Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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1. Introduction
The use of renewable energy sources such as biofuels is a major thrust to combat the imminent crisis on energy security and climate change. With diminishing fossil fuel supply and global warming issues, a transition to cleaner and more secure fuel production is necessary. This led to the implementation of Republic Act 9367, otherwise known as the Biofuels Act of 2006. This Act primarily aims to lessen the country’s dependence on imported fossil fuels by utilizing renewable and clean energy sources, thereby mitigating climate change while also promoting employment opportunities for the country’s economic growth [1].
Pursuant to the Biofuels Law, a mandate was implemented on blending locally sourced biofuels to all petroleum-based fuel sold in the country. After two years since the law took effect last 06 February 2007, the mandated minimum level of bioethanol blending to gasoline was 5% by volume while biodiesel blending to diesel was set to 2% by volume. The Department of Energy (DOE) is mandated to spearhead the implementation of the Act through the creation of the National Biofuel Board (NBB). To further promote the development of biofuels in the country, the Biofuels Act provides incentives to investments related to the production, distribution, and use of locally produced biofuels. These incentives include elimination of specific tax on local or imported biofuels additives, exemption of the sale of raw material used to produce biofuels such as, but not limited to, coconut, jatropha, cassava, sugarcane, corn, and sweet sorghum from the value added tax, exemption of water effluents derived from biofuels production from wastewater charges in accordance with the Republic Act No. 9275 or the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004, and provision for financial assistance from government financial institutions for activities engaged in the production, storage, handing, and transport of biofuel and biofuel feedstock [2]. Primarily, high selling price of biofuels due to the high domestic cost of production is the main challenge facing the country’s biofuels industry. In response to this, development and implementation of various research studies were initiated by the Department of Agriculture (DA) and the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) through the Philippine Council for Industry and Energy Research and Development (PCIEERD) in support to identifying and developing sustainable and viable feedstocks as well as economically feasible conversion technologies for biofuels production and utilization.
At present, the bioethanol blending of 10% remains consistent with the mandate under the Act. From sugarcane as main biomass source for bioethanol fuel, a shift to use of molasses, a byproduct of sugar-making process, has been initiated. On the other hand, biodiesel in the country is solely sourced from coconut. Although NBB has recommended an increase in the biodiesel blend to 5% in 2015, it was indefinitely delayed owing to feedstock and pricing concerns causing the current blending scenario for biodiesel to remain stagnant at 2% [3]. With the plan of further increasing the country’s blending targets for biodiesel to 10% by 2020 and eventually to 20% by 2025 onwards, exploration of a more sustainable and economical feedstocks is necessary to meet the increasing biodiesel demand. Some of the feedstocks under study as potential sources for biodiesel production include coconut, oil palm, soybean, jatropha, used cooking oil, and microalgae. Hence, this book chapter provides an information on the suitability of different potential feedstocks in the Philippines that can be utilized for biodiesel production. Appropriate technologies for the conversion of these feedstocks to biodiesel fuel are also discussed. A brief overview of the current situation of the biodiesel industry in the Philippines is also provided in this chapter.
2. The Philippine biodiesel industry
2.1 Biodiesel situation in the Philippines
As the country foresees to become energy self-sufficient, the alarming energy crisis poses challenges caused mainly by heavy reliance on fossil fuels and imported energy as well as the continuously rising energy demand. With the average annual rate of 4.2% increase in energy consumption, the total final energy consumption of the country is expected to rise from 29.8 million metric tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2015 to about 54.9 Mtoe by 2030. Primarily, transport, industry, residential, commercial, and agriculture are the major energy-intensive sectors [4].
Following the implementation of the Comprehensive Automotive Resurgence Strategy (CARS) Program which aims to strengthen the Philippine automotive industry, local production and domestic sales or market for automotive vehicles are expected to significantly increase. As a result, the transport sector will continue to dominate the Philippines’ total final energy consumption with 35.7% average share annually [5]. Consequently, bulk percentage averaging to about 46% of the country’s total energy requirement is sourced from petroleum products. Particularly, gasoline and diesel account for average shares of 28.4 and 50.5% of the total oil requirement, respectively [4]. In 2018, it was reported that oil products’ consumption reached about 16.9 Mtoe [5]. A slightly lower consumption of 16 Mtoe was recorded in 2020 due to the halted activities especially the public and private transportation brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions [6]. Nonetheless, with the expected continuous increase in demand for petroleum products as transport fuel, the need for a more sustainable and cleaner alternative fuel such as biofuels is necessary.
Presently, DOE has maintained the implementation of 2% by volume biodiesel blends even though a 10% planned increase in blending must have been imposed for the year 2020 (Figure 1). Due to marginally higher pump prices, the recommended increase in blending target has been delayed. With the anticipated implementation of increased blending mandate, a total of 13 biodiesel accredited facilities operate as of December 2020, with a total production capacity of 707.90 million liters biodiesel per year (MLPY) (Table 1). With the current scenario, the total local biodiesel production as reported by DOE is 187.67 million liters in 2020 and an overall sale of about 160.42 million liters [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. This volume of local production translates to approximately 26.5% of the total biodiesel production capacity of the country.
