Commercially available anti-
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6343",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sport and Exercise Science",title:"Sport and Exercise Science",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Professional and semiprofessional sports as well as excessive amateur exercise inevitably lead to some degree of musculoskeletal injury once in a sportsman's career. Some injuries are represented as chronic injuries, which can result in irreversible long-term tissue changes and deformities. The subject of this book is to represent the up-to-date knowledge about etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic injuries or sport-related long-term changes in locomotor system.",isbn:"978-953-51-3795-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3794-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4089-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69756",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sport-and-exercise-science",numberOfPages:124,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f02738ce8019136d4586b616f5670e9b",bookSignature:"Matjaz Merc",publishedDate:"February 7th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6343.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8586,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 18th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 3rd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 1st 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"210233",title:"Dr.",name:"Matjaz",middleName:null,surname:"Merc",slug:"matjaz-merc",fullName:"Matjaz Merc",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210233/images/5576_n.jpg",biography:"Matjaz Merc is an orthopaedic surgeon at the Department of orthopaedics in UMC Maribor, Slovenia working also as assistant on Faculty of medicine in Maribor. He graduated in 2008 on faculty of Medicine in Ljubljana, Slovenia and earned his Ph.D in 2015 on Faculty of Medicine in Maribor. He was a visiting fellow at the Department of orthopaedics at University clinic in Basel, Switzerland, Speising Spital, Vienna, Austria and KBC Šalata, Zagreb, Croatia where he got subspecialized. His clinical work is based on foot and ankle surgery, paediatric orthopaedics as well as sports medicine. His research interests are mainly based on application of rapid prototyping technology in orthopaedics. Since 2010 he cooperates with NK Maribor football club working as a doctor in medical team.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1119",title:"Exercise Physiology",slug:"exercise-physiology"}],chapters:[{id:"58218",title:"Biology of Stress and Physical Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72425",slug:"biology-of-stress-and-physical-performance",totalDownloads:1858,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Regular physical training leads to physical capacity and optimal sports performance, and although this relationship is usually linear, the athlete’s adaptation is conditioned by multiple factors: environmental, genetic and psychological. Studies have shown that between 70 and 85% of successful and unsuccessful athletes can be identified using psychological measures of personality and mood, a level higher than chance, but insufficient for the purpose of selecting athletes. The research indicates that the mood of the athletes exhibits a dose-response relationship with their adaptation to the training load; This finding has shown potential to reduce the incidence of overtraining syndrome in athletes who undergo rigorous physical training, through early detection using scales of perception of their mood and physiological measures such as the testosterone / cortisol index. Thus, the genetic and epigenetic modifications of the factors that regulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and, therefore, the response to stress, have recently been associated with a detrimental effect on physical performance and early manifestations of the overtraining syndrome and the abandonment of training and competences.",signatures:"Jorge A. Sanhueza Silva, Carlos Bahamondes-Avila, Claudio\nHernández-Mosqueira and Luis A. Salazar Navarrete",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58218",authors:[{id:"211582",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Sanhueza",slug:"jorge-sanhueza",fullName:"Jorge Sanhueza"},{id:"221070",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Bahamondes",slug:"carlos-bahamondes",fullName:"Carlos Bahamondes"},{id:"221071",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",surname:"Hernandez Mosqueira",slug:"claudio-hernandez-mosqueira",fullName:"Claudio Hernandez Mosqueira"}],corrections:null},{id:"58562",title:"Biokinetics: A South African Health Profession Evolving from Physical Education and Sport",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73126",slug:"biokinetics-a-south-african-health-profession-evolving-from-physical-education-and-sport",totalDownloads:1760,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter