined. Yellow streaks of urate may be seen and prove neonatal survival. Each kidney should be sampled for histo-pathology [4].
The testes normally lie within the scrotum from 32 weeks of gestation.
The thymus is a part of the anterior mediastinum and is proportionately much larger than in adults and easier to identify. The spleen should be weighed. Any focal lesions in the splenic parenchyma should be identified. Splenic enlargement is seen in haemolytic syndromes. The spleen should be sampled for histo-pathology [1]. Any lymphadenopathy should obviously be identified and sampled for histo-pathology. Routine histology should include a block of small bowel mesentery which will contain several lymph nodes.
Routine examination of bone marrow is not necessary, but if haematopoietic disturbance is suspected, marrow should be sampled for histology. The ribs is the most approachable and convenient site.
In regions of high maternal HIV prevalence, autopsy practice using universal precautions will significantly protect against accidental transmission.
Placenta is a vital part of any foetal or perinatal post mortem. Examination of the placenta is also an essential part of the autopsy of a perinatal case. Before starting the dissection, a bacteriological sample should be taken from the placental membranes and parenchyma in cases of stillbirth, prematurity, or IUGR, or if generalised infection is noted. The site of cord insertion must be identified and the length of cord noted. True knots, ruptured varices, and number of vessels must be noted. The vessels themselves should also be sectioned to assess the possibility of thrombus, an important point in identification is that all arterial branches cross superficial to venous branches. The foetal membranes should also be examined, and any meconium staining or discolouration (suggesting infection) noted. The size of the placental sac and the point of rupture should also be noted. The maternal cotyledons should be examined closely. The membranes and cord should then be removed, and the placental disc weighed and measured. Any blood clot received with the placenta should also be weighed. Serial slices should be made through the placental disc at approximately 1-cm intervals, one of which should go through the insertion of the cord. Any focal lesions, such as infarction, thrombosis, and haemangiomata should of course be noted. For histo-pathology, sections of cord, rolled up membranes, and placental parenchyma should be taken, in addition to any lesions identified macroscopically. The placental sections should include cord insertion, placental edge and membrane. In twin or other multiple placentae, the dividing membranes should be carefully examined to assess the number of chorionic and amniotic membranes. Monochorionic placentae indicate monozygosity whereas dichorionic placentae can occur in both homozygous and heterozygous multiple pregnancies. Any apparent anastomoses of foetal vessels should also be noted. Histological samples should also include the rolled up dividing membrane(s) and/or the placenta at the point of the division(s).
It is important to make as accurate an estimation of gestational age as possible, and then to use this estimation to make an assessment of intrauterine growth. Measurements of crown-rump, crown-heel, and foot lengths, together with whole body weights and organ weights are the best starting points as already discussed above (Figures 4–6).
Vernix caseosa, scalp and body (lanugo) hairs and fingernails reach fingertips.
Ossification centre of Talus bone i.e. 5 months.
Ossification centre of body of sternum.
Fusion of palatal shelves and fingerprints is seen at around 10 weeks.
Differentiated external genitalia are identifiable at 12 weeks.
Head is erect and lower limbs are well developed at 14 weeks.
Ears stand out from head at around16 weeks.
Vernix caseosa is present and early toenail development is seen at 18 weeks.
Head and body (lanugo) hairs are visible at 20 weeks.
Skin is wrinkled and red at 22 weeks.
Fingernails are present at 24 weeks.
Partial separation of eyelids; eyelashes present at 26 weeks.
Eyes are open, scalp hair well formed at 28 weeks.
Toe nails are present at 30 weeks.
Fingernails reach fingertips, skin is smooth at 32 weeks.
Body plump, lanugo absent, toenails reach toe tips at 36 weeks.
Testes palpable, fingernails beyond tips at 38 weeks.
Various ossification centres: such as calcaneum at 20 weeks, talus at 28 weeks, lower end of femur at birth and upper end of tibia just after birth are also important indicators of foetal maturity.