Figure 1.
Mandated biodiesel blending based on the Biofuels Act of 2006.
Biodiesel producers
Location
Plant Capacity (MLPY)
Chemrez Technologies, Inc.
Quezon City
90
Golden Asian Oil International, Inc.
Pasig City
60
Phil. Biochem Products, Inc.
Muntinlupa City
40
Pure Essence International, Inc.
Pasig City
72
JNJ Oleochemicals, Inc.
Lucena City, Quezon
63.3
Mt. Holly Coco Industrial, Inc.
Lucena City, Quezon
60
Tantuco Enterprises, Inc.
Tayabas, Quezon
90
Archemicals Corp.
Tagoloan, Misamis Oriental
33
Bioenergy 8 Corporation
Sasa, Davao City, Davao
30
Ecoenergy Corporation
General Santos City, Cotabato
30
Ecoenergy Corporation
Polomolok, Cotabato
100
Freyvonne Milling Services
Toril, Davao City, Davao
15.6
Phoenix Petroleum Philippines, Inc.
Villanueva, Misamis Oriental
24
Table 1.
List of accredited biodiesel producers in the Philippines as of 31 December 2020.
Clearly, the local biodiesel production capacity is sufficient to meet the biodiesel demand since 2007 (Figure 2). However, amid excess supply of coconut which is the sole feedstock for biodiesel in the country, fluctuating feedstock cost remains a challenge resulting to limitation in feedstock supply for biodiesel. Consequently, higher fuel pump prices at increased blending rate continues to be the main concern impeding the implementation of the recommended increase in biodiesel blending mandates.
Figure 2.
Biodiesel plant capacity utilization in the Philippines, 2007-2021.
As shown on Figure 3, the same trend was observed for biodiesel price and the local price of feedstock CNO. An increase in feedstock price results to a rise in the biodiesel selling price since total production cost for biodiesel is largely dictated by the cost of feedstock. On the average, a huge price difference can be observed between diesel and biodiesel prices. This entails that a further increase in the biodiesel blending rate would cause a significant rise in diesel fuel pump prices. Perhaps, this remains as the drawback of implementing the increased biodiesel blending. Hence, feedstock diversification is a great advantage to substantially improve the cost savings for higher biodiesel blends.
Figure 3.
Comparative prices of diesel, biodiesel, and feedstock CNO, 2011-2020.
2.2 Biodiesel industry outlook
With the expected increase in diesel demand in the next 20 years, biodiesel requirement will hike up, more so with the implementation of the impending higher biodiesel blending mandates. At present, the production capacity of the country is about 384% of the biodiesel requirement for a 2% blending [11]. In 2022, the demand for biodiesel is projected to be 690 million liters if the 5% blending mandate will be imposed (Figure 4). At an 80% plant utilization rate, additional capacity of nearly 160 million liters is needed to meet this demand. In terms of feedstock availability, the target biodiesel supply even at the increased blending rate by 2022 only requires about 40% of the total coconut oil (CNO) available in the country. By the end of the planning period, further increasing the blending mandate to 20% will require around 6700 million liters biodiesel. This brings the target total production capacity of biodiesel to approximately 8400 million liters by 2040 and a feedstock requirement which is about four times the current local supply of CNO.
Figure 4.
Biodiesel demand projection, 2020-2040.
3. Conversion technologies for biodiesel production
Biodiesel derived from domestic renewable sources such as animal fats, vegetable oils, and algal oil has considerably similar properties and characteristics to petroleum-based diesel, making it a promising alternative fuel [12]. Edible oils are commonly produced from edible feedstocks such as coconut oil, soybean oil, palm oil, rapeseed oil, olive oil, corn oil, etc. Different non-edible oils including jatropha oil, petroleum nut oil, and castor oil can also be used for biodiesel production. In the case of waste oils, the possible feedstocks are waste cooking oil, fish oil, animal tallow oil, and pyrolysis oil while algal oil is usually sourced from Chlorella vulgaris algae [13]. Generally, the process flow for biodiesel production includes feedstock production and harvesting, oil extraction, oil refining, transesterification, and distillation (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
General process flow for biodiesel production.
Oil can be extracted from the raw material using mechanical extraction or solvent/enzyme extraction. Mechanical extraction usually uses a screw type machine to expel the oil through pressing (Figure 6). This process is relatively simple and is applicable to almost any kind of nuts and oilseeds, though, oil yield or recovery is oftentimes quite low [14]. Unlike mechanical extraction, solvent/enzyme extraction can result to significantly higher oil yields with oil reduction in meal to less than 1% by weight (Figure 7). However, this method has higher energy requirement and takes longer time. Another method that can be used for oil extraction is the enzymatic extraction method which uses suitable enzymes. As compared to other methods such as the solvent extraction method, it is more environment-friendly but disadvantageous in terms of costs and processing time [16].
