A review of the composition and content of phenolic compounds in various fruit wines.
\r\n\tThere are generally two types of masonry: brick and stone masonry. Brick masonry: a type of masonry that uses bricks. However, masonry is further divided into "clay work," which uses clay to fill various joints with bricks to build walls, and "cement masonry," the cheapest type of masonry. Masonry: this is the art of building with bricks or stone. The ability of masonry to support the load imposed by the structural elements above it is called strength. The application of loads to masonry creates internal stresses and deformations. The brand of mortar and brick, the shape and size of masonry materials, and the thickness and density of mortar joints affect the strength of masonry. The ability of masonry to maintain its position under horizontal load is called stability. This property limits the height of masonry depending on its thickness and the magnitude of wind loads. The thermal conductivity of bricks of different types (silicate, ceramic, facing, refractory) is considered. A comparison of bricks in terms of their thermal conductivity is made; the thermal conductivity coefficients of refractory bricks are presented at different temperatures - from 20 to 1700°C. The thermal conductivity depends mainly on the density and the configuration of the voids. Architecture and construction consist of various elements for building works, and masonry is the main element with which these constructions are realized. Masonry is a piece of fired clay with a rectangular shape and is used to build walls and structures. Nowadays, eco-masonry can be made of different materials that offer a variety of advantages, but all of them offer benefits at the level of the environment and sustainability; some of these utensils are plastic bottles, clay, etc. The book addresses the holistic issue of using modern masonry in construction. This book interprets masonry as an essential theme of contemporary architecture and sustainable construction. It is one of the most valuable materials in the history of mankind.
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Kosyachenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1290.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6262",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid A.",surname:"Kosyachenko",slug:"leonid-a.-kosyachenko",fullName:"Leonid A. Kosyachenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"62295",title:"Chemical Constituents of Fruit Wines as Descriptors of their Nutritional, Sensorial and Health-Related Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78796",slug:"chemical-constituents-of-fruit-wines-as-descriptors-of-their-nutritional-sensorial-and-health-relate",body:'\nThe past decade has seen the rapid development of fruit wine production in many countries, which may be attributed to the enhanced consumers’ interest in functional foods that may help to promote health and help reduce the risk of disease. However, there is literature gap data regarding the production, properties and health benefits of different fruit wines, compared to grape wines. With the ageing of the population, the incidence of chronic diseases that can be linked to caloric excess and the cost of health-care both increase, and so is the consumers’ preference towards self-care, instead of pharmaceutical management of disease [1]. The utilisation of functional foods for health-care can lead to the reduction of the use of pharmaceuticals or their replacement. According to the Functional Food and Nutraceuticals market report [2], many consumers were prompted to turn to preventive or alternative health-care practices due to the increase of health-care costs [3]. Consequently, the consummation of functional foods and nutraceuticals increased substantially. Moderate consumption of grape wine (mainly red) has a beneficial health effects when combined with balanced diet, which is confirmed by many studies [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Some of the reported effects regarding health effects include the protection of the incidence of cardiovascular diseases, ischaemic stroke, hypertension, diabetes, dietary cancers, peptic ulcers, kidney stones and macular degeneration, as well as stimulation of resistance to infection and bone density retention [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. However, apart from grapes, a whole range of other fruits that differ in shape, taste, colour and nutritive value can also be utilised for the production of wine [9], which are nowadays gaining the full acceptance at the market [15]. Fruit wines have proved to be an excellent dietary source of antioxidants, phytonutrients and minerals [16]. According to the European regulations, fruit wines must be obtained by the fermentation of fruits (or respective juices) other than grape. Based on the carbon dioxide retention and content, fruit wines can be classified either as still or sparkling, while their permitted alcoholic strength lies between 1.2 and 14% by volume [14]. Winemaking technology of fruit wines is mostly similar to that of grape wines, except for the variations based on the fruit used, that usually involves the adjustment of fruit juice for winemaking, for example, sugar content or acidity. Geographical area, that is, the fruit cultivars typically grown in that specific area, mainly determines the production and consumption of different fruit wines. Non-grape fruits successfully used for the production of fruit wines in different parts of the world include blackberries, strawberries, currants, apples, wild apricots, pears, kiwifruit, plums, peaches, cherries, bananas, pineapples, cashew nuts, pomegranates, lemons, tangerines, oranges, dates, figs, and so on [17, 18]. There is a large volume of published studies describing chemical composition, with the particular emphasis on various bioactive compounds, of different fruits and fruit juices [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32]. However, comprehensive reviews of respective fruit wines are still scarce, as well as the comparison of different fruit wines regarding their bioactive compounds. The primary focus of this chapter includes three most popular fruit wines in Croatia, produced from three different groups of fruit, namely berries (blackberry wine), stone fruit (sour cherry wine) and pome fruit (apple wine), in respect to chemical constituents affecting their nutritional, sensorial and health-related properties. Furthermore, food-safety issues, that is, the presence of pesticides, mycotoxins and biogenic amines, are also tackled.
