\r\n\tWe are living in a particularly challenging historical moment. People have learned that no matter how much they control their lives, their environment, and their relationships, everything can be changed instantly, at the fancy of a virus that does not respect age, nationality, ancestry, intelligence, or skills. People learned that the limitless power of science and technology was purely illusory, in the face of an absolute and overwhelming force of nature that was almost no longer recognized. After all, the balance of forces between Nature and science and technology was inevitably shaken and the certainties with which people built their lives were jeopardized by an unpredictable and constantly changing reality. Uncertainty is one of the biggest challenges we face today. Never, as today, people management can make such a difference in their future, both personally and professionally.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tCHROs need to decide where to focus their resources and attention, select their action priorities. This book will aim to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the new challenges of people management and provide keys to (re)think about the new/renewed challenges that the new times, the new “normals” place on those who manage people. From the strategic management of HR to people analytics and HR IT architecture and operation, through the new practices of remote work, this book aims to reflect on the future(s) of people management, illuminating trends and reflecting on potential risks or promising achievements.
Wheat (
Wheat is one of the most widely cultivated cereal crops with the production of 760.93 million tons and an area of 219.01 million hectares of farmland worldwide [7] which is a 15.4% arable area globally. Its production has increased since green revolution in 1961 from 222.35 million tons to an estimated 775.3 million tons in 2021 [8]. In 2017, the global production of wheat was 751.99 million metric tons however it was increased by 8 million tons in 2018 with the total estimated production of 758.02 million metric tons. A similar trend was observed in 2019 where wheat production was 765.76 million metric tons however the global consumption of wheat assessed by World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE), was 791.1 million tons for the year 2021 [9]. It has been projected that the wheat demand in developing countries will be increased up to 60% by 2050 which is a stern concern related to food security [10]. Wheat is the main rabi crop in Pakistan covering 38% of the cultivated area and accounts for 13.1% of value agricultural products and because of its staple food status, it occupies a central position in agricultural policies. Pakistan ranks 8th in terms of wheat area and production and 58th in terms of average yield (2805.9 kg ha−1) [11]. Wheat productivity is globally increasing only at 1.1% per annum (p.a.) which is not enough to reach the predicted increase in wheat demand at 1.7% (p.a.) rate until 2050, and even in some regions, the productivity is stagnant [12].
Global wheat demand is skyrocketing in recent years because of many factors; change in eating habits, population trends, socio-economic conditions, especially in Asia and Africa. Among these, population explosion and climate change are the most pressing challenges to food availability in the present and future eras. Fast-rising population levels are putting pressure on land due to urbanization and fuelling global food demand [13]. Economic growth and access to food are important factors in alleviating poverty and hunger (hidden and chronic), although mere access to food is not enough to accelerate the reduction in malnutrition and hidden hunger [14]. Another most important factor is the changing climate and extreme weather conditions which are reshaping the whole picture of food security.
To overcome the drastic effects of climate change there is a need to develop such a plant type that can fight the battle against climate change. In this review, we will through light on some classical and advanced techniques which can be helpful to develop a better wheat plant that can win the war against climate change.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate change refers to “any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity”. However, according to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, it is referred to as a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere [15]. Climate change cause very harsh direct, indirect and socio-economic effect on environment, more importantly on crop grown under this type of environment. Different stresses including high temperature, drought, increased salinity level and flooding arise as the result of climate change. These stresses are the most influencing factors which affect the natural system, human health and agricultural production, especially in developing countries [16]. The expeditious increase in world population indirectly affects the demand and supply chain of food which is a great concern for global environment stability [17].
Climate change is a global phenomenon; however, the noticeable changes in rainfall and temperature in recent years have had an impact on wheat productivity. The elevated temperature will change the plant life cycle by inducing early flowering and fruit sets which will shorten the growth period and the developed seeds would be deficient in nutrients due to increased respiration rate. For each °C rise in temperature 6–13% reduction in the potential yield of wheat will happen. Although the exact consequences of climate change are impossible to predict, the general view is that global crop production will be negatively affected [18, 19]. To overcome this pressure and to meet the future demand for wheat international initiatives were taken [20]. Different international policy-making organizations “The Agricultural Ministers of G20” and “the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) research centers” keep climate change and food security a key priority area and motivate the need to further see the sights how one key staple food may be influenced by efforts to make the food system more resilient [21, 22].
Adverse effects may happen through increasing levels of CO2, temperature, pests and diseases [23], and deteriorating quality and yield attributes [24]. The frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts and floods also increase in the response to changing climate [25]. One of the main reasons for changing climate and continuous elevation of CO2 is deforestation; the level of CO2 elevated from 280 μmol−1 to 400 μmol−1 and the prediction tells that might grow into two folds (800 μmol−1) up to the end of this century [26].