Figure 6.
General process flow of oil extraction via mechanical extraction.
Figure 7.
General process flow of oil extraction via solvent extraction.
Crude oil, a product of oil extraction, is then refined to further improve the quality of the oil. Typically, oil refining process consists of several stages such as degumming, centrifugation, neutralization, oil bleaching, filtration, deaeration, and deodorization (Figure 8). Phospholipids are commonly removed by acid degumming using concentrated phosphoric acid at a temperature below 100°C. Phospholipids precipitated into gums are separated through centrifugation. Removal of free fatty acids (FFA) is done in the neutralization stage where alkaline solution such as sodium hydroxide is made to react with FFA forming soap stock which is removed again by centrifugation. Bleaching using adsorbents is employed to further improve the quality of the oil through the removal of other impurities and contaminants such as residual soap and gums, chlorophyll, oxidation products, and trace metals causing impurity reduction from 1.2 to 0.84% by mass. The recommended dosage loading of adsorbents used in the bleaching process are 17 kg bleaching earth and 5 kg activated carbon per metric ton of oil fed. These adsorbents are then removed by filtration while the bleached oil undergoes deaeration and deodorization. These last two stages of refining process aid in moisture and FFA removal to attain the desired 0.15% by mass moisture content and 0.025% by mass maximum FFA content of refined oil to be fed for biodiesel production [14, 17].
Figure 8.
General process flow of oil refining.
Transesterification is the main conversion technique for biodiesel production. This process involves the reversible reaction of oil or triglyceride to alcohol in the presence of a base catalyst forming fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) or biodiesel and glycerol. The process is usually carried out in a series of two batch transesterification reaction at 60°C (Figure 9). The initial reaction takes place for two hours causing a 96% conversion of triglycerides to biodiesel. Glycerol, a by-product of the reaction, is immiscible with biodiesel and eventually settles forming a layer below the biodiesel. The glycerol layer along with 60% of the unreacted methanol is allowed to settle for an hour before being withdrawn out of the reactor and processed for purification. The biodiesel layer is then subjected to the second reaction to convert the remaining triglyceride to biodiesel with about 99.95% conversion [14, 17].
Figure 9.
General process flow of biodiesel production.
Conversion technologies have a significant impact on the competitiveness of biodiesel as alternative fuel since it relates to quality and productivity. Hence, development of advanced processing technologies for biodiesel has been the focus of many researches. More so, selection of a good complementary feedstock is important to bridge the gaps in the Philippine biodiesel industry.
4. Feedstock development
Looking into feedstock development, three generations of biodiesel have been classified. The first-generation biodiesel is generally related to edible biomass sources such as food crops. However, with concerning issues and risks on food security, its implementation appears to have certain restrictions. Drawbacks of first-generation feedstocks led to growing interest on fuels produced from non-edible lignocellulosic biomass sources which are classified as second-generation biodiesel. These include fuels derived from forest and agricultural residues, animal wastes, and municipal solid wastes. Third generation biodiesel, on the other hand, include fuels that are produced from algal biomass or feedstocks which do not compete with food and arable lands [16].
4.1 First-generation biodiesel
4.1.1 Coconut as biodiesel feedstock
The Philippines is known as the world’s second largest coconut producer and the top exporter of coconut products such as coconut oil. According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), 348 million coconut trees can be found in around 70 out of more than 80 provinces in the country in 2019, covering approximately a quarter of the total agricultural lands in the Philippines [18].
Biodiesel from coconut is derived specifically from the extracted oil from copra. Copra is the dried kernel part of the fruit which can be scooped out of the shell after drying up to a moisture content of about 6%. Copra is heated to 104–110°C in a conditioning unit to further improve oil extraction [14]. Crude coconut oil then undergoes oil refining process to increase the efficiency of the transesterification reaction for biodiesel production.
In the Philippines, a hectare of coconut plantation can yield 100 trees with an average nut yield per tree using the tall variety of 70 nuts annually. Equivalently, 1305 kg of copra is produced per hectare of coconut plantation per year. For an average yield of 605 liters of coco biodiesel per metric ton of copra, about 38,000 ha coconut plantation is needed to supply the nuts requirement of about 266 million per year for a commercial scale 30 million liter per year biodiesel capacity [17].
4.1.2 Soybean as biodiesel feedstock
In the Philippines, soybean is used primarily as a main ingredient in livestock feed because of its high protein content. However, due to insufficient domestic production, the country has been importing huge amounts of soybeans to meet the local demand. In 2019, the country’s soybean gross supply was 178,772 metric tons in which only 659 metric tons or about 0.36% of the total supply was produced locally, and the remaining 178,113 metric tons (99.64%) was imported by the country. Domestic production of soybeans was reported to decrease at an average rate of −0.57% growth per year from 2017 to 2019 [19].