\nFruit wine consists of two primary ingredients—water and ethanol, the latter being the primary product of alcoholic fermentation, essential for both flavour and stability of wine. Fermentation is an anaerobic process carried out by yeast in which yeast converts the relatively high level of sugars present in fruits into ethanol and carbon dioxide [14]. Ethanol production is controlled by three main factors: sugar content, fermentation temperature and yeast strain. Particular types of yeast are used in wine production that can both tolerate and produce high alcohol levels (in some cases up to 14%, or even higher). The alcohol content is usually expressed as a volume percentage. Under standard fermentation conditions, ethanol can accumulate to up to 14–15%, while higher ethanol levels can be achieved by the sequential addition of sugar during fermentation. However, to achieve ethanol concentrations above 15%, the wine has to be fortified [33]. The role of ethanol in wine is multiple: it acts as an essential cosolvent (along with water) in extracting fruits constituents, it serves as a reactant in the generation of important volatile compounds (e.g. ethyl esters) and is crucial to the sensory properties, stability and ageing of wine [33]. The secondary products of yeast metabolism include higher alcohols (containing more than two carbons), also known as fusel alcohols or fusel oils [34]. Some of the representatives of higher alcohols are
Knowledge of the volatile composition of wine is of great interest; since these compounds are responsible for the quality of wine aroma. The aroma of fruit wines is mainly determined by volatile compounds produced by the fruit itself (varietal wine aroma), as by-products of alcoholic and malolactic fermentation (fermentative wine aroma), and formed during bottling, ageing and storing (post-fermentative wine aroma) [50]. Esters, higher alcohols, acetates, organic acids and other compounds are the groups of volatile compounds that most commonly contribute to the flavour and/or aroma profile of fruit. Apart from the listed groups of volatiles, there are also many minor volatile and non-volatile compounds adding to the aroma of fruit wines, such as aldehydes, ketones, lactones, terpenes and phenols [51]. A fast, selective and sensitive method for the determination of volatile compounds in blackberry wine samples using an HSS-GC-FID method was presented by Mornar et al. [52]; still, the study encompassed a limited number of compounds as well as samples. Therefore, Amidžić Klarić et al. [53] analysed volatile compounds in the 15 blackberry wine samples produced from conventionally and organically grown blackberries using a GC-FID method. The amount of ethyl acetate in the investigated samples ranged from 53.8 to 188.4 mg/L, while propane-1-ol was found in three organic samples. Although isoamyl alcohol was found in all samples, the measured values ranged from 56.7 to 226.9 mg/L. A GC–MS technique was used by Wang et al. [54] for the investigation of the fermentation process influence (primary and secondary) on volatile compounds of blackberry wine. Fifty-five volatile compounds were detected in blackberry fruit juice before fermentation, while nine new aroma components such as octanoate, benzenepropanoic acid ethyl ester, ethyl benzoate, dodecyl ethyl, n-propanol, n-butanol, D-citronellol, benzaldehyde and cedrol were detected in natural ageing wine which appeared during secondary fermentation. These findings emphasise the importance of natural ageing for the formation of aroma components of blackberry wine. Due to the high popularity of cherry wine, the volatile compounds of this fruit wine were in focus of several investigations as indicators of aroma profile of fruit wines. Niu et al. [55] have applied descriptive sensory analysis to describe the aroma attributes of different cherry wines by GC-olfactometry, an analytical technique that uses human assessors as a sensitive and selective detector for odour-active compounds. Fifty-one compounds were detected and subsequently quantified by GC–MS. The conducted research revealed that the aroma-active compound profiles were dominated by ethyl 2-methyl propionate, 2,3-butanedione, ethyl butyrate, ethyl pentanoate, 3-methyl-1-butanol, ethyl hexanoate, 3-hydroxy-2-butanone, ethyl lactate, 1-hexanol, (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol, ethyl hydroxyacetate, acetic acid, furfural, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, benzaldehyde, propanoic acid, butanoic acid, guaiacol, beta-citronellol, hexanoic acid, 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol, 2-ethyl-3-hydroxy-4H-pyran-4-one, ethyl cinnamate and 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol. Afterwards, Xiao et al. [56] have determined 75 volatiles in 9 cherry wine samples using an improved sample preparation technique HS-SPME. The cluster analysis results suggested that esterification reactions and fermentation process were more extended during the ageing period and the production process could have a significant influence on volatile profile of cherry wines. The similar conclusion was obtained by Xiao et al. [57] using multivariate classification of cherry wines. The research revealed the major volatile components of investigated