Food insecurity is an emerging issue of today’s era that is a result of climate change. Almost 815 million people around the globe are facing hunger and malnutrition, hampering viable development programs to accomplish the worldwide goal of stamping out hunger by 2030 [27]. The adverse climatic conditions, mainly elevated temperature, is causing a threat to food security and agricultural yield [28] The inhabitants are likely to grow up to 9 billion by 2050 and food supplies are expected to accelerate by about 85% [29]. Environmental supremacy is going from bad to worse comprising low variation and high application of inputs, and unbalanced output due to climatic variations in crops [30]. The escalated spells of drought and heavy precipitation, elevation in temperature, salinity, and disease attacks are expected to decrease crop production and leads to higher threats of famine [31]. The best possible way to tackle this problem is the development of climate-smart cultivars.
In recent years, the environment has been significantly affected due to climate change, the most expected area is agriculture, or the agriculture crops grown in these environments. As a result of climate change, the elevation in CO2 and temperature was observed by different scientists [32]. These are major limitations that develop a gap between the supply and demand of food and lead most researchers into looking for good adaptation strategies for plants under these conditions [33], by developing climate-smart crops that are resilient against climate change [34]. Sensitivity to this kind of stress causes a serious effect on the plants; like disruption in the plant metabolism processes, thereby resulting in the reduction in felicity and quality of agricultural crop production [35]. There are two types of stresses: biotic and abiotic. Biotic stress in plants occurs by the infestations of living entities like viruses, bacteria, nematodes, fungi, insects and weeds, however, abiotic stresses include drought, eminent CO2, temperature (low and high) [36], waterlogging, high precipitation, increased sunshine intensity and chemical factors (heavy metals and pH).
When we talk about the wheat crop, different biotic factors (including diseases and pests) come under consideration which limits wheat production. These insect pests and diseases are distributed worldwide and some of these exist in major wheat-growing areas which are destructive for wheat production. Karnal bunt and Russian wheat aphid are more dangerous and cause a heavy loss in yield in their hotspot [37]. Main wheat diseases include yellow rust/stripe rust, tan spot and leaf rust/brown rust caused by
Abiotic stresses like drought [41], heavy metal stress [42], and salinity significantly affects the average yield of crops including wheat [43]. Approximately 9% area of the globe is under cultivation and 91% of that is affected by different stresses. Statistical models predict that a 10% reduction in wheat yield is due to extreme weather, global warming, resulting in increased evaporation rate and reduction in precipitation [44], and more specifically because of drought [45]. Abiotic stresses contribute 50% loss in yield of different crops which includes temperature (20%), salinity (10%), drought (9%), cold (7%), and other stresses (4%) [46]. Water scarcity is a global issue that takes place in any wheat-growing region which causes osmotic stress. In United states, the losses due to drought reached up to $6–8 billion per year which is a threat to global food security [44, 47]. The most frequent spells of drought are the result of global warming, which is a serious concern for wheat yield [44]. Temperature plays a key role in balancing normal crop growth and development which ultimately regulates the crop yield [48]. Wheat survives in a broad range of temperatures, the upper and lower limits of temperature for wheat survival are −17 ± 1.2°C to 47.5 ± 0.5°C, respectively [49]. The daily high surge in temperature is 25–35°C crossways the world wheat-growing areas [50]. The most affected growth stage by temperature stress is flowering followed by germination which is delayed under heat stress due to the alternation in metabolic activities of nearby soil temperature [51]. The result of a delay in germination is low crop density. The most adverse effect of heat stress occurs during the anthesis and seed setting stage and leads towards significant yield loss [52]. An increase in salt accumulation in soil cause physiological drought which decreases the ability of plants to take up water from the soil, [53]. Similarly, heavy metals also affect wheat plants from germination to growth as well as biochemical mechanism and ultimately the reduction of yield. All above-mentioned stresses in wheat-growing areas bring decisive yield loss of wheat.
Climate change is a major challenge for wheat productivity, which includes declining water availability, increased temperature and different insect pests which cause a serious reduction in the crop. The first step to mitigate climate change is to assess the possible damages and adaptation strategies to accomplish the size and nature of these effects on crop productivity. As wheat is the staple food of many countries its importance is amplified concerning food security, so, it is a need of time to measure the response of wheat to changing climate. The response of wheat plants to changing climate is different with different stages of growth and development including germination, growth and maturity. High temperature is an imperative variable to study which affects the wheat crop throughout the growth cycle. Similarly, rainfall also has an important positive effect if it occurs at proper time with a proper amount at critical stages of growth. Therefore, the estimation of the effect of climate change on wheat productivity can provide important visions for adaptation [54].