Aside from soybean meal, soybean processing also produces soybean oil as secondary product, making it one of the potential alternative feedstocks for biodiesel production. Solvent extraction is usually employed for an integrated soybean meal and biodiesel production system for a higher oil recovery and a more preferred soybean meal grade for animal feeds.
On the average, threshed soybean yield in the Philippines can reach 2.5 metric tons per hectare per cropping with a biodiesel potential of 100–129 liters per metric ton depending on the oil extraction method used. A total of 93,000–121,000 ha of soybean plantation, yielding about 233,000–302,000 metric tons threshed soybean per year is needed to supply the feedstock requirement for a commercial scale 30 million liter per year biodiesel plant [15].
4.1.3 Oil palm as biodiesel feedstock
Oil palm is a tropical tree crop typically grown in areas where rain is abundant. Normally, wild palms have a life span of up to 200 years while commercial palms only have 20–30 years economic life span [20]. Oil palm as a plantation crop is a high-yielding source of two distinct oils such as palm oil and palm kernel oil (lauric oil) which can be obtained from the fibrous mesocarp or flesh of the fruit and kernel of the nut, respectively.
Similar to coconut oil, oil palm is identified as one of the alternative feedstocks for biodiesel production because it contains highly saturated vegetable fats [21]. Processing of oil palm includes bunch reception followed by sterilization and threshing to remove the fruit from the bunch. The fruitlets are then digested and pressed to extract the crude palm oil which undergoes clarification before the oil refining process.
The average yield of oil palm is 135 trees per hectare. About 20 metric tons of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) per hectare is harvested annually with a biodiesel potential of 188 liters per metric ton. For a 30 million liters per year biodiesel capacity, about 8000 ha of oil palm plantation is required to produce 160,000 metric tons of FFB per year [20, 21].
4.2 Second-generation biodiesel
4.2.1 Jatropha curcas as biodiesel feedstock
Jatropha is locally known as tubang-bakod and is considered as a potential source for biodiesel production due to its suitability in tropical and subtropical regions as well as its higher seed productivity and rapid growth [22]. On the average, it has a productive life span ranging from 35 to 50 years. Unlike other crops such as palm and coconut which takes about eight and four years, respectively before the first harvest, jatropha can be harvested in just 14 months [23]. Since this crop is not used for food applications, its potential as a biodiesel feedstock in the Philippines has grown interest. With an oil content of about 20–60%, jatropha is found to have a higher oil content than that of other oilseed crops such as palm oil. However, the high content of free fatty acids (FFA) in jatropha is seen as a disadvantage for biodiesel production since this requires an additional transesterification reaction to improve the biodiesel quality [24].
On the average, the yield of jatropha is 2500 plants per hectare, producing about six to eight metric tons of seeds. With its biodiesel potential yield of 185 liters per metric ton, about 23,000 ha of jatropha plantation to produce approximately 160,000 metric tons of seeds is needed to supply the feedstock requirement for a commercial scale 30 million liter per year biodiesel plant [25, 26].
4.2.2 Used cooking oil as biodiesel feedstock
Used cooking oil has drawn considerable interest as a potential alternative source for biodiesel production due to its low cost and its availability at a huge quantity as waste. Though waste cooking oil has been used in soap production, most of its volume is discarded into the environment. Since feedstock cost is one of the primary concerns in biodiesel production, utilization of used cooking oil as feedstock can significantly contribute to cost savings.
At the optimum conditions of 6.51 mol/mol methanol-to-oil molar ratio, 0.171 mol/mol sodium hydroxide-to-oil molar ratio, 47.0°C, and 30-minute reaction time for the sodium hydroxide-catalyzed transesterification of used cooking oil, the percent mass yield of biodiesel is around 80. This means that approximately 8 kg of biodiesel can be produced from 10 kg of used cooking oil [27]. This results to a biodiesel potential yield of approximately 905 liters per metric ton. Hence, for a commercial scale 30 million liter per year biodiesel plant, about 34,000 metric tons of used cooking oil is required as feedstock annually.
4.3 Third-generation biodiesel
4.3.1 Microalgae as biodiesel feedstock
Microalgae have emerged as a suitable feedstock for biodiesel production due to its high lipid content, rapid biomass growth, and cultivation which does not compete with food crops for arable land [28]. As compared to other crop-based biodiesel feedstocks, microalgae appear to have the highest oil productivity [29].