cherry wines: isoamylol, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzaldehyde and diethyl succinate. More recently, the research of Xiao et al. [58] have shown that the Chinese cherry wines from different price segments have the different aroma-active compounds profile as well as various aroma attributes. Furthermore, the correlation between the composition of aroma-active compounds and cherry wine from different regions was established by Xiao et al. [59]. Wang et al. [60] have proposed a new, rapid method for analysis of volatile compounds in apple wine using HS-SPME-GC-MS technique. Forty-three volatile compounds (alcohols, esters, lower fatty acids, carbonyls, alkenes, terpenes and phenols) were quantified in `Fuji´ apple wine. The most abundant aroma compounds were esters, alcohols and lower fatty acids; total concentrations were 242.1, 479.3 and 297.4 mg/mL, respectively. Still, the dominant aroma component was isoamyl alcohol (232.0 mg/mL). The same technique was used for the investigation of the temperature effect during apple winemaking on both the critical aroma compounds and sensory properties of wine. The concentration of all aroma compounds was changed with a temperature increase, and sensory analysis showed the highest acceptance of apple wine fermented at 20°C [61]. The influence of apple variety (Šampion, Idared and Gloster) harvested from the orchard in Poland on the volatile composition, and sensory characteristics of apple wine were investigated by Satora et al. [62]. The high concentration of acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate and methanol was found in Šampion wines, while Gloster wines contained a higher concentration of fusel alcohols. The Idared wines had the best results of the sensory evaluation and high levels of butanol and acetic acid. As mentioned earlier, the majority of investigations were performed using sample preparation procedures such as HS and/or SPME, while gas chromatography with FID and MS detectors was shown to be the analytical technique of choice for the determination of volatile compounds in fruit wine. Ye et al. [63] have developed and applied a new rapid method for the identification of volatile compounds in apple wine using FT-NIR spectroscopy. To provide the greater insight into yeast metabolism and flavour formation of mulberry wine, Butkhup et al. [64] have developed a new HS-SPME-GC-MS method to characterise various volatile compounds of in-house-made mulberry wine. Eighty volatile compounds belonging to groups of higher alcohols, fatty acids, esters and phenols were quantified. These compounds were present in various amounts from 0.1 mg/L (benzene carboxaldehyde) to 138.4 mg/mL (isoamyl alcohol). Feng et al. [65] have extended their research on other fruit wines produced from mulberry as well as raspberry and strawberry. Alcohols formed the most abundant group, followed by esters and acids. Comparing to investigated grape wine, two alcohols, 4-methyl-2-pentanol and 2,3-butanediol, were not found in the three fruit wines. While the number of esters in raspberry (1.5%) and mulberry (2.1%) wines were higher than those of strawberry (0.8%) wine, there were no significant differences in acid content. Song et al. [66] have used the same sample preparation and analytical techniques to determine 78 volatile compounds in wild strawberry wine sample from a southern region of China. Odour activity values were detected for 21 compounds while 6 of them were identified as the particular aroma substances for wild strawberry wine, in particular, methyl 2-methylbutyrate, ethyl 2-methylbutyrate, methyl 3-methylbutyrate, (E)-3-hexen-1-ol, 1-octen-3-ol and phenylacetaldehyde.
\nThe formation of off-flavours represents the core problem of high-quality fruit wine production. The main compounds responsible for off-flavours of fruit wines are sulphur-containing volatiles, acetic acids and free amino nitrogen [14]. The volatile compounds containing sulphur, formed as a part of sulphur metabolism, include both molecules positively correlated to the aromatic profile of the wine (volatile thiols), as well as those responsible for wine defects, such as notes described as cabbage, onion, rotten egg, garlic, sulphur and rubber. Hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans (e.g. dimethyl sulphide, dimethyl disulphide, dimethyl trisulphide) are the most often linked to the formation of off-odours in wine, and they are usually present in very low concentration [67]. However, their perception threshold is also low [68].
\nWine quality is significantly influenced by phenolic compounds, namely anthocyanins, flavonols, catechins and other flavonoids since they have an enormous impact on the sensory characteristics of wines, mainly colour and astringency [69]. Furthermore, they exhibit a range of antioxidant and pharmacological effects. Phenolic compounds can be classified in different ways because they are constituted at a large number of heterogeneous structures that range from simple molecules to highly polymerised compounds. A review of the composition and content of phenolic compounds in various fruit wines is presented in Table 1. Based on the total phenolic content, wines are commonly categorised to three major groups: (i) high in total phenolics, (ii) moderately high in total phenolics and (iii) low in total phenolics. The total phenolic content of cherry, raspberry, black currant, bilberry, elderberry and sea buckthorn fruit wines proved to be comparable or even higher than that of grape red wines, while apple, plum and peach fruit wines had a lower total phenolic content than red grape wines [20, 87, 88, 89]. Among the phenolic compounds with known antioxidant activity, flavonoids, phenolic acids and tannins are highlighted [26].