Germination is the most sensitive stage in the whole wheat life cycle which affects crop density and uniform maturation, which eventually expedite an important role in yield. Extreme alternation in the immediate environment of a germinating seed can inhibit germination processes, eventually leading to possible yield loss due to a drop in cropping density [52]. Different studies suggested that under salt-affected soil, the germination rate of wheat decreased and the seed took more time than normal to germinate. The scientific reason behind that phenomenon is the reduction in osmotic potential of germination media, which restrict seed imbibition. Salinity also destroys the food reserve of the seed by imbalancing the hormonal status of the seed [55]. Other factors impelling germination include seeds’ dormancy, age, seed coat hardness, vigor, polymorphism, temperature, light and gases [56]. The delay in germination may leave crops vulnerable to heat stress at the end of growing seasons or promote uneven maturation of crops [57]. Wheat seed is also sensitive to different chemical and physical conditions such as the presence of heavy metals in the rhizosphere which cause a reduction in germination and affects seedling vigor [58]. Recent studies have documented that heavy metals inhibit the storage of food mobilization, stunt the radical formulation, disrupt the cellular osmoregulation and degrade the proteolytic activities, eventually causing inhibition of seed germination and seedling development [59].
Physiology plays an important role in the growth of any plant. Photosynthesis is an important physiological process for plant development and survival that is greatly affected by environmental conditions. Higher accumulation of salts resulting from climate change primarily lessens the water potential and store Na+ and Cl− ions in the chloroplast, which inhibit the photosynthesis process [55]. According to Arfan et al. [60] transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, net CO2 assimilation and sub stomatal CO2 concentration were decreased by salinity stress at 150 mM NaCl. Similar to the salt stress, drought/osmotic stress disrupt the photosynthesis process of wheat plants, can damage sugar synthesis essential to drive yield in wheat crops but also leads to stomata closure by turgor loss through reduction of internal water contents. It leads to death of plant by disturbing metabolism [61, 62]. Plant physiological processes are also sensitive to a higher temperature, heat stress cause the deactivation of Rubisco enzyme, reduced photosynthetic capacity, assimilated translocation reduces, brings premature leaf senescence, decrease chlorophyll content and ultimately decrease in yield [63]. High temperature also affects the starch and protein content in grain and induce the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which cause a change in membrane stability along with lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation and damage to nucleic acids [64]. Thus, all the stresses are significant variables that emphasis the scientific community to develop climate-smart wheat varieties to tackle food security issues.
All the biotic and biotic stresses such as high temperature, water scarcity and frost abate the wheat yield by reducing grain number, grain size and single grain weight. However, how and which yield component will get affected by certain stress depends upon its duration, intensity and timing [65]. For example; if the stress occurs before and during anthesis it reduces the number of grains per ear due to an increased seed abortion. However, when stress occurs after anthesis it does not influence the grain number but effect grain size by shrinking the grain and single grain weight by inhibiting grain filling [66]. Wheat grain yield and number of tillers decreased 53.57% and 15.38% respectively under heat stress [67]. The influence of heat stress is highly significant during the reproductive phase. The increase of 1°C average temperature during the reproductive stage may lead to a higher loss in grain yield [64]. It is also important to note the importance of the flag leaf when looking at yield and grain filling [68]. The flag leaf contributes approximately 30–50% of seed carbohydrates; therefore, any damage to the flag leaf would negatively impact yield [69]. When we talk about the wheat yield loss due to biotic stresses, then the leaf rust (LR) is the main widely spread biotic stress. In the United States, economic losses of $350 million were attributed to LR between 2000 and 2004. In China, annual yield losses due to LR are estimated at 3 million tons [39]. According to a recent estimation, annual yield reductions of 5.47 million tons of wheat are attributable to yellow rust disease, which is equivalent to annual losses of $979 million [70]. A detailed analysis of wheat grain yield and its yield component is crucial to identify genomic regions responsible for grain yield and stress tolerance [71].
The fluctuation in climatic conditions directly affects morphology, phenology and physiology of plants and indirectly affects the productivity by alteration in soil biota, fertility, and water and nutrients availability. Keeping in view the current status of wheat production, it is predicted that the wheat productivity will be 1 t/ha short to meet the global demand by 2050. Variation in climate, change in pest and a pathogens life cycle and new variants will further aggravate the situation by threatening global food security. Thus, in future, food security will face a four-fold challenge: upward pressure on demand with downward pressure on supply and the need for sustainable production [72]. All these factors are interlinked and their collective reinforcement will amplify the burden on food demand and require a revolutionized food system [73]. Climate change in short affects plants, their environment and society at large. Breeding for disease-resistant, climate stress-tolerant and potentially high yielding wheat will improve productivity to meet future demands.
Conventional breeding achieves incremental yield gains by recombining alleles mainly from within elite materials and selecting among thousands of progeny per cross for expression of appropriate agronomic traits, resistance to a spectrum of prevalent diseases and yield based on multi-location trials [1]. Crossbred through conventional breeding is only possible between the same or closely related species. The absence of gene of interest (GOI) in the natural gene pool puts limitations on the introgression for the creation of varieties with desirable traits. Therefore, hunting for an alternate source of GOIs in distantly related plant species and even in microorganisms is necessary [74]. Plant breeding programme’s success strongly depends on the climate, market demand and trends. Genomic selection helps in multiple quantitative traits prediction in genotypes from breeding pipelines [75] and by attaining historical phenotypes and adding high-density genotypic information.