Parametric studies on microalgae (C. vulgaris) as feedstock for biodiesel production revealed that maximum oil extraction efficiency of around 15% can be obtained using a biomass-to-solvent ratio of 1:14 at a 24-hr duration and a 1:2 (v/v) ratio of methanol-to-chloroform as solvent via Soxhlet method. Moreover, the optimum conditions for base-catalyzed transesterification for biodiesel production are 1:6:0.2 oil-to-methanol-sodium hydroxide molar ratio at 55°C reaction temperature and five minutes reaction time [30]. Meanwhile, the biodiesel potential yield of microalgae is 896 liters per metric ton. Hence, a total of 263 ha of cultivation area, yielding an annual biomass production of 34,000 metric tons is needed to supply the feedstock requirement for a commercial scale 30 million liter per year biodiesel plant.
5. Suitability assessment of biodiesel production from different feedstocks
5.1 Feedstock availability and biodiesel potential yield
As shown in Table 2, in terms of biodiesel productivity which assumes maximum biomass conversion to biodiesel for the given possible available land area, coconut has the highest potential among the potential feedstocks considering the huge plantation area for this crop of about a quarter of the total agricultural lands in the country. Even at a 5% blending mandate by 2025, the existing cropping area for coconut is almost four times greater than the area requirement to produce enough feedstock.
Biodiesel potential yield of different biodiesel feedstocks in the Philippines.
Moreover, oil palm is the second crop-based feedstock with the highest biodiesel productivity. Its utilization for biodiesel production in the Philippines has already been proposed as alternative to coconut oil, however, a more comprehensive study for its viability still needs to be conducted before its implementation as required by the Department of Energy (DOE) [31]. Once allowed as alternative feedstock, the potential available area for this crop can sustain almost half of the biodiesel requirement for a 5% blending rate in 2025.
Looking into the biodiesel potential, used cooking oil and microalgae have the highest maximum yield among the possible feedstocks. However, oil extraction from microalgae is still performed in lab-scale and no technology has been confirmed yet as to its practical application in large scale lipid extraction [16, 32]. Nonetheless, only around 6150 ha will be required as biomass cultivation area to achieve the biodiesel requirement in 2025 if microalgae will be used as feedstock. Similarly, utilization of used cooking oil for biodiesel production still requires further studies specifically on process optimization and raw material quality control [11]. Meanwhile, with the available quantity of used cooking oil, this feedstock can contribute about 4.50% of the total biodiesel requirement in 2025.
5.2 Carbon footprint and GHG reduction potential
Along with issues on energy security considering the continuously increasing energy demand and diminishing fossil reserves, the alarming impacts of climate change also call for the adoption of sustainable development options. In response to this, the country committed for a 75% greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction by 2030, in which 2.71% is unconditional and 72.29% is conditional based on the 2021 Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). This is established against the forecasted business-as-usual cumulative emission of 3340.3 metric tons CO2e for the period 2020–2030 [33]. Hence, use of technologies that can substantially curb emissions, such as biofuels, is targeted. Compared to fossil fuel, biofuels can significantly lower carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide emissions by 78 and 50%, respectively [33].
In the Philippine setting, the biodiesel industry carbon footprint results to 1.4634 kg CO2e per liter. This was obtained by conducting Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and taking into account a cradle-to-grave system boundary starting from feedstock cultivation up to biodiesel end-use. In Ref. to the GHG emission of petroleum diesel equal to 3.12 kg CO2e per liter, a GHG reduction potential of about 53.05% can be achieved upon full displacement of petroleum diesel by pure coconut methyl ester or coco biodiesel [14]. Correspondingly, at varying blending rates of 2, 5, 10, and 20%, the GHG reduction potential that can be attained are 1.06, 2.65, 5.31, and 10.61%, respectively. In 2021, 2% biodiesel blending has a potential GHG savings of 289,380 metric tons CO2e per year considering the total diesel demand of 8750 million liters. Implementing the 5% blending rate in 2025 will result to a significant hike in the potential avoided GHG emissions to nearly 1.32 million metric tons CO2e per year from the diesel demand projection of 16,000 million liters.
Table 3 shows the carbon footprint and GHG reduction potential at varying blending percentages of different potential biodiesel feedstocks. Comparing the different feedstocks, biodiesel production from coconut has the lowest carbon footprint and highest GHG reduction potential, followed by oil palm. Oil palm biodiesel has a carbon footprint of 1.80 kg CO2e per liter and GHG reduction potential of 42% [20, 21]. This corresponds to a GHG savings of about 1.047 million metric tons CO2e per year for a 5% blending mandate in 2025 (Table 4). On the other hand, jatropha biodiesel and biodiesel derived from soybeans using solvent extraction results to a carbon footprint of 2.34 kg CO2e per liter and 1.93 kg CO2e per liter, which contributes about 25% and 38% reduction in GHG emissions, respectively [15, 34]. Potential GHG savings of the other feedstocks at varying biodiesel blending rates are also shown in Table 4.