\nPhenolic compound | \nBlackberry wine (no. of samples) [Ref.] | \nCherry wine (no. of samples) [Ref.] | \nApple wine (no. of samples) [Ref.] | \nWine [Ref.] | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Total phenolics* | \n733–2698 (17) [70] | \n584–743 (6) [44] | \n160–470 (4) [71] | \n932–1055 [72] | \n
\n | 1697–22,789 (4) [73] | \n1081–2711 (9) [74] | \n225–645 (3) [74] | \n190–1215 [75] | \n
\n | 1055–2704 (13) [74] | \n850–1300 (5) [76] | \n451 (6) [20] | \n\n |
\n | 1052–3621 (6) [73] | \n991 (6) [20] | \n228–639 (3) [62] | \n\n |
\n | 1122–1400 (10) [77] | \n1940 (1) [78] | \n471–801 (40) [77] | \n\n |
Total anthocyanins | \n1.3–125.3 (17) [70] | \n\n | NF | \n61–125 [72] | \n
\n | 13–164 (4) [73] | \n17.9–27.9 (6) [44] | \n\n | \n |
\n | 23–217 (13) [74] | \n55–483 (9) [74] | \n\n | \n |
\n | 18.5–192.0 (6) [79] | \n120 (1) [78] | \n\n | \n |
\n | 52–105 (19) [77] | \n\n | \n | \n |
Flavonoids* | \n924–1417 (4) [73] | \nNF | \nNF | \nNF | \n
Tannin* | \n1010–1312 (10) [77] | \n741–901 (6) [44] | \nNF | \n266–414 [72] | \n
Quercetin | \n0.4–17.9 (13) [74] | \n0.3–3.9 (9) [74] | \n0.4–0.9 (3) [74] | \n<LOD-13.4 [80, 81, 82, 83] | \n
\n | 0.8–21.7 (15) [43] | \nND (1) [78] | \n\n | \n |
Quercetin-4-glucoside | \nND-2.6 (4) [73] | \nNF | \n<LOD-0.1 (3) [62] | \nNF | \n
Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (Rutin) | \nNF | \n0.2 (1) [78] | \nNF | \n6.8–20.2 (67) [82] | \n
(+)-Catechin | \n1.7–10.3 (13) [74] | \n0.4–11.2 (9) [74] | \n1.5–15.2 (3) [74] | \n13.4–95.8 (6) [81] | \n
\n | 9.1–45.2 (4) [73] | \n12.0–15.2 (4) [84] | \n1.6–3.5 (3) [79] | \n\n |
\n | \n | 1.3 (1) [78] | \n\n | \n |
(−)-Epicatechin | \nND-34.7 (4) [73] | \n0.5–24.1 (9) [74] | \n4.1–25.9 (3) [74] | \n4.4–68.5 [80, 81, 82, 83] | \n
\n | 0.1–61.4 (13) [74] | \n10.3–20.91 (4) [84] | \n3.5–6.6 (3) [62] | \n\n |
\n | \n | 3.91 (1) [78] | \n\n | \n |
Epigallocatechin gallate | \nND-148.8 (4) [73] | \nND (1) [78] | \nNF | \n<LOD-15.6 [85] | \n
(−)-Epigallocatechin | \nNF | \n1.01 (1) [78] | \nNF | \nNF | \n
Procyanidin B2 | \n6.1–77.1 (4) [73] | \n24.7–69.1 (4) [84] | \n2.9–7.4 (3) [62] | \n3.0–83.2 (67) [82] | \n
Naringenin | \nNF | \n0.15 (1) [78] | \nNF | \nNF | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n | |
Apigenin | \nNF | \n0.06 (1) [78] | \nNF | \nNF | \n
Cyanidin | \n<LOD-3.2 (15) [43] | \nND-4.2 (5) [84] | \nNF | \n<0.4–12.3 [86] | \n
Cyanidin 3-glucoside | \n0.39–25.51 (13) [74] | \n0.36–0.68 (6) [44] | \nNF | \nNF | \n
\n | 8–18 (10) [77] | \n0.78–12.07 (9) [74] | \n\n | \n |
\n | \n | <LOQ-3.78 (5) [84] | \n\n | \n |
Cyanidin 3-rutinoside | \n1.9–119.3 (13) [74] | \n10.7–15.1 (6) [44] | \nNF | \nNF | \n
\n | 25–69 (10) [77] | \n3.2–91.4 (9) [74] | \n\n | \n |
\n | \n | 1.3–10.2 (5) [84] | \n\n | \n |
Cyanidin 3-glucosylrutinoside | \nNF | \n17.6–25.4 (6) [44] | \nNF | \nNF | \n
\n | \n | 7.4–361.3 (9) [74] | \n\n | \n |
\n | \n | 10.1–44.6 (5) [84] | \n\n | \n |
Pelargonidin | \n<LOD-1.46 (15) [43] | \nNF | \nNF | \nNF | \n
Peonidin 3-rutinosid | \nNF | \n1.06–1.64 (6) [44] | \nNF | \n11.4–128.0 (67) [82] | \n
Gallic acid | \n45.4–59.0 (4) [73] | \n<LOQ–5.7 (9) [74] | \n0.1–1.4 (3) [74] | \n6.7–104.8 [80, 81, 82, 83] | \n
\n | 10.8–52.3 (13) [74] | \n1.1 (1) [78] | \n\n | \n |
\n | 28.1–122.4 (17) [70] | \n\n | \n | \n |
Caffeic acid | \n2.0–4.8 (17) [70] | \n0.4–1.7 (6) [44] | \n1.1–5.4 (3) [74] | \n0.2–30.8 [80, 81, 82, 83] | \n
\n | \n | 1.7–46.3 (9) [74] | \n0.6–2.5 (3) [62] | \n\n |
\n | \n | 13.9 (1) [78] | \n\n | \n |
\n | \n | 16.3–25.6 (5) [76] | \n\n | \n |
Chlorogenic acid | \n1.0–3.9 (17) [70] | \n21.7–29.6 (6) [44] | \n13.3–25.7 (3) [74] | \nNF | \n
\n | \n | 12.2–110. 5 (9) [74] | \n\n | \n |
\n | \n | 3.6 (1) [78] | \n\n | \n |
\n | \n | 27.3–81.0 (5) [76] | \n\n | \n |
Neochlorogenic acid | \nNF | \n12.8–18.5 (6) [44] | \nNF | \nNF | \n
\n | \n | 44.5–71.4 (5) [76] | \n\n | \n |
NF | \n4.0–4.7 (6) [44] | \nNF | \n0.4–0.7 (6) [81] | \n|
\n | \n | 6.7 (1) [78] | \n\n | \n |
0.1–79.7 (13) [74] | \n3.3–7.0 (6) [44] | \n<LOQ-0.2 (3) [74] | \n0.2–14.2 [80, 81, 82, 83] | \n|
\n | 1.0–4.4 (17) [70] | \n0.2–22.2 (9) [74] | \n0.1–0.9 (3) [62] | \n\n |
\n | \n | 23.4 (1) [78] | \n\n | \n |
\n | \n | 0.6–15.2 (5) [76] | \n\n | \n |
NF | \nNF | \n0.3–4.3 (3) [62] | \nNF | \n|
Protocatechuic acid | \n13.8–62.6 (13) [74] | \n<LOQ–15.4 (9) [74] | \nNF | \nNF | \n
\n | \n | 23.9 (1) [78] | \n\n | \n |
Ferulic acid | \nNF | \nND-4.2 (5) [76] | \nNF | \n0.1–0.2 (6) [81] | \n
\n | \n | 1.9–13.4 (9) [74] | \n\n | \n |
0.5–0.9 (4) [73] | \nNF | \nND (1) [78] | \n0.02–1.46 (6) [81] | \n|
ND-1.5 (4) [73] | \nNF | \nNF | \nNF | \n|
Astringin | \nND-12.1 (4) [73] | \nNF | \nNF | \nNF | \n
(E)-Piceid | \n2.0–6.5 (4) [73] | \nNF | \nNF | \nNF | \n
A review of the composition and content of phenolic compounds in various fruit wines.