describes the South African profession of Biokinetics, which operates within the pathogenic and fortogenic health paradigms. Biokinetics is an exercise therapy profession that exclusively prescribes individulaised exercise and physical activity for rehabilitation and promotion of health and quality of life. Biokinetics differs from physiotherapy primarily due its management of injuries, illnesses and disabilities within the final-phase of rehabilitation. A brief history of the profession and its scope of profession and its alignment within the South African National Health statutory and professional bodies will be presented. The two pedagogic models adopted for the teaching and training of Biokinetics will also be discussed. Interprofessional collaborative partnerships within the medical-rehabilitation fraternity, sport, health and fitness industries and educational employment opportunities will be reviewed. Finally, the idea of internationalisation of the profession of Biokinetics to similar exercise therapy professions such as Clinical Exercise Physiology and Athletic Training will be presented.",signatures:"Terry Jeremy Ellapen, Gert Lukas Strydom, Mariette Swanepoel,\nHenriette Hammill and Yvonne Paul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58562",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58562",authors:[{id:"127909",title:"Prof.",name:"Gert Lukas",surname:"Strydom",slug:"gert-lukas-strydom",fullName:"Gert Lukas Strydom"},{id:"226652",title:"Dr.",name:"Terry J.",surname:"Ellapen",slug:"terry-j.-ellapen",fullName:"Terry J. Ellapen"},{id:"233593",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariette",surname:"Swanepoel",slug:"mariette-swanepoel",fullName:"Mariette Swanepoel"},{id:"233594",title:"Dr.",name:"Henriette Valerie",surname:"Hammill",slug:"henriette-valerie-hammill",fullName:"Henriette Valerie Hammill"},{id:"233596",title:"Prof.",name:"Yvonne",surname:"Paul",slug:"yvonne-paul",fullName:"Yvonne Paul"}],corrections:null},{id:"58233",title:"Diagnosis of Motor Habits during Backward Fall with Usage of Rotating Training Simulator",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71463",slug:"diagnosis-of-motor-habits-during-backward-fall-with-usage-of-rotating-training-simulator",totalDownloads:1240,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are jobs with high risk of a fall. It seems reasonable to create a device for diagnosis and improving safe fall skills for workers. The aim of the present study was a verification of usability of a rotating training simulator for assessing motor habits during a fall caused by an external force by conducting validation procedure. Material and Methods: the participants were chosen from a group of 128 students of physical education of the University of Zielona Góra. Predictive validity was determined by comparing results of immediate fall test (IFT) to forced fall test (FFT). Repeatability was determined by conduction test/retest conditions. Reliability was also determined by comparing grades given by two observers with those given by an expert. Results: the acquired results show that there were no significant differences between results of IFT and FFT tests conditions and also no significant differences between test/retest conditions separetly for IFT and FFT, alongside with moderate correlation of its results. Good and excellent reliability ICC values were obtained for observers and experts (from r = 0.853 to 1.00). Summary: the obtained results show that the rotating training simulator is a valid and reliable tool for diagnosing motor habits during a fall caused by an external force.",signatures:"Andrzej Mroczkowski and Dariusz Mosler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58233",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58233",authors:[{id:"144247",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrzej",surname:"Mroczkowski",slug:"andrzej-mroczkowski",fullName:"Andrzej Mroczkowski"},{id:"221034",title:"Mr.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Mosler",slug:"dariusz-mosler",fullName:"Dariusz Mosler"}],corrections:null},{id:"57800",title:"The Missing Science: Ethics in Practice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71883",slug:"the-missing-science-ethics-in-practice",totalDownloads:1257,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Greeks argued that philosophy was the most important science even though it was a science that studied no things. Their science, philosophy, focused on the meaning of life and death, life after death, existence, knowledge, knowing the good and bad, as well as the application of right and wrong. We argue that what is right and what is wrong should underlie the development of the current book Sports and Exercise Science. The stated purposes of the book, “to present the up to date knowledge about etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, management and prevention of chronic injuries or sports related long term changes in locomotor system. Moreover, topics about influence of sports activities on growth and