In wheat, hybrid cultivar and commercial seed production are still limited to a specific sector as compared to other cereal crops like rice or maize [76]. Conventional breeding by backcrossing is a method to improve an elite line by adding a new trait. An F1 hybrid is obtained by crossing a donor line carrying GOI with an elite line and then F1 hybrid is recurrently back-crossed with the elite line until 5-8th generation. The final genotype will be a product of characteristics of the elite line and will carry the introgressed GOI [77]. Wheat is a self-pollinated crop with an out-crossing rate of <1%, so, execution of effective cross-pollination techniques between the wheat elite lines that can overcome the autogamous mode is needed. This can be achieved by crossing between a male-sterile female plant with good pollen recipient properties and a male plant with good pollen shedding properties. Efforts have been made to develop maternal plants with cytoplasmic male-sterility (CMS) for wheat breeding e.g. CMS systems were identified in wheat (i.e.
Ever since the epoch-making discoveries made by Muller and Stadler [84], the application of mutation techniques by using different chemical and physical agents have played a significant role in modern plant breeding and genetic studies by generating a vast amount of genetic variability [85]. The narrow genetic diversity of the cultivars imposes the prime challenge in the development of varieties with high yield, stress tolerance, and improved traits like early maturity, seed size and nutrition value [86]. Hugo De Vries coined the term mutation, to indicate a sudden change in the genotype that is heritable [87] and these genetic variations provide the raw material for evolution. The rate of spontaneous mutation is relatively very low i.e. 10−6 or one out of a million for an individual gene [88], therefore, artificial mutations are necessary to increase the percentage of genetic diversity. The process of inducing desirable mutations and exploiting them for crop improvement is called mutation breeding, which comprises three main steps; using mutagens, screening of mutant candidates for desirable traits, and official release of the new variety [89]. The widespread use of induced mutants in plant breeding programmes across the globe has led to the official release of 265 wheat plant mutant varieties in more than 24 countries throughout the world (Figure 1).
Wheat mutant varieties released during 1960–2018 [
According to [82], mutation breeding has a major advantage over other methods is that in this process no genetic material is lost, rather only mutation is induced in the preexisting genome. It offers the possibility of inducing such unique desired traits that were either lost during evolution or do not exist naturally.
The shuttle breeding concept was originally developed by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center’s (CIMMYT) wheat breeding program and was popularized by Nobel laureate Dr. Norman Borlaug. This system allowed an extra generation to be advanced each year by using different field locations. CIMMYT used two contrasting locations with diverse environmental conditions in Mexico for wheat shuttle breeding: Ciudad Obregón, an irrigated dessert located in Northern Sonora Valley and Central Mexican highlands (2249 m altitude). Since the beginning of this programme in Mexico, segregating populations have been “shuttled” about 130 times representing 200,000 crosses. Off-season breeding activities through shuttle breeding has the advantages of screening segregating material in contrasting locations for developing high yielding, disease-resistant, widely adapted and photoperiod insensitive genotypes of wheat within a limited period [91]. Additionally, Borlaug and his team noticed two more advantages of shuttle breeding: first, breeding in locations with different environmental conditions, soil types and stresses allow selection of breeding materials for broad range disease resistance; secondly, photoperiod-sensitive material is screened and eliminated. In this way, the resulting photoperiod-insensitive germplasm permitted CIMMYT’s semi-dwarf high yielding and disease resistant lines to adapt in multi-range environmental conditions worldwide. Shuttle breeding was the foundation of the success of what we today call “the Green Revolution” [92].
In the second half of the twentieth century, the emergence of doubled haploid (DH) technology revolutionized the generation of genetically pure and homozygous lines and led to the direct production of completely homozygous lines from heterozygous plants in a single generation. Double haploids production by chromosome doubling, spontaneous or by using colchicine, of haploid cells like pollen grains, which greatly shortens the line fixation stage, at least three to four generations of self-pollination, is a means of accelerating the wheat breeding for development of true breeding lines with desirable traits [93]. This technique includes two main steps: haploid induction and chromosome doubling. Haploid induction attempts to regenerate haploids or spontaneous DH plants, which can be achieved by gynogenesi, androgenesis or parthenogenesis, depending on the species. Antimitotic compounds are used for the chromosomal doubling step, which is mandatory if spontaneous doubling does not occur in haploid plants [94].