While giving cause of death the word ‘probably’ should be avoided. The doctor must consider history, description of fatal environment and circumstances optimally provided by primary sources, treatment leading up to death which can cause injuries, before arriving an autopsy interpretation. After completing the post mortem examination, a complete but concise report should be prepared in duplicate. One copy is sent to investigating officer and another copy is retained for future references [3].
A whole body X-ray is recommended for each case. This would help in assessing gestational age and congenital malformations in a better way. If need arises other radiological investigations can be carried out.
Photographic records of the case; important for documentation of the findings and a recap of them if a subsequent opinion is required by the law enforcement agencies.
Specific external body measurements (body weight, crown-rump length, crown-heel length, foot length, occipito-frontal circumference, head circumference, chest circumference & abdominal girth) for assessing gestational age.
A detailed external examination of the dead body for findings on the skin, eyes and for injuries if present.
Preferably T- or Y-shaped skin incision on body.
Cardio-vascular, Respiratory & Central nervous system examination along with examination of the gastrointestinal system.
CNS examination: if there is suspicion of a CNS malformation (including ventriculomegaly), then examination of posterior fossa structures by posterior approach is advised. One may consider sending the whole central nervous system for neuropathological examination in appropriate cases. This may include sampling of peripheral nervous tissue (nerve root, peripheral nerve, muscle, etc.).
Detailed systematic examination of other internal organs, including: Umbilical arteries and vein, ductus venosus, in situ examination of the heart and great vessels with sequential segmental analysis of malformations, in situ examination of thoracic and abdominal organs; consider removing in continuity to assess abnormal structures crossing diaphragm, weights of internal organs (minimum: brain, heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, thymus, adrenals, spleen) is always advisable.
Detailed examination of placenta and umbilical cord, including: dimensions of placenta umbilical cord: length, diameter, insertion into placental disc, number of vessels, coiling, lesions, membranes: appearance, foetal surface/chorionic vessels: appearance, infection, maternal surface: completeness, craters, etc.
An infant/foetal autopsy may include clinical specialities for guidance & expertise such as paediatrics, neurology, neurosurgery, etc.
Limited autopsy: a situation in which consent for a full autopsy is not given by the legal heirs of the dead body. This limited examination may be of some value for arriving at an opinion. The types of such limited autopsy are:
Autopsy limited to one or more body cavities only.
Open or needle biopsy of specific internal organs.
External examination of the body with X-ray, photography in specific situations such as highly infected dead bodies.
Placental examination only with genetic sampling if indicated.
Imaging (CT, MRI) alone or in combination with biopsy samples.
Specific significant organ systems.
For histological examination, the recommended organs include: thymus, heart (septum and free walls), lungs (right and left, each lobe), liver (both major lobes), pancreas, spleen, adrenal glands, kidneys, muscle, diaphragm, stomach, small and large bowels, larynx/trachea and thyroid. Sometimes samples of bone i.e. ribs including growth plate in stillbirth; long bone (including growth plate), vertebral body and skull mandatory for suspected skeletal dysplasia are required to be taken in specific conditions.
Bacteriology may be helpful when there is amniotic infection. In such cases, lung (swab/tissue) & blood (swab/formal culture) are to taken & sent for further analysis. Other samples may also be required depending upon the history & clinical course of the disease.
Genetic samples: genetic samples do assume importance for detailed study of acquired conditions in the young. Skin, muscle, blood from the heart, placenta, etc. can be sampled. One can consider retention of frozen tissue sample (liver/lung/other) as further DNA resource.
Virology – Virology samples as indicated by clinical history or macroscopic findings can also be taken & sent for analysis in suspected conditions.
Biochemistry &electron microscopy – Biochemical samples can be considered in cases of fetal akinesia and hydrops feotalis. Fibroblast culture and/or snap frozen liver/muscle for metabolic biochemistry can also be taken if indicated [4].
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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11407,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:26,paginationItems:[{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",signatures:"Hassan M. 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