development in pediatric population and presentation of acute injuries that often develop to chronic…as well,” are topics that should be addressed through science in sports and exercise science—philosophy and ethics. Ethics should govern all science, including the growth and development of sports and exercise science. Injury often occurs because of poor coaching, poor training, or overtraining. The problem exists because of unethical practice of either coaches, parents, leaders, trainers, or a combination of all of them. This chapter focuses on ethical education for professionals, educators, practitioners, and coaches.",signatures:"Sharon Kay Stoll, Heather Van Mullem, Peter Van Mullem and\nJennifer M. Beller",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57800",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57800",authors:[{id:"189960",title:"Prof.",name:"Sharon Kay",surname:"Stoll",slug:"sharon-kay-stoll",fullName:"Sharon Kay Stoll"},{id:"205593",title:"Dr.",name:"Heather",surname:"VanMullem",slug:"heather-vanmullem",fullName:"Heather VanMullem"},{id:"213781",title:"Dr.",name:"Pete",surname:"Van Mullem",slug:"pete-van-mullem",fullName:"Pete Van Mullem"},{id:"213782",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer",surname:"Beller",slug:"jennifer-beller",fullName:"Jennifer Beller"}],corrections:null},{id:"58153",title:"Overuse Injuries in Professional Ballet",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72428",slug:"overuse-injuries-in-professional-ballet",totalDownloads:1346,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ballet is an athletic activity with a marked artistic component, that need a highest technical requirement and repetitive movements. In this way, Overuse injuries, as we have been able to demonstrate in our studies, will be the most frequent injuries in ballet. The technical requierements of ballet will influence both injury specificity for each discipline and for both sexes, usually with higher technical requirements among women and higher athletic requirements among men. The patellofemoral syndrome is the most frequent overuse injuries in ballet, related to decompensating mechanisms to increase a naturally weak in turnout or dehors. This injury and others as the snapping hip, are more common among women, with higher technical requirements than men, and in the more technically demanding disciplines such as classical ballet. Other important injuries in ballet are Achilles tendinopathy, the mechanical low back pain, or the Os trigonum Syndrome. It will be very important to know about, the biomechanic and pathomechanic of the Ballet specific technical gesture, the intrinsecal and environmental risk factors involved in ballet injuries, the injury-based differences among ballet disciplines and among age and professional seniority, as well as the most important preventive measures in ballet.",signatures:"Francisco J. Sobrino and Pedro Guillen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58153",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58153",authors:[{id:"218702",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Francisco J.",surname:"Sobrino",slug:"francisco-j.-sobrino",fullName:"Francisco J. Sobrino"}],corrections:null},{id:"56931",title:"Sports Concussion: A Clinical Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70765",slug:"sports-concussion-a-clinical-overview",totalDownloads:1126,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Concussion is an injury risk associated with participation in collision sports. It has been identified as a research priority for many contacts and collision sports governing bodies worldwide. However, concussion remains under-researched in terms of clinical translation from both experimental models to clinical understanding, and from clinical studies to sports policy. Currently, the clinical management of concussion is largely guided by the presence or absence of symptoms with recovery indicated once all post-injury symptoms have resolved. Management of concussion includes physical and cognitive rest until acute symptoms resolve, with a graded program of exertion implemented prior to medical clearance and return-to-play. Considering the potential sequelae, the heterogeneity of symptoms, and the lack of an intervention known to prevent concussion, it is not any wonder that concussion is one of the most complex and perplexing injuries faced by medical professionals, and why making the return-to-play decision can be quite challenging. This chapter will provide an overview of the current clinical management guidelines and research literature pertaining to identification and diagnosis of injury, acute and post-acute management, and return-to-play decision-making. The traditional standard assessment process (e.g., symptom reporting, cognitive assessment, balance testing), new methods and advanced technology (e.g., ocular-motor testing, neuroimaging techniques), and biomarkers (e.g., blood plasma and serum, fluid) have led to greater insights into sports concussion and will also be briefly explored in this chapter.",signatures:"Andrew J. Gardner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56931",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56931",authors:[{id:"211583",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Gardner",slug:"andrew-gardner",fullName:"Andrew Gardner"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3398",title:"Current Issues in Sports and Exercise Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fe3b3863298192755e00422f9fc2c8df",slug:"current-issues-in-sports-and-exercise-medicine",bookSignature:"Michael Hamlin, Nick Draper and Yaso Kathiravel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3398.