This process is performed in tissue-culture laboratories and applies to species that are responsive to tissue culturing this technique could complement the conventional breeding programs to accelerate the release of new varieties. In wheat various methods are employed to develop DHs including; isolated microspore culture (IMC), haploid gene inducer, meiotic restitution genes, doubling chemicals, ovule culture, chromosome removal using hybridization, wide hybridization and anther culture [95]. AC and wide hybridization methods are frequently used in applied research and breeding programs [96] while IMC is still under development [97].
Omics approaches are useful in deciphering the whole mechanism and thus providing insight into modification at the molecular level which results from changes in environmental conditions. Omics is a diverse branch that includes genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and their interactions with each other. The period of omics has been commenced with the advent of automated sequencing approaches which lead to the first whole-genome sequencing of model plant i.e.,
Genomics aims at exploring the genome physical structure, studying the whole constitution of the genome including genes and regulatory network. A major milestone in the wheat genome has been achieved in 2012 with the complete de-novo sequencing of bread wheat. Sequencing revealed that A, B and D wheat genomes consist of 28,000, 38,000, and 36,000 genes respectively [98].
Upon the advancement in genomics and the advent of the molecular markers era, myriads of shortcomings of conventional breeding approaches are resolved as they are not impacted by environmental factors and can expose variations at the DNA level. Classical breeding is based on the phenotypic selection of genotypes. Genotype X Environment (GE) interaction is the main constraint including the time-consuming and costly procedure of phenotypic selection. By employing molecular markers, desirable genotypic selection can be done at the early generation of the breeding program without the influence of environmental factors. Breeders use molecular markers to enhance the precision of the selection of genetic resources for the best trial combination.
The first study based on molecular markers was initiated in the 1990s when restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers were used for identifying genetic diversity, homologous chromosome identification and wheat-rye identification [99]. The use of RFLP is to be sure very successful in the development of linkage groups in wheat. However, it was not so much intriguing due to time consuming, laborious, low frequency and high cost. With more improvement in the marker system, researchers, later on, focused on PCR-based markers including Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) due to their mapping friendly and cost-effective features. Among PCR-based markers, RAPD was not used extensively due to the availability of scanty information about the location in the genome and lack of reproducibility [100]. Compared to RFLP, SSR markers are reproducible and have a specific location in the genome thereby, more applicable in genome-specific studies. In wheat, the first SSR markers system was reported in 1998 which opens up a new direction for identifying new genetic loci and better yield traits [101]. With time, researchers focused on single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and developed trait linked SNP markers. It has higher accuracy than SSR markers. A variety of trait linked DNA markers for wheat were identified for disease resistance and quality of grain. For example, Cre resistance genes (Cre3, Cre1) are used in marker assisted selection (MAS) program of wheat to identify cereal cyst resistant genotypes [102].
Identification of gene function is a long-standing goal of biology which provides important information for crop improvements. So far, forwards genetics has been the prime approach in which first we mutate the plant, followed by phenotypic screeing to identify the gene function. The identification of genes with major effect is easy as comparision to the gene with minor effect. To overcome this barrier, association mapping (AM) and bi-parental quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping was introduced with ability to identify genes with subtle effects [103]. Subsequent aim of genetic is to identify a link between a phenotypic function and genotypic data, and AM is one of the approaches to link the phenotype with genotypes. Revolutionary AM orianted approaches were carried out in last decade [169]. Genome-wide association study (GWAS) varies from bi-parental QTL mapping because it is performed on a natural population with a wide genetic base and this wide track of natural variation provides finer resolution of QTL location [103]. The basic apprehension of AM is to identify superior associations (false positive) that can result from population stratification and enigmatic relatedness [104, 105]. To control this issue different statistical methods have been adopted, a mixed linear model (MLM) with population structure and kinship matrix incorporation efficiently eliminate false positive in association mapping [106, 107]. Sequenced-based GWAS has successfully been applied for mapping the agronomic traits and identified the candidate genes inside the significant agronomic regions of wheat [108]. GWAS is a powerful tool to identify the genomic region linked with different traits (linked with biotics and abiotic stress tolerance) in different crops including wheat. It generally highlights linkage among SNPs and traits and is based on GWAS design, genotyping tools, statistical models for examination, and results from interpretation [109]. Using GWAS, Sukumaran et al. [110] detected multiple significant QTL associated with yield and its linked traits of durum wheat grown under drought and heat stress. Similarly, some other studies identified QTL associated with heat and drought tolerance related traits at the seedling stage in wheat [109, 111]. However, limited studies on drought tolerance of wheat have been conducted at the seedling stage.
One of the important technologies utilized in the improvement of the plant is genomic selection along with doubled haploid production, sequencing, QTL mapping, association mapping, genome editing and formation of transgenic plants is genomic selection. In genomic selection, genome-wide markers are used to identify the genotype of a plant and subsequently phenotyped for a particular trait by selection. Contrary to the marker-assisted selection, which utilizes a small number of markers associated with major QTL, GS involves genome-wide markers along with phenotyping data to evaluate genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) in one population that will previse the performance of lines in another population only using markers. This technique avoids multiple testing and there is no need to identify marker-trait associations based on arbitrarily chosen significance threshold [112].