Coconut
Oil Palm
Soybean
Jatropha
Blending rat (%)e
Carbon Footprint (kg CO2e/L)
GHG Reduction Potential (%)
Carbon Footprint (kg CO2e/L)
GHG Reduction Potential (%)
Carbon Footprint (kg CO2e/L)
GHG Reduction Potential (%)
Carbon Footprint (kg CO2e/L)
GHG Reduction Potential (%)
2
3.0839
1.06
3.0908
0.84
3.0933
0.76
3.1014
0.50
5
3.0343
2.65
3.0515
2.10
3.0578
1.90
3.0780
1.25
10
2.9516
5.31
2.9861
4.20
2.9986
3.80
3.0391
2.50
20
2.7863
10.61
2.8552
8.40
2.8801
7.60
2.9612
5.00
100
1.4634
53.05
1.8079
42.00
1.9325
38.00
2.3378
25.00
Table 3.
Carbon footprint and GHG reduction potential of different biodiesel feedstocks at varying blending rates.
Blending rate
GHG Savings (thousand metric tons CO2e/year)
Coconut
Oil Palm
Soybean
Jatropha
2%
529.15
418.92
379.03
249.36
5%
1322.88
1047.31
947.57
623.40
10%
2645.76
2094.62
1895.14
1246.80
20%
5291.52
4189.25
3790.27
2493.60
100%
26,457.60
20,946.24
18,951.36
12,468.00
Table 4.
GHG savings of different biodiesel feedstocks at varying blending rates.
5.3 Economic viability
The cost of biodiesel production is highly affected by the feedstock which typically accounts for 70–80% of the total production cost [28, 32]. This led to a usually higher cost of biodiesel than petroleum-based diesel which is a major drawback for biodiesel commercialization in the country. Hence, selection of a more economically viable feedstock is a great advantage to boost the biodiesel industry in the Philippines.
In 2020, the average local price of crude CNO is Php 48.83 per liter. The price of biodiesel in the same year ranges from Php 35.00 to Php 71.00 per liter, whereas the diesel price is only around Php 35.16 per liter [11]. If sourced directly from copra based on farmgate price, a relatively lower biodiesel price can be achieved, ranging from Php 27.67 to Php 52.62 per liter [35]. In the case of oil palm as feedstock, a price equivalent to Php 22.72 per liter of commercially available crude palm oil results to a lower minimum selling price for biodiesel of Php 33.26 per liter, a return on investment of 14.44%, and a payback period of 5.75 years. Assuming the case of an integrated oil palm plantation and biodiesel plant, where the plantation is established from oil palm seeds, the biodiesel selling price is Php 33.53 per liter while the return on investment and payback period are 22.04% and 9.33 years, respectively [20, 21].
For jatropha biodiesel, sensitivity analysis revealed that at a seed price of Php 5.00 per kg, the selling price of biodiesel is Php 35.00 per liter to have a return on investment of 17.26% and a payback period of 3.85 years. However, use of crude jatropha oil as a bunker fuel is found more economically feasible than trans esterified crude Jatropha oil [36]. Similarly, biodiesel production from soybean appears to be economically unattractive as biodiesel price can go as high as Php 87.34 per liter depending on the crop yield and the prices of commodities. Soybean biodiesel production via solvent extraction results to a biodiesel price range of Php 48.49 to Php 84.52 per liter for manual farming and Php 33.36 to Php 67.71 per liter for mechanized farming. Using mechanical extraction, a price range of Php 38.93 to Php 87.34 per liter and Php 19.35 to Php 65.59 per liter can be obtained for manual and mechanized farming, respectively [15].
6. Conclusion
The use of biofuels in the Philippines, in pursuant to Republic Act 9367 (also known as the Biofuels Act of 2006), is a valuable initiative as the country envisions action plans towards energy security and climate change mitigation. However, feedstock availability and pricing concerns remains the primary challenges hampering the growth of the biofuels industry. At present, biodiesel in the country is solely sourced from coconut. The mandated biodiesel blending to petroleum diesel remains stagnant at 2% due to marginally higher pump prices at increased blending of coco biodiesel. Hence, research and development studies on the viability of different potential feedstocks for biodiesel has been initiated.
In this chapter, potential feedstocks for biodiesel such as coconut, oil palm, soybean, jatropha, used cooking oil, and microalgae were assessed in terms of feedstock availability and biodiesel potential yield, carbon footprint and GHG reduction potential, and economic viability. Among the feedstocks, oil palm (first generation), used cooking oil (second generation), and microalgae (third generation) have the highest biodiesel potential yield. Considering the potential available area, oil palm is the most recommended feedstock having the second highest biodiesel productivity of 376 million liters per year, next to coconut. It also has a relatively lower carbon footprint of 1.80 kg CO2e per liter and a GHG reduction potential of 42% which is higher than the other sources. Moreover, its economic viability makes it a good complementary feedstock to coconut for biodiesel production since it results to a potentially lower biodiesel selling price of Php 33.26 per liter. Although other sources such as used cooking oil and microalgae have emerged as suitable alternative feedstocks, more comprehensive validation studies still need to be conducted for its practical application in biodiesel production.