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"162377",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Hamlin",slug:"michael-hamlin",fullName:"Michael Hamlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3431",title:"Muscle Injuries in Sport Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c234e7ea0b15db8dd5fa3d62698a6c64",slug:"muscle-injuries-in-sport-medicine",bookSignature:"Gian Nicola Bisciotti and Cristiano Eirale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3431.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78940",title:"Dr.",name:"Gian Nicola",surname:"Bisciotti",slug:"gian-nicola-bisciotti",fullName:"Gian Nicola Bisciotti"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. 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by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"77088",title:"Bacteriophages as Anti-Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Agents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98313",slug:"bacteriophages-as-anti-methicillin-resistant-em-staphylococcus-aureus-em-agents",body:'Among the different relevant bacterial genus in Veterinary and Human Medicine,
Historically, the first publications related to the human carriage of
Alternatively, with the development of the new antibiotics to supplant the resistance, there is the possibility of using viral agents to control unwanted bacteria. Viruses termed “bacteriophages” or “phages” are the most abundant agents in the environment and are host-specific, i.e., they infect only prokaryotes that have their own specific receptors for their adsorption. The absence of such receptors makes phage binding to the target cell as well as subsequent infection impossible, characterizing the specificity of these viruses [16, 17]. Phages are easily recovered from soil, sewage, and feces and their numbers are about 3 to 10 times higher than bacterial counts even though variations exist between ecosystems [18, 19]. Like other viruses, bacteriophages are obligate intracellular, and are characterized according to the replication cycle exhibited after infection of the bacterial host. The cycle can be lytic or lysogenic, but only phages that exclusively perform the lytic cycle are of interest for use as therapeutic agents, since they will promote cell lysis at the end of the cycle [18].
The
Phenotypic tests for laboratory identification of
Historically MRSA was described in humans in 1961 [26], while MRSA colonization and infection in animals was first reported in 1972 in asymptomatic dogs in Nigeria and a case of bovine mastitis in Belgium [23]. Around 25–30% of the human population is asymptomatically colonized by
It is now well established that MRSA isolates are often non-susceptible to different classes of antibiotics and are considered multidrug-resistant (MDR) when resistance is observed for at least three different classes of antimicrobials [25]. The great adaptability of this pathogen is due to its expressive genetic plasticity, in which approximately 25% of the
When human MRSA infections persist, worsen, or recur despite surgical treatment, additional use of systemic antibiotic therapy is required [27]. Different clinical treatment options are available to combat MRSA infections, including vancomycin. Although this drug is the main therapeutic option, there are several limitations in its use, such as the achievement of optimal serum concentration, long-term treatment, renal toxicity, and restricted route of administration (intravenous) [30]. In the veterinary field, there is no effective therapy to treat MRSA infections, so prevention and control measures are critical to contain the further spread of MRSA [21]. While this challenge remains unresolved, successful treatment of infections may require the development of new antibiotics and the use of bacteriophages and phage-derived lytic proteins [29] as alternative therapeutic resources.
With the emergence of MRSA, staphylococcal infections have become difficult to control. MRSA is typically resistant to beta-lactams and can even present resistance to other antimicrobials [20], thus requiring new therapeutic alternatives. In this sense, phage therapy resurfaces as a promising tool for the control of unwanted bacteria, since it consists of the use of viruses, called bacteriophages, capable of infecting and killing prokaryotes without harming human or animal cells.