Due to the complex genetic makeup of wheat, it requires 10–15 years to transfer new genes into elite germplasm. Genomic selection makes it possible to select parents purely before enter in field trials and nurseries based on genomic estimated breeding values. Annual genetic gain through GS is predicted to be double or triple that of conventional selection due to alleviation in the selection cycle. However, there is still little information regarding GS application in wheat. Improved predictive ability to target traits is cardinal to successful implementation of GS [113]. It is considered that item-based collaborative filtering (IBCF) could be used alternative to conventional predictive model for important target traits in a wheat breeding program [114].
RNA sequencing technologies give abundant transcriptomic data which requires expertise in bioinformatics. The wheat hexaploid genome has one of the largest genomes in different crop species constituting 17 Gb in size. Until now, approximately 76% of the wheat genome has been sequenced (International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium [IWGSC], [115]. Functional annotation of the wheat genome by homology is becoming very useful but is far from complete as compared to model plants. Transcriptomics in wheat has been facing many challenges due to its complicated genome. Furthermore, RNA sequencing and proteomics study will help in the production of markers associated with particular traits to improve the breeding program. Okada et al., [116] reported that the transcriptional profile of wheat was very useful in the development of molecular markers and was used for the study of wild relative of wheat (Ae. Umbellulata) for population genetics studies. Moreover, many biotic and abiotic stresses can also be studied using expression profiles like drought tolerance mechanisms of two cultivars (Alpowa and Idaho) were studied by Alotaibi [117] using RNA sequencing profiling tool. They identified that differentially expressed genes were 2.32 and 3.9 times more up-regulated and down-regulated respectively in Alpowa as compared to Idaho.
Proteins play a cardinal role in stress responses, therefore, proteome alterations at different stressed conditions need to be deciphered for the comprehensive understanding of related mechanisms. Stress sensing is the initial pathway to respond to stress conditions followed by the signaling process. For a better understanding of stress coping mechanisms of plants, isolation and characterization of stress-responsive proteins is required. Further, comprehension of post-translational modifications is also needed in plants under stressed conditions. Proteomics plays a very important role in the fine-tuning of pathways that are involved in stress alleviation [42]. For the comprehensive understanding of functional proteomics, there is a dire need to focus on the subcellular proteomics of wheat. To this end, the isolation of proteins from a target organelle is challenging. The conventional approach for the fractionation of subcellular organelles is differential and density gradient centrifugation. Free-flow electrophoresis is also used for the subcellular fractionation based on the isoelectric point of proteins. Despite the diverse application of various proteomics techniques, various subcellular proteins including both stress-induced proteins and housekeeping proteins, remain unclassified. Thus, wheat proteomics data will address the physiological role of the plant under stressed conditions [118].
Improvement in genetics is required for the development of new wheat varieties that can work efficiently under stressed conditions. Improvement in the genetics of wheat cultivars would lead to changes in physiological and biochemical responses. Likewise, their change in the metabolic profile that is related to a particular phenotype would result in the development of metabolic markers. Wheat is a crop of higher latitude, therefore, heat stress changes the metabolites in the wheat plant during early summer and terminal heat [119]. Physiological and morphological traits are also important, but they cannot provide the overall picture of the underlying mechanism with changes in metabolic profile under stress conditions. With the advancement in omics techniques, mass spectrometry provides the metabolic profiles of crop genotypes [120]. The metabolic profile of wheat revealed that highly branched amino acids are intolerant in water-deficit stress conditions [121]. It is also reported that different groups of peroxidase genes (TaPrx112-D, TaPrx113-F and TaPrx111-A) were induced by cereal cyst nematodes in some of the resistant wheat lines [122]. Taken together, an amalgamation of wheat “Omics” data including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics with advanced bioinformatics tools is required to construct a mathematical model that will provide a deep insight into the underlying mechanism of plant undergoing stress condition.
Gene transformation is a technique through which the foreign DNA/gene is transferred into target species using molecular methods. Transformation efficiency depends on regeneration frequency of donor tissue (e.g. shoot), the procedure utilized and embryogenesis from somatic or pollen tissue [123]. In monocots, the main challenges for gene transformation are regeneration of explant and difficulties in DNA delivery using monotonous methods of gene transformation [124]. Improvement in DNA delivery methods and advancement in protocols for developing transgenes have led to the expansion of wheat genome sequence information, high-density molecular markers mapping and cloning of several wheat genes [125]. The gene transformation methods can be classified into direct and indirect gene transformation methods (Figure 2) [126].
Gene transformation methods (direct and indirect).