Hence, ensuring economic and environmental sustainability is the challenge facing the biodiesel industry in the Philippines. It is therefore crucial to develop and establish appropriate and efficient processing technologies and pricing mechanisms, as well as to utilize low cost and readily available feedstocks to sustain the industry’s growth.
Acknowledgments
Data presented in this book chapter are from research projects supported by the Philippine Department of Agriculture – Bureau of Agricultural Research (DA-BAR), Department of Energy (DOE), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the University of the Philippines. Authors would also like to acknowledge the researchers, collaborators, and stakeholders that contribute to the success of the research projects.
\n',keywords:"biodiesel feedstocks, biofuels, biomass, transesterification",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80542.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80542.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80542",totalDownloads:7,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 9th 2022",dateReviewed:"January 17th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 12th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"February 21st 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In response to the worsening crisis on energy security and climate change, the Philippine Biofuels Law (Republic Act 9367) was enacted which mandates the blending of biodiesel to petroleum diesel sold in the country. Primarily, feedstock and pricing concerns led to stagnant growth of the Philippine biodiesel industry. Hence, viability of different potential biodiesel feedstocks such as coconut, oil palm, and soybean (first generation), jatropha and used cooking oil (second generation), and microalgae (third generation) was assessed through extensive research and developments. Among these sources, oil palm is regarded as the best complementary feedstock to coconut due to its high biodiesel productivity of 376 million liters per year. Oil palm biodiesel production in the Philippines was also found to have a low carbon footprint of 1.80 kg CO2e per liter and a GHG reduction potential of 42%, which corresponds to a GHG savings of about 1.05 million metric tons CO2e per year for a 5% blending mandate in 2025. Additionally, a low biodiesel selling price of about Php 33.26 per liter can be achieved from using this feedstock for biodiesel production. Hence, use of a low cost and readily available feedstock coupled with established processing technologies and pricing mechanisms will help boost the biodiesel industry in the Philippines.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80542",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80542",signatures:"Rona Joyce B. Landoy, Rex B. Demafelis, Bernadette T. Magadia and Anna Elaine D. 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Feedstock development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1 First-generation biodiesel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.1.1 Coconut as biodiesel feedstock",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.1.2 Soybean as biodiesel feedstock",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.1.3 Oil palm as biodiesel feedstock",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Second-generation biodiesel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"4.2.1 Jatropha curcas as biodiesel feedstock",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.2.2 Used cooking oil as biodiesel feedstock",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.3 Third-generation biodiesel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.3.1 Microalgae as biodiesel feedstock",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Suitability assessment of biodiesel production from different feedstocks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.1 Feedstock availability and biodiesel potential yield",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.2 Carbon footprint and GHG reduction potential",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.3 Economic viability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Official Gazette of the Philippine Government. Republic Act No. 9367: Biofuels Act of 2006. Philippines: Republic of the Philippines; 2007. Available from: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2007/01/12/republic-act-no-9367/. [Accessed: 03 11 2021]'},{id:"B2",body:'Yap D. Research Brief on Energy: Summary of Biofuels Act [Internet]. 2016. Available from http://wingatchalian.com/policy-category/energy/. [Accessed: 03 11 2021]'},{id:"B3",body:'Alonzo R. 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Philippines: University of the Philippines Los Baños and Department of Energy; 2019. pp. 42-72'},{id:"B18",body:'Abao L. Oilseeds and Products Annual. United States Department of Agriculture; Foreign Agricultural Service. 2021. Available from https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/. [Accessed: 03 11 2021'},{id:"B19",body:'Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA). Supply Utilization Accounts of Selected Agricultural Commodities: 2017-2019. 2020. Available from https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/SUA_2017-2019_0.pdf /.[Accessed: 03 11 2021]'},{id:"B20",body:'University of the Philippines Biofuels Research Team. Environmental Assessment, Technical, and Economic Study of Biodiesel Production from Palm Oil in the Philippines [Research Project Final Report]. Philippines: University of the Philippines Los Baños and Department of Agriculture—Bureau of Agricultural Research; 2015'},{id:"B21",body:'Dizon LSH, Pector AA, Demafelis RB, Bataller BG, Bayados RB, Elepaño AR. et al. Environmental and economic viability of biodiesel production from palm oil in the Philippines. PIChE Journal. 2020;19(1):38-40. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335055308_Environmental_and_Economic_Viability_of_Biodiesel_Production_from_Palm_Oil_in_the_Philippines. [Accessed: 29 12 2021]'},{id:"B22",body:'Irwan M, Thahir R, Adhiksana A, Marlinda, Ramli. The production of biofuels from jatropha curcas oil using ultrasound energy. In: AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol. 1983, No. 1. AIP Publishing LLC. 2018. DOI: 10.1063/1.5046221'},{id:"B23",body:'The Philippine National Oil Company-Alternative Fuels Corporation. Cultivation of Jatropha in the Philippines. 