Values are expressed as gallic acid equivalents (milligrams of gallic acid per litre of fruit wine).
All concentrations are expressed in mg/L.
ND, not detected; NF, not found; LOD, limit of detection; LOQ, limit of quantification.
Vitamins are compounds essential for both plant and animal metabolism, and their deficiencies in humans often lead to different disorders and diseases. Because of their ability to synthesise vitamins, plants (namely fruits and vegetables) are an excellent source of the vitamins in the diet. The stability of vitamins in different foods is often at risk due to various technological practices used during the processing of food, namely changes in temperature regimes (e.g. thermal treatments) and oxygen levels [105, 106]. Since fruits are a good source of vitamins, consequently the vitamins can also be found in fruit juices. However, the concentration of vitamins decreases during the winemaking (fermentation and ageing), so their levels in wine are inadequate to be of significance in human nutrition. On the other hand, their levels are usually enough or more than enough to support microbial growth. Biotin (vitamin H) and nicotinic acid (niacin, vitamin B3) contents are adequate for most yeast strains [33]. Low levels of vitamins determined in grape wines are probably the reason for the absence of relevant studies regarding the vitamins in fruit wines. Grape wines are reported to contain some B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin and vitamin B12) and very small amounts of vitamin C and fat-soluble vitamins A, D and K. Some vitamins, such as vitamin C, may be primarily destroyed during processing and storage, whereas others, for example, B vitamins, are also produced by the action of yeast and may be present in measurable quantities in the final product [107]. Thiamine (vitamin B1) is utilised by yeast during fermentation, so its levels in wine are insignificant. In addition, thiamine levels are lowered by reaction with SO2 during fermentation as well as the absorption by bentonite. Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is oxidised on exposure to light [33]. Free riboflavin (RF) is naturally present in raw and processed fruits and fermented beverages. Flavin-adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and sometimes flavin mononucleotide (FMN) are present together with RF in significant amounts in fruit juices, while RF is the only form of riboflavin present in important quantities in wine [108]. Since some yeasts synthesise RF during cell growth as an extracellular by-product of the fermentation process, its content can increase in wine.
Fruits contain various dietary phytonutrients with strong antioxidant capacities, such as phenolics (which include flavonoids and phenolic acids), carotenoids and vitamins. Many phenolic substances present in fruits influence sensory properties of fruit wine such as taste, astringency, bitterness as well as colour. Since fruit wines are processed in the same way as wine made from grapes, significant compositional changes take part in winemaking [119]. Both fermentation and ageing result in the transformation of starting compounds present in musts into secondary metabolites that determine the quality of the final product [119, 120]. Berries, grape and their processed products such as wines contain a wide range of flavanoids and other phenolic compounds that possess antioxidant activity. Heinonen et al. [71] evaluated the antioxidant activity of over 44 different fruit wines, mainly berry wines, but also apple wines. The results of the study showed that all the investigated wines possessed a significant antioxidant activity. However, the total phenolic content did not correlate with the antioxidant activity. On the other hand, several other studies confirmed a strong positive correlation between the total antioxidant activity of fruit wines and total phenolics [26, 28, 31, 69, 95, 121]. When compared to red (grape) wines, blackberry, blueberry and sour cherry wines proved to have 30–40% more superoxide radical-scavenging activity [122], which makes them very potent natural antioxidants beneficial to human health [74, 76, 84, 94]. Yoo et al. [12] compared the levels of enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase in fresh cherries, cherry juice and cherry wines and concluded that cherry wine had enhanced levels of the mentioned enzymes. Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are the major antioxidant defence systems against superoxide anion, the most common free radical in the body [123]. SODs reduce the cellular damage caused by superoxide anion. When comparing different fruit wines, it has been reported that berry fruit wines (blackberry, elderberry, blueberry and raspberry) in general had higher total antioxidant capacities than apple and pear wines (as representatives of pome wines) [14, 20].