The first successful wheat transformation was reported using particle bombardment of embryogenic callus. Particle bombardment, also known as ‘Biolistic transformation”, is a physical means of forcing DNA molecules into the plant cells and is a most ideal method, only next to
Wheat offers only a few suitable explant tissues for regeneration through tissue culture. The most common explant of choice is the “scutellum” surface of immature embryos, which is responsive to DNA uptake through both AMT and biolistics and can readily form embryogenic callus through regeneration. An integrated method of gene transformation called Agrolistics, have also been reported, that combines biolistics and
A successful AMT depends on the nature of the explant,
In-planta transformation method was developed to avoid the problems associated with regeneration and tissue-culture based transformation. This method allows direct introduction of exogenous DNA into intact plant tissue and has been applied in various plant species such as; tomato (
Razzaq et al. [141] developed a rapid and improved in-planta based transformation protocol for wheat variety GA-2002.
Pollen tube-mediated gene transfer (PTT) was first reported by Zhou et al. [142] in cotton (
In VIAAT, plant tissues are submerged in a liquid suspension of
Zale et al. [147] devised an efficient in-planta method specifically for wheat to address the regeneration problems. Uninucleated young, mid and late-stage microspores from spikes were immersed in a suspension containing
In this method, the inflorescence of plants is submerged at the early stages of flowering in an
Genome editing is one of the most advanced technologies for crop improvement. The basic mechanism is almost the same in all types of these editing technologies. These technologies involve the generation of double-strand breaks (DSBs) at a target site in a genome using programmable sequence-specific nucleases (SSN) followed by the exploitation of endogenous DSB repair mechanisms to generate a mutation at a particular site. There are two endogenous mechanisms to repair DSBs i.e., non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR) [152]. In NHEJ, the two broken strands are re-ligated with the generation of insertion and/or deletion. It is error-prone and does not require a homologous template. HR requires a homologous template and is more reliable [153]. However, SSNs use NHEJ frequently as a repair mechanism [153]. Three types of SSNs introduce DSB at a specific site [154]. These include Zinc-Finger Nucleases (ZFN), Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs) and CRISPR/Cas9.
ZFNs are artificial endonucleases and consist of designed (according to the target site) zinc finger DNA binding protein (ZFP) fused to the cleavage domain of FokI restriction enzyme. ZFP is generally composed of 3–4 zinc finger arrays. Each array can recognize 3 bp long sequence. The two ZFN monomers are designed in such a way that can recognize 6 bp sequence of a target site and allow the FokI monomer to form an active dimer that can generate DSB at a specific site. Using this genome editing technique, mutation at desirable sites can be created which would lead to the improvement of the plan. However, the presence of very few target sites, difficulty in the engineering of specific zinc finger domains and frequent off-target effects are the main constraint in the application of ZFNs [155].
Another DNA binding protein exclusive to plant pathogens is Transcription Activator -Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs). It consists of 33–35 long tandem repeats of amino acids followed by 20 amino acids known as “half repeat” and FokI cleavage domain. IN the TALEN monomer, 12th and 13th position impart specificity to nucleotide recognition. Due to the specificity of these two residues (at 12th and 13th position), these are termed as repeat variable di-residues (RVDs). TALENs works similarly as ZFNs do. They can generate DSBs and introduce mutation at a specific site. Engineering of TALENs is much easier than ZFNs. However, their large size of repetitive sequences, high cost and labor for the construction of novel TALENs are the major drawbacks of this technology.
CRISPR/Cas9 is simple, cheap and more efficient in contrast to ZFNs and TALENs that require specifically tailored DNA binding protein (Figure 3). There are two important components of CRISPR system: guide RNA (gRNA) and CRISPR associated (Cas9) protein. gRNA consists of two components: CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and Trans-activating CRISPR RNA (tracrRNA). crRNA is 18–20 bp in length confers specificity to target DNA. However, trcrRNA is a stretch of loop and acts as a binding scaffold for Cas9. Cas9 protein is an endonuclease consisting of two subparts: 1) Recognition part 2) Nuclease part. The recognition part of Cas protein has two domains i.e., REC1 and REC2 which are responsible for binding with gRNA. Whereas the Nuclease part consists of RuvC, HNH and Protospacer Adjacent Motif (PAM) interacting domain. Former two domains (RuvC and HNH) play role in the cutting of single-stranded DNA. Later domain (PAM interacting domain) confers PAM specificity and initiate the process of binding to target DNA. PAM sequence is 2-5 bp sequence [156]. The mechanism of CRISPR/Cas9 is divided into three steps: recognition, digestion, and repair. gRNA recognizes the specific site on template DNA followed by the generation of DSB at a site 3 bp upstream of the PAM by Cas9. Cas9 can recognize the PAM sequence at 5′-NGG-3′ (where N can be any nucleotide). Finally, DSB is repaired by either NHEJ or HR [157].