Bacteriophages, also known as phages, are viruses that infect and lyse prokaryotes. They are considered the most numerous infectious entities on the planet, being found in different environmental matrices, such as sewage, water, soil, among others [31]. Phages have been proposed as an alternative resource to the problem of resistant bacteria since they infect bacterial cells and, at the end of their reproduction cycle, promote the lysis of the host bacterium [18, 32]. After their discovery in 1917, phages were successfully used for the treatment of several bacterial infections [31]. However, the advent of antibiotics and their industrial-scale production, coupled with the lack of adequate studies and the poor understanding of phage biology at the time, resulted in the abandonment of studies related to these viruses as therapeutic agents in most institutions. A few places followed up on these studies, such as Eastern Europe, mainly Russia, Georgia, and Poland. Truly, the production and use of phages for prophylaxis and therapy never stopped in the last two countries mentioned [33]. From these countries emerged the main research in the phage therapy field.
Subsequently, the indiscriminate use of antibiotics enabled progressive bacterial resistance, leading to the resumption of studies with phages. Thus, bacteriophages and their products, such as enzymes released at the end of their replication cycle, were once again considered as therapeutic agents [32]. Phage therapy is the use of bacteriophages to eliminate bacterial pathogens, and fortunately, innovative research techniques have made several advances in the field possible. One of the most important discoveries has been the distinction between the replication cycles carried out by phages. The replication of these viruses occurs mainly through two cycles: the lysogenic and the lytic.
Frequently,
Regardless of the type of cycle (lytic or lysogenic) performed by the bacteriophage, the replication process will begin by the adsorption of the virus to receptors on the surface of the host cell wall. During the infection of Gram-positive bacteria, as is the case of
The lysogenic cycle is characterized by phages that are able to infect and integrate their genetic material into the DNA of the bacteria, thus forming a prophage. The ability to integrate its genetic material with the bacteria is due to the presence of genes that encode the integrase protein, an enzyme that mediates the recombination between the phage’s DNA and that of the host [41]. Subsequently, proteins are produced that induce viral latency, implying a pause in the transcription of gene products, allowing the prophage to exist with the bacteria for several bacterial generations without major consequences. Furthermore, the prophage induces immunity in the bacteria against infection via new phages. Bacteriophages that exhibit this type of replication cycle are not suitable in the context of phage therapy, since at the end of the viral cycle the death of the bacteria will not necessarily occur. In addition, bacteriophages that perform the lysogenic cycle may be responsible for producing toxic substances and carrying resistance genes [32], implying benefits for the bacteria.
On the other hand, in the lytic cycle there is no integration of the phage genetic material to the prokaryote DNA. At the end of this viral replication cycle, when the new virions are already formed and ready to be released, there is the production of enzymes capable of lysing the bacteria cell wall, inducing bacterial rupture and death for the release of new virions. Therefore, phages whose replication cycle is lytic are the most suitable for use in phage therapy, precisely because they cause bacterial lysis [18]. The schematic representation of the lytic and lysogenic cycles in
Lytic and lysogenic cycles.
The attempt to use phages for the treatment of infections caused by
Studies with phages for the control of staphylococcal infections were continued in some regions of the world. In the United States (1952), a laboratory (Delmont Laboratories) licensed, for human use, a bacterial lysate produced from the infection of bacteriophages in two virulent strains of
Because of the resistance of
Commercial products containing phages or enzymes produced by them are manufactured and available in some countries, mainly in Russia and Georgia, but also in Canada, the Netherlands and the Czech Republic. The following table (e.g., Table 1) gathers different commercial phage products, the target bacteria of each product, their main uses and the manufacturer [47, 48, 49, 50].