\nMinerals are inorganic ingredients of food, required by the body in small amounts for a variety of different metabolic processes important for the functioning of human body. Since some minerals are needed in more substantial quantities than others, they can be divided to three groups, based on their recommended daily intake: macrominerals (over 50 mg/day), trace minerals and ultratrace minerals (lower than 50 mg/day) [124, 125, 126]. Nowadays, a mineral deficiency occurs very often without its noticeable signs. The sufficient intake of minerals depends on their quantities consumed with food, but even more on their bioavailability, which depends on the food composition and properties. The mineral content of fruits can vary significantly depending on the genetic and climate factors, cultivation procedures, soil composition, ripeness and many other factors. Furthermore, changes in mineral content usually occur as a result of applied technological procedures, for example, the removal of a portion of the raw material [125, 126]. The sources of minerals (metals) in alcoholic beverages are various: raw materials, process equipment, applied technological procedures, fermentation, bottling, ageing, storage and adulteration [127]. The soil on which fruits are grown is a source of metals of natural origin (primary metals) present in wine. The concentration of primary metals is characteristic and comprises the most significant part of the total metal content in wine [128, 129]. External impurities present in fruits, as well as those that occur during different stages of winemaking, are the source of metals of secondary origin. For example, the prolonged contact of wine and the construction materials used for the oenological equipment (stainless steel, aluminium, brass, glass and wood) can be a source of contamination of wine with Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe and Zn [128, 129, 130]. Fining and clarifying substances (e.g. bentonites) used during winemaking can be a source of contamination with Na, Ca or Al [129, 130, 131, 132]. Furthermore, individual metals have a significant effect on the organoleptic properties of wine (i.e. Al, Zn, Cu and Fe) and, therefore, their concentration must be monitored [133]. The total amount of minerals in a sample of fruits and fruit wines can be expressed as the ash content. Ash is the inorganic residue remaining after the water, and organic matter has been removed. A higher ash content in a fruit wine implies a higher amount of minerals and a higher quality of the wine [134]. The literature regarding grape wines proposes that the mineral profile of wines could be used as a ‘fingerprint’, used for the characterisation of wines based on their geographical origin [20, 135]. While there is a significant volume of available data on the mineral content of blackberries, cherries and apples, far too little attention has been paid to the mineral composition of respective fruit wines. A review of metal concentrations in fruit wines is given in Table 2. As it could be seen from the table, the mineral content of blackberry, cherry and apple wine is in accordance with that of grape wines. Predominant metal in all reviewed fruit wines is K, its concentration being the highest in blackberry wine. Na is a widespread metal in food since the industrially processed food is a particularly important source of this macroelement. The sodium concentrations of blackberry wines varied over a wide range when compared to other fruit wines (Table 2). Still, the low-sodium/high-potassium levels found in all three types of fruit wine indicate that fruit wines can be considered as effective sources of potassium. Due to irregular diet and large intake of refined sugars, coffee and alcohol, the insufficient intake of magnesium may occur. Amidžić Klarić et al. [141] investigated the mineral composition of commercially available Croatian blackberry wines. The results indicated that 17 investigated Croatian blackberry wines could be considered as an excellent additional source of magnesium, manganese and potassium. When compared to cherry and apple wines (Table 2), blackberry wine seems to be a better source of Ca, Mg, Fe and Mn. The literature data show that calcium and phosphorus absorption is closely related, but due to an unbalanced diet dominated by a high phosphorus intake, homeostasis is compromised and contributes to low serum calcium levels (hypocalcaemia). For this reason, it has been suggested that the calcium-phosphorus ratio in foods should be between 1:1 and 2:1. As can be seen from Table 2, the calcium-phosphorus ratio of reviewed blackberry wine samples was higher than 1 in favour of calcium. Iron deficiency is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies, characterised by signs and symptoms such as unusual tiredness, paleness, shortness of breath and anaemia. In Croatia, blackberry wine is traditionally called ‘ferrous wine’, and it has been used as a popular medicine for anaemia and iron deficiency. Some of the metals exhibit not only beneficial effects on the human body but also deleterious ones that made them a cause of concern for wine producers and consumers for years now. Heavy metals are some of the most critical chemicals found in the environment, and the exposure through the consumption of food is frequent, regardless of the mode of food production (conventional or organic) [142]. Amidžić Klarić et al. [134] examined mineral and heavy metal content of blackberry wines made from conventionally and organically grown blackberries. The comparison between these two groups of investigated blackberry wines showed the statistically significant difference in the content of Si and Li, whereas the organic wines group contained higher levels of these compounds. Toxic metals (As, Cd, Hg, Pb) are frequently found to be the primary food contaminants [126], and they can be poisonous and harmful. Therefore, the metal content of grape wine is regulated according to the national legislation and the European Union legislation [141, 143]. Above optimal level, elements, such as Al, Cu, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, may have detrimental effects on wine stability and its commercial acceptability [144].