2007. Available from: https://jatrophadotpro.files.wordpress.com/2019/03/cultivation-of-jatropha-in-the-philippines.pdf/. [Accessed: 27 12 2021]'},{id:"B24",body:'Bombo K, Lekgoba T, Azeez O, Muzenda E. The sustainability of biodiesel synthesis from different feedstocks: a review. Petroleum and Coal 2020; 63(2):284-291. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/45599204/The_Sustainability_of_Biodiesel_Synthesis_from_Different_Feedstocks_A_Review. [Accessed 29 12 2021]'},{id:"B25",body:'University of the Philippines Biofuels Research Team. Environmental Assessment of Community-Based and Commercial Scale Biofuels Processing Systems Using Alternative Biofuels Feedstocks: An Initiative Towards Climate Change Mitigation in the Philippines [Research Project Final Report]. Philippines: University of the Philippines Los Baños and Department of Agriculture—Bureau of Agricultural Research; 2014'},{id:"B26",body:'Demafelis R. Potential of biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas in the Philippines. In: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Conference Proceedings. 2007. Available from https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=PH2008000635. [Accessed: 03 11 2021]'},{id:"B27",body:'Cruz MKD. Sodium Hydroxide-Catalyzed Transesterification of Used Cooking Oil: Optimization for Methyl Ester Production. [Manuscript]. 2015'},{id:"B28",body:'Cruz YR, Aranda DAG, Seidl PR, Diaz GC, Carliz RG, Fortes MM, et al. Cultivation systems of microalgae for the production of biofuels. 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.74957'},{id:"B29",body:'Chisti Y Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnological Advances. 2007; 25:294-306. Available from: http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/tpd8/BICH407/AlgaeBiodiesel.pdf. [Accessed 29 12 2021]'},{id:"B30",body:'University of the Philippines Biofuels Research Team. Technology Piloting of Microalgae as Biodiesel Feedstock [Research Project Final Report]. Philippines: University of the Philippines Los Baños and Department of Agriculture—Bureau of Agricultural Research; 2012'},{id:"B31",body:'Velasco MM. DOE Seeks Study before Allowing Palm Oil for Biodiesel. 2021. Available from: https://mb.com.ph/2021/12/02/doe-seeks-study-before-allowing-palm-oil-for-biodiesel/. 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Socio-Economic Assessment of Implementing a Competitive Copra Pricing Mechanism for a Sustainable Philippine Biodiesel Industry [Research Project Report]. Philippines: University of the Philippines Los Baños; 2020'},{id:"B36",body:'Demafelis RB. Potential of Biodiesel Production from Jatropha Curcas in the Philippines. Laguna (Philippines): SEARCA Professorial Chair Lecture. College; 2007. Available from: https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=PH2008000635. [Accessed 29 12 2021]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rona Joyce B. Landoy",address:"rblandoy@up.edu.ph",affiliation:'
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Rex B. Demafelis",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Bernadette T. Magadia",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Anna Elaine D. Matanguihan",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81998",title:"Understanding the Neuropathophysiology of Psychiatry Disorder Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation",slug:"understanding-the-neuropathophysiology-of-psychiatry-disorder-using-transcranial-magnetic-stimulatio",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103748",abstract:"Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a safe and non-invasive tool that allows researchers to probe and modulate intracortical circuits. The most important aspect of TMS is its ability to directly stimulate the cortical neurons, generating action potentials, without much effect on intervening tissue. This property can be leveraged to provide insight into the pathophysiology of various neuropsychiatric disorders. Using multiple patterns of stimulations (single, paired, or repetitive), different neurophysiological parameters can be elicited. Various TMS protocol helps in understanding the neurobiological basis of disorder and specific behaviors by allowing direct probing of the cortical areas and their interconnected networks. While single-pulse TMS can provide insight into the excitability and integrity of the corticospinal tract, paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS) can provide further insight into cortico-cortical connections and repetitive TMS (rTMS) into cortical mapping and modulating plasticity.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Jitender Jakhar, Manish Sarkar and Nand Kumar"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:18},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
",annualVolume:11968,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorialBoard:[{id:"220987",title:"Dr.",name:"António",middleName:"Onofre",surname:"Soares",fullName:"António Soares",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNtzQAG/Profile_Picture_1644499672340",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Azores",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water resources, Freshwater, Hydrological processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",annualVolume:11969,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"216491",title:"Dr.",name:"Charalampos",middleName:null,surname:"Skoulikaris",fullName:"Charalampos Skoulikaris",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRMsbQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-04-21T09:31:55.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"300124",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Shahady",fullName:"Thomas Shahady",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002kuIgmQAE/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:32:10.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lynchburg College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/22292",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"22292"},fullPath:"/chapters/22292",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()