Product name | Active against | Informations/use | Manufacturer |
---|---|---|---|
Complex Pyo bacteriophage | Mix of sterile lysate phages. Used for the treatment of diseases of the eyes/ear/nose, throat, infections of respiratory tract, lungs, surgical sites, urogenital, enteric, septic diseases. operational and newly infected wounds, for the prevention of hospital-acquired infections. | Microgen (Russia) | |
Fersisi bacteriophage | Sterile filtrate of phage lysates. Used for the treatment of otolaryngological diseases; infections of skin, urogenital, gynecologic, enteric, pyo-inflammatory disease in children (including newborns). | Eliava BioPreparations (Georgia) | |
Gladskin Acne, Gladskin Eczema, Gladskin Rosacea, Gladskin Shaving Irritation | Endolysin XZ.700. Used for the treatment of skin disorders (acne, eczema, rosacea, psoriasis). | Micreos (Netherlands) | |
Intesti bacteriophage | Mix of sterile filtrates of phage lysates. Used for the treatment of enteric infections. | Eliava BioPreparations (Georgia) | |
Intesti- bacteriophage | Mixture of sterile filtrates of phage lysates. Used for the treatment of bacterial dysentery, dyspepsia, disbacteriosis, enterocolitis, colitis, salmonellosis. | Microgen (Russia) | |
Pyophage | Mix of sterile lysate phages. Used for the treatment of infections of upper respiratory tract, dermatological, surgical site, ocular urogenital, gastrointestinal, purulent septic infections in children, for prevention of post- operational complications and hospital infections. | Eliava BioPreparations (Georgia) | |
Pyofag® polyvalent bacteriophage | Solution in vial with bacteriophages. Used for the treatment of pyoinflammatory diseases of ears, throat, nose, oral cavity, eyes, surgical infections, burn wounds; urogenital, gynecologic, and enteric infections. | Pharmex Group LLC (Ukraine) for NeoProbioCare Inc. (Canada) | |
Stafal ® | Polyvalent bacteriophages of the family | Bohemia Pharmaceuticals (Czech Republic) | |
Staphefekt TM | Endolysin XZ.700. Used for treatment of inflammatory skin conditions such as eczema, acne, rosacea, psoriasis. | Micreos (Netherlands) |
Commercially available anti-
In recent years, different studies involving commercial phage products with anti-staphylococcal activity have been undertaken. Most of them were related to
Some commercial products with the same name, but produced by different manufacturers, are proposed for the control of
In a recent study, the action of Stafal® (a preparation with polyvalent bacteriophages active
Commercially, the recombinant endolysins Staphefekt SA.100 and Staphefekt XDR.300 (Micreos Human Health BV, Netherlands) which act on
Other commercially available products are: Bronchophage, Otophage, Phagodent, Phagoderm, Phagogyn, Phagovet, Vetagyn (Micromir, Russia); ENKO bacteriophage, SES Bacteriophage, Staphylococcal bacteriophage (Eliava BioPreparations, Georgia); Dysentery bacteriophage,
Fortunately, since the year 2000, different studies have contributed to a better understanding of phages as anti-
A cocktail containing two bacteriophages, designated K and 44AHJD, was tested against clinical isolates of
Clinical trials involving
The Clinical Trials platform, a database of clinical studies conducted worldwide, reports the existence of eight studies related to the use of bacteriophages against
Among the principal attractive aspects of phage therapy, the main ones are: i) high specificity of the virus for the bacteria providing freedom from side effects on cells that are not targeted by the therapy; ii) activity against different bacteria, including multidrug resistant bacteria; iii) reduced treatment costs compared to antibiotic therapy; iv) prevention to the growth of secondary pathogens; v) ability to degrade bacterial biofilm by lysing bacteria; vi) high body distribution and vii) high efficacy compared to antimicrobials [32]. On the other hand, there are some limitations to the use of phages in therapy, among them: i) the possibility of antibody production by the immune system; ii) the difficulty of measuring the application dose; iii) the possibility of gene transfer among pathogens through phages, which may be responsible for passing pathogenic determinants and virulence factors, resulting in a possible resistance of bacteria; iv) the ability of bacteria to develop resistance against bacteriophages; v) elucidation of the correct route of administration and treatment time and vi) accurate and rapid diagnosis of the microorganism that is provoking the illness [32].