\nMetal | \nBlackberry wine (no. of samples) [Ref] | \nCherry wine (no. of samples) [Ref] | \nApple wine (no. of samples) [Ref] | \nGrape wine [Ref] | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Ag | \n0.34–2.76 μg/L (15) [134] | \nNF | \nNF | \n0.008–2.77 μg/L (31) [128] | \n
Al | \n6–16 mg/L (15) [134] 37–1110 μg/L (22) [136] | \n0.200 mg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \n0.017–14.3 μg/mL [129] | \n
As | \n<0.9 μg/L (15) [134] | \n0.093 μg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \n1.7–15.2 μg/L (31) [128] | \n
B | \nNF | \n2.760 mg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \n2.1–12.1 mg/L (68) [137] | \n
Ba | \n0.48–1.46 mg/L (15) [134] | \nNF | \nNF | \n0.01–0.48 μg/mL [129] | \n
Ca | \n86–457 mg/L (32) [134, 138] 115–555 mg/L (22) [136] | \n0.084 g/kg (1) [78] 69 μg/g (6) [20] | \n8–28 mg/L (3) [9] 45 μg/g (6) [20] | \n7–241 μg/mL [129] | \n
Cd | \n0.3–9.9 μg/L (32) [134, 138] | \n0.093 μg/kg (1) [78] | \n<0.026–3.72 μg/L (3) [9] | \nND-0.054 μg/mL [129] | \n
Co | \n1.3–11.9 μg/L (32) [134, 138] 2–40 μg/L (22) [136] | \n0.577 μg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \nND-0.045 μg/mL [129] | \n
Cr | \n2.3–18.7 μg/L (32) [134, 138] | \n0.016 mg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \nND-0.2 μg/mL [129] | \n
Cu | \n0.06–0.77 mg/L (32) [134, 138] 0.05–3.83 mg/L (22) [136] | \n0.030 mg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \nND-2.60 μg/mL [129] | \n
Fe | \n0.082–8.4 mg/L (32) [134, 138] 0.093–5.49 mg/L (22) [136] | \n2.192 mg/kg (1) [78] 1.2 μg/g (6) [20] | \n<0.027–0.508 mg/L (3) [9] 0.4 μg/g (6) [20] | \n0.06–23.7 μg/mL [129] | \n
Hg | \nNF | \nNF | \n<0.036 μg/L (3) [9] | \nNF | \n
K | \n564–2014 mg/L (32) [134, 138] 615–1760 mg/L (22) [136] | \n1.373 g/kg (1) [78] 834 μg/g (6) [20] | \n233–353 mg/L (3) [9] 958 μg/g (6) [20] | \n265–3056 μg/mL [129] | \n
Li | \n13–21 μg/L (15) [134] 1–40 μg/L (22) [136] | \n0.678 μg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \n0.002–0.098 μg/mL [129] | \n
Mg | \n706–381 mg/L (32) [134, 138] 77–238 mg/L (22) [136] | \n0.072 g/kg (1) [78] 50 μg/g (6) [20] | \n13–19 mg/L (3) [9] 38 μg/g (6) [20] | \n7–718 μg/mL [129] | \n
Mn | \n0.7–11.5 mg/L (32) [134, 138] 0.5–11.3 mg/L (22) [136] | \n0.632 mg/kg (1) [78] 0.2 μg/g (6) [20] | \n0.2 μg/g (6) [20] | \nND-5.5 μg/mL [129] | \n
Mo | \nNF | \n0.093 μg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \n0.7–64 μg/L (88) [139] | \n
Na | \n12–213 mg/L (32) [134, 138] 3–13 mg/L (22) [136] | \n1.65 mg/kg (1) [78] 38 μg/g (6) [20] | \n31 μg/g (6) [20] | \nND-310 μg/mL [129] | \n
Ni | \n60–278 μg/L (15) [134] | \n0.054 mg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \nND-0.5 μg/mL [129] | \n
P | \n32–119 mg/L (15) [43] | \n0.179 g/kg (1) [78] 54 μg/g (6) [20] | \n68 μg/g (6) [20] | \n0.3–47.3 mg/L (31) [128] | \n
Pb | \n13.6–52.8 μg/L (15) [134] 17–54 μg/L (22) [136] | \n4.4 μg/kg (1) [78] | \n75.3–116.3 μg/L (3) [9] | \nND-1.1 μg/mL [129] | \n
Rb | \n90–1470 μg/L (22) [136] | \nNF | \nNF | \n0.03–9.90 μg/mL [129] 96–2470 μg/L (31) [128] | \n
S | \nNF | \n0.089 g/kg (1) [78] 136 μg/g (6) [20] | \n80 μg/g (6) [20] | \nNF | \n
Sb | \nNF | \n0.093 μg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \n0.18–29.7 μg/L (31) [128] | \n
Se | \n<1.5 μg/L (15) [134] | \n0.011 mg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \nNF | \n
Si | \n1.82–8.24 mg/L (15) [134] | \nNF | \nNF | \n5.30–33.3 mg/L (68) [137] | \n
Sn | \n12.7–22.0 μg/L (15) [134] | \nNF | \n<32.5 μg/L (3) [9] | \n0.02–1.0 mg/L (68) [137] | \n
Sr | \n165–1445 μg/L (22) [136] | \nNF | \nNF | \n0.12–3.22 μg/mL [129] 0.27–1.84 mg/L (54) [140] | \n
V | \nNF | \n6.86 μg/kg (1) [78] | \nNF | \nND-0.40 μg/mL [129] | \n
Zn | \n0.25–6.65 mg/L (32) [134, 138] 0.30–1.96 mg/L (22) [136] | \n0.3 mg/kg (1) [78] 0.1 μg/g (6) [20] | \n36–105 μg/L (3) [9] 0.2 μg/g (6) [20] | \nND-8.9 μg/mL [129] | \n
A review of metal concentrations in blackberry, cherry and apple wines.
ND, not detected; NF, not found.