CRISPR consists of sgRNA and Cas9 protein. Cas 9 protein guided by sgRNA produces double strand break. It would lead to DNA repair either by non-homologous end joining method (NHEJ) or by homology recombination (HR) which require template DNA strand.
Base editing and prime editing are the modified versions of CRISPR/Cas9. In base editing approach, point mutation is created without DSB, foreign donor template or involvement of any repair mechanism. This technique comprises gRNA and catalytically inactive Cas9 (Cas9 nickase) fused with single-stranded DNA deaminase. gRNA directs modified Cas9 deaminase to bind to the locus which produces ssDNA R-loop that exposes the DNA to deaminase. Deaminases are of different types. Based on the type of deaminase, base editing is categorized into two types: Cytidine Base Editor (CBE) and adenine base editor (ABE) [158].
CBE edit cytidine into uridine. This system is comprised of gRNA, Cas9 nickase (D10A) that is fused with two more proteins viz. cytosine deaminase (CD) and uracil DNA glycosylase inhibitor (UGI) (Figure 4). Guided by gRNA, CD converts C into U which is then repaired by the base excision repair pathway and generates C to T substitution. ABE edit adenine into inosine which is treated as guanosine by the polymerase (Figure 5). This system is comprised of gRNA, Cas9 nickase fused with adenosine deaminase and also works in the same way as CBE. However, it converts A (Adenosine) into I (Inosine) which is treated as G (Guanine) by DNA polymerase thus generating A to G substitution. Both CBE and ABE can change the base from one purine to another purine or one pyrimidine to another pyrimidine. This is the main shortcoming of this system that purine cannot be replaced by pyrimidine and vice versa [158].
Cytidine Base editor (CBE) consists of sgRNA, nCas9, cytosine deaminase (CD) and uracil glycosylase inhibitor (UGI). CD causes the deamination of cytosine (C) to uracil (U) which is followed by DNA repair with a result of changing from C:G > T:A.
Adenine base editor (ABE) consists of sgRNA, nCas9 and adenosine deaminase (AD). AD causes the deamination of adenosine (a) to inosine (I) which is treated as guanosine (G) by DNA polymerase. Deamination is followed by DNA repair with a result of changing from a:T > G:C.
To address this issue, prime editing method was introduced (Figure 6). This method consists of Cas9 nickase (H840A) which is fused with reverse transcriptase and prime edited guide RNA (pegRNA). Guided by pegRNA, reverse transcriptase prime new DNA containing the desired editing at the target site. After attaining flat equilibrium, excision, ligation and repairing, DNA is stably edited with desirable incorporation [158]. The main application of CRISPR/Cas9 in wheat was demonstrated in suspension cultures and protoplast. Variety of genes were targeted in wheat protoplast and suspension culture after the publication of the original principle of CRISPR/Cas9 [159]. Generally,
Prime editing is comprised of Cas9 nickase (H840A) which is fused with reverse transcriptase and prime edited guide RNA (pegRNA). Guided by pegRNA, reverse transcriptase primes new DNA containing the desired editing at the targeted site. After flap equilibration, cleavage, ligation, and DNA repair, the desired editing is incorporated.
In eukaryotes, the regulatory mechanism of gene expression is commonly depends upon RNAi. To study functional gene analysis or the development of novel phenotypes, RNAi is a robust tool. This technique involves the expression of antisense or hairpin RNAi constructs to direct gene silencing in a sequence-specific manner [160]. The first wheat gene that was targeted by RNAi was the vernalization gene (TaVRN2). The suppression of this gene provided insight for comprehending the molecular mechanism of flowering time and requirement of vernalization in wheat which is ultimately helpful in varying environments in which wheat can be grown [161].
Climate change is a complex of many factors and alarming the world by its destructive effects on crops. Climate change has devastating effects on wheat plant growth and yield. Plants mainly suffer from abiotic stresses. To cope with changing environmental conditions, an integrated management programme is required in addition to crop improvement through conventional and non-conventional methods. To develop better plants under changing climate conditions some bottleneck molecular and physiological encounters present in plants need to be resolved. The rise in temperature and fluctuations in rain fall patterns are very important indicators of climate change. To tackle, this problem different advanced approaches need to be adopted to secure the agriculture future. Climate-resilient crops should be developed using basic breeding approaches. Marker-assisted breeding, omics and proteomics approaches, Genome-wide association studies (GWAS), genomic selection (GS) genetic modification genome editing, CRISPR/Cas9 and RNA interference techniques all are noteworthy in identifying the different genes linked to tolerance against different stresses. Genetic engineering is a good tool to develop a transgenic plant with improved resistance against stress. CRISPR/Cas9 is the best suitable approach to develop eco-friendly genome-edited wheat plants In future to fight a battle against climate change.
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Each participant provided a unique insight into their understanding and interpretations of Islamic scriptures and texts in relation to creativity, and to determine how creativity in Islam is assessed. 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Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. 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