Fortunately, for all the limitations previously indicated, there are already studies that aim to circumvent these problems. For example, viral genome sequencing avoids the use of phages that are lysogenic or contain toxic and resistant genes. Along with this is the progressive search for new phages to be used if antibodies are produced by the immune system, or to replace phages for which the bacteria have become resistant. In addition, it is already known that viruses can mutate and adapt to resistance mechanisms created by bacteria. In other words, after the creation of barriers that make it impossible for the phage to replicate in the bacteria, changes occur in the viruses that allow their replication cycle to continue, even with the presence of the bacterial adaptations [32]. Further in this context, the use of new diagnostic resources allows the rapid differentiation of the disease-causing bacteria, in addition to the use of cocktails with different phages for the same bacterium, enhancing even more the specificity and avoiding the manifestation of resistance [32, 66].
MRSA represents a global threat due to its progressive resistance to antimicrobials, as well as the future prospect of no effective antibiotics. The use of lytic bacteriophages and their by-products are promising alternatives for bacterial control, since they infect and lyse the pathogen without the inconvenience of side effects, as well as contributing to lower consumption of antimicrobials, reflecting in the reduction of antibiotic resistance rates. The study of phages has always occurred in countries such as Georgia and Russia, where phage-based commercial products are relevant antibacterial alternatives. Although different
The authors would like to thank Ana Carolina Klein for the graphic art.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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Here, we discuss two mechanisms to explain the deviation of the lunar COM to the East from the mean direction to Earth. The first mechanism considers the secular evolution of the Moon’s orbit, using the effect of the preferred orientation of the satellite with synchronous rotation to the second (empty) orbital focus. It is established that only the scenario with an increase in the orbital eccentricity e leads to the required displacement of the lunar COM to the East. It is important that high-precision calculations confirm an increase e in our era. In order to fully explain the shift of the lunar COM to the East, a second mechanism was developed that takes into account the influence of tidal changes in the shape of the Moon at its gradual removal from the Earth. The second mechanism predicts that the elongation of the lunar figure in the early era was significant. 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Historical studies of space exploration, planetary spacecraft and astronomy, in situ resource utilization (ISRU), and industrialization all point to the vastness of natural resources in the solar system. Advanced propulsion is benefitted from these resources in many ways. While advanced propulsion systems were proposed in these historical studies, further investigation of nuclear options using high-power nuclear electric and nuclear pulse propulsion as well as advanced chemical propulsion can significantly enhance these scenarios. Updated analyses based on these historical visions are presented. At Saturn, nuclear pulse propulsion with alternate propellant feed systems and Saturn moon exploration with chemical propulsion and nuclear electric propulsion options are discussed. Issues with using in situ resource utilization on Saturn’s moons are discussed. At Saturn, the best locations for exploration and the use of the moons as central locations for Saturn moon exploration are assessed. 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There are many historical study results that have identified and quantified the lunar resources and analyzed the methods of obtaining and employing those resources. The idea of finding, obtaining, and using these materials is called in situ resource utilization (ISRU). The ISRU research and development efforts have led to new ideas in rocket propulsion. Applications in chemical propulsion, nuclear electric propulsion, and many other propulsion systems will be critical in making the initial lunar base and future lunar industries more sustainable and will lead to brilliant futures for humanity.",book:{id:"8444",slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"32533",title:"Measuring the Isotopic Composition of Solar Wind Noble Gases",slug:"measuring-the-isotopic-composition-of-solar-wind-noble-gases",totalDownloads:2770,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1617",slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Alex Meshik, Charles Hohenberg, Olga Pravdivtseva and Donald Burnett",authors:[{id:"114740",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Meshik",slug:"alexander-meshik",fullName:"Alexander Meshik"},{id:"115300",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"Burnett",slug:"donald-burnett",fullName:"Donald