Pesticides comprise a numerous and diverse group of chemical compounds with a common characteristic of eliminating pest in agriculture and households. They are widely used in agricultural practice, not only during cultivation but also in post-harvest storage. Pesticide residues may end up in fruit pulp and juices since they can penetrate plant tissues. However, their concentrations are lower than those in the intact fruit [145]. Pesticide residues in fruit wine, like those found in juice, can also be introduced by planting and preservation process [146]. In winemaking, the activity of yeast can be affected by pesticides. The presence of pesticides has been associated with stuck and sluggish fermentation [147]. Most of the pesticides can pass from fruit/grape to must and wine, but the extent to which they pass is different [148, 149]. Organic products, compared to those produced by conventional practices, present some advantages in respect to well-known toxicants, such as pesticides and nitrates [142]. However, caution is needed concerning the problem of pesticide because the number of chemicals to trace is very high [142]. The research, which included the analysis of 25 pesticides in Croatian grape wines, conducted by Vitali Čepo et al. [150], indicated significantly lower total pesticide concentrations and the average number of pesticides per sample of organic grape wines, compared to conventional wines. Pesticide residues not only result in potential health risks for the consumers but also lead to a decrease in the fruit wine quality. Because of the health risk of pesticide residues in juice and fruit wine, it is of particular importance to provide the precise, accurate and reliable result of residues as the scientific basis for ensuring food safety. Determination of pesticides is challenging, because of their chemical diversity and lack of collective analytical methods, which probably explains the fact that the reports regarding the pesticide residues in different fruit wines are still missing. Since the diet is the primary source of exposure of the general population to pesticide residues, the regulatory controls on pesticides by different organisations aim at minimisation of exposure to pesticide residues in food. The great variety of applied pesticides, both within European Union countries (EU) and non-EU countries, as well as the arrival of new plant protectors and chemicals, calls for an ever-expanding list of pesticides along with their accompanying maximum residue limits (MRLs) [151].
\nMycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi that naturally occur in food. Mycotoxins can be present in food when fungi are no longer present, which means that the fungal growth is not necessarily associated with the mycotoxins synthesis [152]. Fruits are susceptible to fungal growth, whose development occurs in between harvest and fermentation process. During fermentation, the fungal growth is inhibited by ethanol and the anaerobic conditions [153]. Organic acids present in fruits (malic, citric and tartaric acids) slow down the bacterial spoilage of fruits by lowering the pH. However, the acidic pH of fruit that varies from <2.5 to 5.0 is tolerable for many fungal species [152]. Different practices applied in fruit cultivation (such as the use of pesticides and different cultivars) and in winemaking (period and conditions of storage, type of maceration, time and temperature of fermentation) can have an impact on mycotoxins accumulation [154]. It seems that organic production could be more affected by mycotoxins since no synthetic fungicides are applied [142]. Several mycotoxins have been reported in fruit juices and wine (the list, however, is not exhaustive):
Fermentation by-products, biogenic amines, are low molecular nitrogen compounds formed mainly by decarboxylation of amino acids or by amination and transamination of aldehydes and ketones. In food and beverages, they are synthesised by the enzymes from raw material or are generated by decarboxylation of amino acids by microorganisms [161, 162]. Biogenic amines are undesirable in all foods and beverages because if absorbed at too high concentrations, they may cause adverse physiological effects in sensitive humans, especially in the presence of alcohol and acetaldehyde. The most studied biogenic amine is histamine [33, 163]. Biogenic amines, particularly histamine, the most frequently found in wines, often reduce the sensory quality of grape wines. Different microorganisms present in wine can synthesise biogenic amines from their respective amino acid precursors, at any stage of wine production, ageing or storage. Therefore, their presence in wines can serve as an indicator of spoilage and authenticity [164, 165]. Biogenic amines associated with grape wine are putrescine, histamine, tyramine and cadaverine, followed by phenylethylamine, spermidine, spermine, agmatine and tryptamine [162]. Lactic acid bacteria present in wine (e.g.
The most common preservative in wine production used to control both oxidative processes and unwanted spontaneous fermentations is sulphur dioxide (SO2) [39]. This is due to its potent antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. However, when present in high concentrations in wine, SO2 can have unfavourable health effects, for example, diarrhoea, urticaria and abdominal pain [170]. The International Organisation of Vine and Wine (OIV) has been gradually reducing the maximum advisable levels of total SO2 in wines [143]. The maximum acceptable limit for total SO2 in grape wine is set between 150 and 300 mg/L depending on the wine type and the level of reducing substances in wine. One of the challenges for scientists and winemakers who are striving to meet today’s consumer demands for SO2-free high-quality wines is the application of new technologies to replace the use of SO2 [171]. The alternatives to SO2 investigated so far include treatments with lysozyme, dimethyl dicarbonate (DMDC), the addition of reduced glutathione (up to 20 mg/L) and the addition of commercial oenological tannins [170, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176].
\nThe role of fruits in the human diet is well established due to various important nutritive and biologically active components intrinsic to fruits. Consequently, fruit wines tend to preserve these components, along with developing new desirable ones in the final product. Fruit wines proved to be a good source of different antioxidants, phytonutrients and minerals, which classify them with the functional food. The production of fruit wines is growing steadily in recent years, probably driven by the demand for new functional products. However, having in mind the fact that most fruits can be used for fruit wines production, it is evident that they comprise a vast and diverse group of fermented beverages. Compared to grape wines, the comprehensive reviews of specific fruit wines are still scarce, as well as the comparison of different fruit wines regarding their production, composition, nutritional, functional and health-related properties. Hopefully, this chapter will contribute to the body of knowledge, as well as to diversification, standardisation and, consequently, commercialisation of quality fruit wine production.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"6",type:"subseries",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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