Burnett"},{id:"115301",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Hohenberg",slug:"charles-hohenberg",fullName:"Charles Hohenberg"},{id:"115302",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Pravdivtseva",slug:"olga-pravdivtseva",fullName:"Olga Pravdivtseva"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"98",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82332",title:"Introductory Chapter: Access to Space, Access to the Moon: Two Sides of the Same Coin?",slug:"introductory-chapter-access-to-space-access-to-the-moon-two-sides-of-the-same-coin",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105175",abstract:null,book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Yann-Henri Chemin"},{id:"81141",title:"Modeling Radiation Damage in Materials Relevant for Exploration and Settlement on the Moon",slug:"modeling-radiation-damage-in-materials-relevant-for-exploration-and-settlement-on-the-moon",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102808",abstract:"Understanding the effect of radiation on materials is fundamental for space exploration. 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Additionally, we overview some of the novel materials with outstanding properties, such as low weight, increased radiation resistance, and self-healing capabilities with a potential to reduce mission costs and improve prospects for extended human exploration of extraterrestrial bodies.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Natalia E. Koval, Bin Gu, Daniel Muñoz-Santiburcio and Fabiana Da Pieve"},{id:"80241",title:"The Evolution of the Moon’s Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research in the Moon",slug:"the-evolution-of-the-moon-s-orbit-over-100-million-years-and-prospects-for-the-research-in-the-moon",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102392",abstract:"As a result of solving the problem of interaction of Solar-system bodies, data on the evolution of the Moon’s orbit were obtained. These data were used as the basis for the development of a mathematical model for the Moon representing its motion over an interval of 100 million years. A program of exploration of the Moon with the aim of creating a permanent base on it is outlined. Such a base is intended for exploring the Earth, the Sun, and outer space.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Joseph J. Smulsky"},{id:"80217",title:"Educational and Scientific Analog Space Missions",slug:"educational-and-scientific-analog-space-missions",totalDownloads:78,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101392",abstract:"Analog space missions in Poland include international scientific, technological, and business projects designed and realized by a private research company Analog Astronaut Training Center Ltd. (AATC) devoted to the future Moon and Mars exploration. Growing experience in educational aspect of the training as well as continuous development of the habitat and its professional space science laboratory equipment correspond to increased interest of educational organizations, universities, and individual students. We serve unique practical platform for space engineering, space master, and even space doctoral theses. In addition to a wide range of training courses offered for future astronauts, for example, diving, skydiving, rocket workshops, and stratospheric missions, AATC provides a private laboratory to simulate the space environment. It carries out scientific experiments focused on biology and space medicine, as well as addressing several multidisciplinary issues related to the Moon and Mars exploration, including space mining. The main goal of each our analog simulation is to get publishable results, what means that our analog astronauts obtain not only certification of completion of the training but also ability to continue studies and to perform it individually. This chapter summarizes methodology used by us, didactic tools, and obtained results for both educational and scientific analog simulations.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Agata Maria Kołodziejczyk and M. Harasymczuk"},{id:"79544",title:"Regolith and Radiation: The Cosmic Battle",slug:"regolith-and-radiation-the-cosmic-battle",totalDownloads:115,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101437",abstract:"This chapter discusses regolith utilization in habitat construction mainly from the point of view of radiation protection of humans on missions of long duration. 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A comprehensive picture of regolith utilization in habitat walls is drawn for the reader to understand the main aspects that are considered in habitat design and construction while maintaining the main focus on radiation protection.",book:{id:"10955",title:"Lunar Science - Habitat and Humans",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10955.jpg"},signatures:"Yulia Akisheva, Yves Gourinat, Nicolas Foray and Aidan Cowley"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/22904",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"22904"},fullPath:"/chapters/22904",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()